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Ѓ

Gje (Ѓ, ѓ) is a letter of the Cyrillic alphabet, used in the Macedonian language to represent or . Words with this sound are sometimes cognate to those in Serbian with ђ. The transition from a platalized voiced velar plosive to to a voiced alveolo-palatal affricate is similar to the hard/soft G found in Romance languages and English. ja:Ѓ

Cyrillic alphabet

The Cyrillic alphabet (or azbuka, from the old name of the first letters) is an alphabet used to write six natural Slavic languages (Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian) and many other languages of the former Soviet Union, Asia and Eastern Europe.

Origins

The plan of the alphabet is derived from the early Cyrillic alphabet, itself a derivative of the Glagolitic alphabet, a ninth century uncial cursive usually credited to two brothers from Thessaloniki, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. The glyphs in the Cyrillic alphabet are, however, mainly Byzantine Greek letters. Some of them, especially those representing sounds that did not exist in medieval Greek, retain their Glagolitic forms. Whereas it is widely accepted that the Glagolitic alphabet was invented by Saints Cyril and Methodius, the origins of the early Cyrillic alphabet are still a source of much controversy. Though it is usually attributed to Saint Clement of Ohrid, a Bulgarian scholar and disciple of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, the alphabet is more likely to have developed at the Preslav Literary School in north-eastern Bulgaria, where the oldest Cyrillic inscriptions have been found, dating back to the 940s. The theory is supported by the fact that the Cyrillic alphabet almost completely replaced the Glagolitic in northeastern Bulgaria as early as the end of the tenth century, whereas the Ohrid Literary School—where Saint Clement worked—continued to use the Glagolitic until the twelfth century. Among the reasons for the replacement of the Glagolithic with the Cyrillic alphabet is the greater simplicity and ease of use of the latter and its closeness with the Greek alphabet, which had been well known in the First Bulgarian Empire. There are also other theories regarding the origins of the Cyrillic alphabet, namely that the alphabet was created by Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius themselves, or that it preceded the Glagolitic alphabet, representing a "transitional" stage between Greek and Glagolitic cursive, but these have been widely disproved. Although Cyril is almost certainly not the author of the Cyrillic alphabet, his contributions to the Glagolitic and hence to the Cyrillic alphabet are still recognised, as the latter is named after him. The alphabet was disseminated along with the Old Church Slavonic liturgical language, and the alphabet used for modern Church Slavonic language in Eastern Orthodox rites still resembles early Cyrillic. However, over the following ten centuries, the Cyrillic alphabet adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reforms and political decrees. Today, dozens of languages in Eastern Europe and Asia are written in the Cyrillic alphabet.

Letter-forms and typography

The development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (still found on many icon inscriptions even today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow; strokes are often shared between adjacent letters. Peter the Great, tsar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early eighteenth century; over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the alphabet. Thus, unlike modern Greek fonts that retained their own set of design principles (such as the placement of serifs, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules), modern Cyrillic fonts are much the same as modern Latin fonts of the same font family. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type. Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter-forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially small capitals (with the exception of a few forms such as "а" and "е" which adopted western lowercase shapes), although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small caps glyphs. small capitals In the absence of Roman and Italic traditions, Cyrillic type fonts are properly classified as upright (Russian: pryamoi shrift) and cursive (kursivnyi). Cursive or hand-written shapes of many letters, especially the lowercase letters, are entirely different from the upright shapes. As in Latin typography, a sans-serif face may have a mechanically-sloped oblique font (naklonnyi). In Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Serbian, some cursive letters are different from those used in other languages. These cursive letter shapes are often used in upright fonts as well, especially for road signs, inscriptions, posters and the like, less so in newspapers or books. External link: [http://jankojs.tripod.com/SerbianCyr.htm Serbian Cyrillic Letters BE, GHE, DE, PE, TE]. The following table shows the differences between the upright and cursive Cyrillic letters as used in Russian. Cursive glyphs that are bound to confuse beginners (either because of an entirely different look, or because of being a false friend with an entirely different Latin character) are highlighted. Reference: Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (version 2.5), pp. 262–264. Vancouver, Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4.

Romanization

There are various systems for Romanization of Cyrillic text, including transliteration to convey Cyrillic spelling in Latin characters, and transcription to convey pronunciation. Standard Cyrillic-to-Latin transliteration systems include:
- Scientific transliteration, used in linguistics, is based on the Latin Croatian alphabet.
- The [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/ Working Group on Romanization Systems] of the United Nations recommends different systems for specific languages. These are the most commonly used around the world.
- ISO 9:1995, from the International Organization for Standardization.
- America Library Association & Library of Congress (ALA-LC) [http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/roman.html Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets], used in North American libraries.
- BGN/PCGN 1947 transliteration system (United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use).
- GOST 16876-71 (1983), from the Main Administration of Geodesy and Cartography of the former Soviet Union. Russian abbreviation of GOsudarstvenny STandart, "the State Standard". GOST has limited support for non-Russian alphabets. Serbian is written in both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. There is also a Latin alphabet for Belarusian, and some non-Slavic languages, such as Azerbaijani, Uzbek or Moldavian have confronted permanent Romanization after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. In Serbian there is a one-to-one correspondence between Vuk Karadžić's Serbian Cyrillic and Ljudevit Gaj's Croatian Gajica (derived from the Czech alphabet. See Serbo-Croatian language#Writing systems.) The Belarusian Latin alphabet is traditionally based on Polish and is called Łacinka, but, because of the political realities in the former USSR, Belarusian is usually Romanized by analogy to Russian. See also:
- Romanization.
- Transliteration of Russian into English.
- Romanization of Ukrainian.
- Transliteration of Bulgarian into English. External links:
- [http://transliteration.eki.ee/ Transliteration of Non-Roman Scripts], a collection of writing systems and transliteration tables, by Thomas T. Pederson. Includes PDF reference charts for many languages' transliteration systems.

As used in various languages

Sounds are indicated using IPA. These are only approximate indicators. While these languages by and large have phonemic orthographies, there are occasional exceptions—for example, Russian его (meaning him/his), which is pronounced instead of . Note that spellings of names may vary, especially Y/J/I, but also GH/G/H and ZH/J.

Slavic languages

Old Church Slavonic

Main article: early Cyrillic alphabet Old Church Slavonic is the first literary and liturgical Slavic language developed from the native language of the 9th century missionaries, Saints Cyril and Methodius. It is not the same as the modern Church Slavonic language, which is still used in some Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic church services. As the Cyrillic alphabet spread throughout the Slavic world, it was adopted for writing local languages, such as Old Ruthenian. Its adaptation to the characteristics of local languages led to the development of its many modern variants, below. Yeri (ЪІ) was originally a ligature of Yer and I. Ya (Я) was written in an archaic form called A iotified. Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers. Many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic and varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet. Some characters are missing from the current Unicode standard altogether, including Cyrillic dotless I, iotified Yat, abbreviated Yer ("Yerok"), and many ligatures. See also: Glagolitic alphabet.

Russian

Main article: Russian alphabet Notes: # In the pre-reform Russian orthography, in Old Russian and in Old Church Slavonic the letter is called yer. Historically, the "hard sign" takes the place of a now-absent vowel, still preserved in Bulgarian. See the notes for Bulgarian. # When an iotated vowel (vowel whose sound begins with ) follows a consonant, the consonant will become palatalised (the sound will mix with the consonant), and the vowel's sound will not be heard independently. The Hard Sign will indicate that this does not happen, and the sound will appear only in front of the vowel. The Soft Sign will indicate the consonant should be palatised, but the vowel's sound will not mix with the palatalization of the consonant. The Soft Sign will also indicate that a consonant before another consonant or at the end of a word is palatised. Examples: та (); тя (); тья (); тъя (); т (); ть (). Historical letters: before 1918, there were four extra letters in use: (replaced by Ии), (Фита "Fita", replaced by Фф), (Ять "Yat", replaced by Ее), and (ижица "Izhitsa", replaced by Ии); these were eliminated by reforms of Russian orthography.

Ukrainian

Main article: Ukrainian alphabet. Ukrainian differs from Russian in the following ways:
- He (Г, г) is a voiced fricative consonant, pronounced .
- Ge (Ґ, ґ) appears after He, pronounced , i.e., like a Russian Г. It looks like He with an "upturn" pointing up from the right side of the top bar. (This letter was not officially used in the Soviet Union after 1933, so it is missing from older Cyrillic fonts.)
- E (Е, е) is pronounced .
- Ye (Є, є) appears after E, pronounced . It looks like a mirrored Russian letter Э.
- Y (И, и) is pronounced (similar to Russian Yery).
- I (І, і) appears after Y, pronounced . It looks like the Latin letter I.
- Yi (Ї, ї) appears after I, pronounced . It looks like I with a diaeresis above it (the same two dots that appear over the Russian letter Yo).
- Yot (Й, й) is the equivalent of Russian Short I.
- Shcha (Щ, щ) is pronounced .
- An apostrophe (’) serves the purpose of the Russian Hard Sign.
- Yo does not appear.

Belarusian

Belarusian is also written in a Belarusian Latin alphabet (Łacinka). Historically, Belarusian Tatars have written the language in the Arabic alphabet (Arabica), and Belarusian Jews in the Hebrew alphabet. NB: Before 1933, Ґ () was also present. Some linguists call for restoring the letter. Belarusian differs from Russian in the following ways:
- I looks like the Latin letter I (І, і). (But non-syllable short I looks the same as in Russian.)
- Between U and Ef is the letter U short (Ў, ў), which looks like U (У) with a breve and pronounced , or like the u part in diphthongs in now, low.
- Shcha (Щщ) does not appear. A combination of sh and ch (ШЧ/шч) is typically used instead.
- The Hard Sign is not used. Its purpose (removing of palatalisation) is served by an apostrophe.
- The letter combinations Дж дж and Дз дз appear after Д д in the Belarusian alphabet in some publications. These digraphs each represent one sound: Дж , Дз .
- Г represents a voiced fricative consonant.

External links

- [http://www.pravapis.org/art_belarusian_alphabet.asp Introduction to Belarusian Alphabet]
- [http://www.pravapis.org/art_lac1.asp Introduction to Belarusian Latin Script]
- [http://www.pravapis.org/art_kitab1_en.asp Belarusian language using Arabic script]
- [http://www.pravapis.org/art_letter_frequency.asp Letter Frequency in Belarusian and Russian]
- [http://www.pravapis.org/translator.asp Converter from Latin "Translit" into Cyrillics]

Bulgarian

See Bulgarian language#Alphabet. Bulgarian differs from Russian in the following ways:
- Ye (Е) is pronounced and is called "E".
- Yo (Ё) does not appear.
- The Russian letter Э does not appear.
- Shcha (Щ) is pronounced and is called "Shta".
- The Hard Sign (Ъ) is used for a vowel, (Schwa).
- Yery (Ы) does not appear.

Modern Serbian since the 19th century

Serbian can also be written with the Latin alphabet. See Serbo-Croatian language. Serbian differs from Russian in the following ways:
- Ye is pronounced . Yo does not appear. The Russian letter E does not appear.
- Between D and E is the letter Djə (Ђ, ђ), which is pronounced , and looks like Tjə, except that the loop of the H curls farther and dips downwards.
- Short I does not appear. Between I and K is the letter Jə (Ј, ј), pronounced , which looks like the Latin letter J.
- Between L and M is the letter Ljə (Љ, љ), pronounced , which looks like L and the Soft Sign smashed together.
- Between N and O is the letter Njə (Њ, њ), pronounced , which looks like N and the Soft Sign smashed together.
- Between T and U is the letter Tjə (Ћ, ћ), which is pronounced and looks like a lowercase Latin letter h with a bar. On the uppercase letter, the bar appears at the top; on the lowercase letter, the bar crosses the top half of the vertical line.
- Between Ch and Sh is the letter Dzhə (Џ, џ), pronounced , which looks like Ts but with the downturn moved from the right side of the bottom bar to the middle of the bottom bar.
- Sh is the last letter; the rest do not appear.

Macedonian

Macedonian differs from Serbian in the following ways:
- Between Ze and I is the letter Dze (Ѕ, ѕ), pronounced , which looks like the Latin letter S.
- Djerv is replaced by Gje (Ѓ, ѓ), pronounced , which looks like Ghe with an acute accent (´).
- Tjerv is replaced by Kja (Ќ, ќ), pronounced , which looks like Ka with an acute accent (´).

Non-Slavic languages

These alphabets are generally modelled after Russian, but often bear striking differences, particularly when adapted for Caucasian languages. The first few of them were generated by Orthodox missionaries for the Finnic and Turkic peoples of Idel-Ural (Mari, Udmurt, Mordva, Chuvash, Kerashen Tatars) in 1870s. Later such alphabets were created for some of the Siberian and Caucasus peoples who had recently converted to Christianity. In the 1930s, some of those alphabets were switched to the Uniform Turkic Alphabet. All of the peoples of the former Soviet Union who had been using an Arabic or other Asian script (Mongolian script, etc.) also adopted Cyrillic alphabets, and during the Great Purge in late 1930s, all of the Roman-based alphabets of the peoples of then Soviet Union were switched over to Cyrillic as well. The Abkhazian alphabet was switched to Georgian script, but after the death of Stalin Abkhaz also adopted Cyrillic. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the Gagauz language, which had used Greek script before. In Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, the use of Cyrillic to represent local languages has often been a politically controversial issue after the collapse of the Soviet Union, as it evokes the era of Soviet rule (see Russification). Some of Russia's languages have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law (see Tatar alphabet). A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to other orthographies—either Roman-based or returning to a former script. Unlike the Roman alphabet, which is usually adapted to different languages by using additions to existing letters such as accents, umlauts, tildes and cedillas, the Cyrillic alphabet is usually adapted by the creation of entirely new letter shapes. In some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as Mari, Udmurt and Chuvash, umlauts and breves also were used.

Abkhaz

Abkhaz is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Georgia. See Abkhaz alphabet.

Turkic languages

Chuvash

The Cyrillic alphabet is used for the Chuvash language since the late 19th century, with some changes in 1938.

Kazakh

Kazakh is also written with the Latin alphabet (in Turkey and now in Kazakhstan as well), and modified Arabic alphabet (in China, Iran and Afghanistan).
- Ә ә =
- Ғ ғ = (uvular fricative)
- Қ қ = (uvular plosive)
- Ң ң =
- Ө ө =
- У у = , ,
- Ұ ұ =
- Ү ү =
- Һ һ =
- İ і = The Cyrillic letters Вв, Ёё, Цц, Чч, Щщ, Ъъ, Ьь and Ээ are not used in native Kazakh words, but only for Russian loans.

Kyrgyz

Kyrgyz has also been written in Latin and in Arabic.
- Ң ң =
- Ү ү =
- Ө ө =

Moldovan

The Moldovan language used the Cyrillic alphabet between 1946 and 1989. Nowadays, this alphabet is still official in the breakaway republic of Transnistria.

Mongolian

The Mongolic languages include Khalkha (in Mongolia), Buryat (around Lake Baikal) and Kalmyk (northwest of the Caspian Sea). Khalkha Mongolian is also written with the Mongol vertical alphabet, which is being slowly reintroduced in Mongolia.

Khalkha

- В в =
- Е е = ,
- Ё ё =
- Ж ж =
- З з =
- Н н = ,
- Ө ө =
- Ү ү =
- Ы ы = (after a hard consonant)
- Ь ь = (extra short)
- Ю ю = , The Cyrillic letters Кк, Фф and Щщ are not used in native Mongolian words, but only for Russian loans.

Buryat

The Buryat (буряад) Cyrillic alphabet is similar to the Khalkha above, but Ьь indicates palatalization as in Russian. Buryat does not use Вв, Кк, Фф, Цц, Чч, Щщ or Ъъ in its native words.
- Е е = ,
- Ё ё =
- Ж ж =
- Н н = ,
- Ө ө =
- Ү ү =
- Һ һ =
- Ы ы = ,
- Ю ю = ,

Kalmyk

The Kalmyk (хальмг) Cyrillic alphabet is similar to the Khalkha, but the letters Ээ, Юю and Яя appear only word-initially. In Kalmyk, long vowels are written double in the first syllable (нөөрин), but single in syllables after the first. Short vowels are omitted altogether in syllables after the first syllable (хальмг = xaʎmag).
- Ә ә =
- В в =
- Һ һ =
- Е е = ,
- Җ җ =
- Ң ң =
- Ө ө =
- Ү ү =

Cyrillic in Unicode

Main article: Cyrillic characters in Unicode. In Unicode, the Cyrillic block extends from U+0400 to U+052F. The characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are basically the characters from ISO 8859-5 moved upward by 864 positions. The characters in the range U+0460 to U+0489 are historic letters, not used now. The characters in the range U+048A to U+052F are additional letters for various languages that are written with Cyrillic script. Unicode does not include accented Cyrillic letters, but they can be combined by adding U+0301 ("combining acute accent") after the accented vowel (e.g., ы́ э́ ю́ я́). Some languages (e.g., modern Church Slavonic) still are not fully supported.

External links

- [http://toma.dnsalias.net/phonetic Bulgarian Online Transliterator]
- [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cyrillic.htm Cyrillic alphabet at omniglot.com]
- [http://www.terena.nl/library/multiling/euroml/mlcs5-cyr.txt A Survey of The Use of Modern Cyrillic Script], including the complete required repertoire of graphic characters, by J. W. van Wingen.
- [http://www.peoples.org.ru/eng_index.html Minority Languages of Russia on the Net], a list of resources.
- [http://www.easybulgarian.com/members/u0a_sample.html Bulgarian Cyrillic Alphabet audio]
- [http://www.jewishgen.org/jri-pl/translit.htm Information on Cyrillic transliteration] and the handwritten script form of Cyrillic.
- [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf Unicode Code Charts "Cyrillic"] (PDF)
- [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0500.pdf Unicode Code Charts "Cyrillic Supplement"] (PDF)
- [http://czyborra.com/charsets/cyrillic.html The Cyrillic Charset Soup], Roman Czyborra's overview and history of Cyrillic charsets.
- [https://addons.mozilla.org/extensions/moreinfo.php?id=561 The Russ Key Mozilla Firefox extension], this extension allows typing in Russian and other languages and transliterating HTML text into Cyrillic. Category:Cyrillic alphabet als:Kyrillisches Alphabet ko:키릴 문자 ja:キリル文字 th:อักษรซีริลลิก

Macedonian language

:This article is about the Slavic language. For the language spoken in the ancient world, see Ancient Macedonian language. The Macedonian language (Македонски, Makedonski) is a language in the Eastern group of South Slavic languages and is the official language of the Republic of Macedonia. Macedonian is also spoken in Australia, Canada, USA, Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia and Montenegro, Turkey and some countries of the European Union. The total number of native Macedonian speakers is estimated around 2 million. The Macedonian language is most closely related to the Bulgarian language. Macedonian also has similarities with Serbian, particularly Old Serbian. Bulgarian and Macedonian share typological similarities with Romanian, Greek, and Albanian. These five languages make up the Balkan language league, even though they are all from different language families (Romanian is a Romance language, while Greek and Albanian comprise their own branches in the Indo-European family). Macedonian is the official language in the Republic of Macedonia, and officially recognized in the District of Korçë in Albania. Native speakers are also found in Serbia and Montenegro, Greece, and Albania. Along with Bulgarian, Macedonian is the only Slavic language not to generally use noun cases in quite the same respect as the others. The only case used is vocative, however three different definite articles are used (as suffixes). It should also be noted that only Macedonian contains the three definite articles pertaining to position of the object; all other languages have the basic form. One unique characteristic of Macedonian speech is the permanent short stress falling on the syllable third from last, and gradually moving along each time the word lengthens. Example: ZAmina (vozot) - (The train) departed; zaMInuvaj - Go from here! (imperative); zamiNUvanje - Departure ; ZaminuVAnjeto - The departure. Even so, this tends not to be the case when the word has entered the language more recently and from a foreign source (chiefly English). Menadžment (Management) is pronounced Me-naj-MENT. A modified Cyrillic script, Macedonian Cyrillic with 31 letters, is used for writing. Cyrillic, with Glagolitic, was an old Slavic script, used for the original Old Slavonic language. Only Cyrillic is used today, probably because the letters are simpler and more easily learnt when scholars like Saint Cyril introduced Christian writings to the Slavic people. While the transliteration to Latin script is easy in principle, there is currently a lot of confusion about which standard to use. When Macedonia was part of former Yugoslavia, Macedonian was typically written using the Latin script used for, e.g., Croatian. For example, the Cyrillic letter ж was written as ž. Since then, the use of "zh" or simply "z" has gained currency. Especially problematic is the Cyrillic letter џ, which can be found transliterated into Latin as "dž", "dzh", "dz" or even "x". Macedonian language is taught as a subject in several of the university centres of the world, and is currently taught in all universities of the former Yugoslavia.

History

The 19th century, accompanied by pan-Slavic nationalism, saw the first attempts to resolve the question of linguistic norms in the Bulgarian-Macedonian diasystem. Writers from Macedonia advocated a common Bulgarian language based on the Slavic dialects in Macedonia or on a compromise between the upper-Bulgarian (northeastern Bulgarian) and the western Macedonian dialects. Writers from northern Bulgaria, however, insisted on the adoption of the northeastern Bulgarian dialect only. The establishment of an autonomous Bulgarian principality north of the Stara Planina led eventually to the adoption of the Eastern literary variant although the preservation of the letters and even after the codification of the Bulgarian language in 1899 maintained some differences between eastern Bulgarian and western Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects.

Bulgarian view on the Macedonian language

Although it was the first country to recognize the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria has refused to recognize the existence of a separate Macedonian nation and a separate Macedonian language. It is argued that the language of the Macedonians should be regarded as a Bulgarian dialect. According to the Bulgarians, the contemporary literary language of Macedonia was created after 1945 by Yugoslav linguists who wanted to create a separate Macedonian nationality within the federal republic and thus divide Macedonian Bulgarians from those in Bulgaria. After almost a century of futile attempts to Serbianize Macedonia, they had apparently decided to apply the tried Roman maxim "divide and conquer" instead. In codifying the new language, the Yugoslav communists introduced their own alphabet and a huge load of Serbian lexis; they also did everything possible to create grammatical differences from literary Bulgarian. In a continuation of that trend, contemporary Macedonian linguists, indoctrinated in the teachings of the Yugoslav (i.e. Serboman) school, resort to falsifications of history and documents in order to further the opinion that there was a consciousness of a separate Macedonian language before that time. The publication in the Republic of Macedonia of the folk song collections Bulgarian Folk Songs by the Miladinov Brothers and Songs of the Macedonian Bulgarians by Serbian archaelogist Verkovic under the "politically correct" titles Collection and Macedonian Folk Songs are some of the examples quoted by the Bulgarians. Apart from this historical argument, the supporters of the Bulgarian view often state that the differences between Bulgarian and Macedonian, from an everyday and/or linguistical point of view, are insufficient to justify the recognition of the latter as a separate language. They also argue over about half a million refugees from the region of Macedonia that emigrated to free Bulgaria in the period 1879 to 1944 have integrated fully in Bulgarian society and are indistinguishable from other Bulgarians; in fact, many Bulgarians take pride in having a Macedonian ancestor, the number of people with Macedonian lineage is especially great in the capital (Sofia). To assess the validity of these arguments in a broader perspective, see dialect and the history of Bulgaria.

Greek view on the Macedonian language

The name of the language is considered offensive by Greece and many Greeks, who assert that the Ancient Macedonian language spoken by Alexander the Great in ancient Macedon is the only "Macedonian language". They further argue that since Slavic immigration to the region did not begin until well after the decline of the Macedonian Empire, it is historically inaccurate to refer to a Slavic language as Macedonian. Quite often the arguments are similar to the Bulgarian view, mainly that Macedonian was created artificially by Tito for political reasons. Moderate Greeks would refer to the langage as Slavomacedonian. However, most non-Greek parties such as international news organizations and language scholars refer to the language as "Macedonian". See Republic of Macedonia for more on the related naming dispute.

Alphabet

The Macedonian alphabet, as any Slavic Cyrillic alphabet, is ultimately based on the Cyrillic alphabet of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius; it is an adaptation of Vuk Karadžić's phonetic alphabet.

Some Macedonian phrases

- Здраво! - Hello! (Zdra - vo)
- Добро утро - Good morning (Dobro u-tro)
- Добар ден - Good day to you (Dobar d-en)
- Добро вечер - Good evening (Dobro ve-cher)
- Довидување - Farewell (Dovi - du - van ye)
- Благодарам / Фала - Thank you / Thanks (Bla -go- daram, Fa la)
- Дали зборувате англиски? - Do you speak English? (Dali zbo-ruvate an-gliski?
- Немаме леб. Ќе одите ли да купите? - We don't have any bread left. Will you go and buy some? (Ne-mame leb, kye od-ite li da ku-pite?)
- Можете ли да ми помогнете? - Can you help me? (Mozhete li da mi po-mognete?)
- Се извинувам - Pardon me (Se iz-vin-uvam)
- Извини - Sorry (iz-vini)
- Се снаоѓате добро? - Do you manage well? (Se sna-odyate dobro?)
- Како си? - How are you? (ka-ko si?)
- Добар сум, фала. - I'm fine, thank you.
- Каде ќе одите вечерва? - Where are you going tonight?
- Ќе излезам со моите пријатели. - I'm going out with my friends. (moi-te pri at eli)
- Имам многу роднини и пријатели во САД - I have many relatives and friends in the USA. (rod-nini)

Similarities to other languages

The Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Slovenian and Bulgarian languages are related to Macedonian, but they are significantly different, except for Bulgarian which is mutually intelligible, with some difficulties, with Macedonian. They all compose the South Slavic dialect continuum for the Southern branch of the Slavic languages. With Serbia's standard language being based a good distance from Macedonia's border, the transitional language linking Macedonian and Bulgarian on the one hand with Serbo-Croat and Slovenian on the other is the Torlakian which is spoken in Northern Macedonia and North-Western Bulgaria and Southern Serbia. A lexicological comparison between Macedonian and Bulgarian reveals that roughly 15% of the whole vocabulary of both languages is different, although most words usually exist in the other language with a different or slightly modified meaning. 65% of the words are only differently accented, and 20% are identical. Lexical differences are owing to a great extent to loanwords borrowed by Bulgarian from Russian and by Macedonian from Serbian in the middle and the end of the 20th century. Compared to other languages the statistical differences between Bulgarian and Macedonian are similar to those between the Afrikaans and the Dutch languages.

External links

- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mkd Ethnologue report for Macedonian]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/countries/macedonia.shtml BBC Education - Languages: Macedonian, Makedonski]
- [http://www.makedonija.info/language.html The Macedonian Language]
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Macedonian-english/ Macedonian - English Dictionary]
- [http://www.unc.edu/~bbiljana/MKDtutorial.html Reading and Pronouncing Macedonian: An Interactive Tutorial]
- [http://www.macedoniainfo.com/books/kronsteiner/ik_3_eng.html Otto Kronsteiner. THE COLLAPSE OF YUGOSLAVIA AND THE FUTURE PROSPECTS OF THE MACEDONIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE] Category:South Slavic languages Category:Languages of the Republic of Macedonia Category:Languages of Greece Category:Languages of Bulgaria Category:Languages of Serbia and Montenegro Category:Languages of Albania ja:マケドニア語

Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate

The voiced alveolo-palatal affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound are , alternatively but unofficially , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is dz\.

Features

Features of the voiced alveolo-palatal affricate:
- Its manner of articulation is sibilant affricate, which means it is produced by first stopping the airflow entirely, then directing it through a groove in the tongue and over the sharp edge of the teeth, causing high-frequency turbulence.
- Its place of articulation is alveolo-palatal, that is, palatalized laminal postalveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, and the body of the tongue raised toward the palate.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords are fully vibrating during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by allowing the airstream to flow over the middle of the tongue, rather than the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic egressive, which means it is articulated by pushing air out of the lungs and through the vocal tract, rather than from the glottis or the mouth. ja:有声歯茎硬口蓋破擦音

G

G is the seventh letter in the Roman alphabet. Its name in is gee.

History

The letter G was created by the Romans because they felt that C was not an adequate letter to represent both /k/ and /g/. Fascinatingly, the alleged inventor is a known historical figure, Spurius Carvilius Ruga (who flourished around 230 BC). G, which at this time took the place in the alphabet formerly held by Z, came to represent the sound /g/. As the sound /k/ did, /g/ also developed palatal and velar allophones which is why today, G has different sound values in all Romance languages, as well as English (due to French influence). The modern minuscule (lower-case) G has two basic shapes: the "opentail G" 10px and the "looptail G" 10px. The opentail version derives from the majuscule (capital) form by raising the serif that distinguishes it from a C to the top of the loop, thereby closing the loop, and extending the vertical stroke downward and to the left. The looptail form developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, and to the left again, forming a loop. The initial extension to the left was absorbed into the upper loop. Generally, the two minuscule forms are interchangeable, but occasionally the difference has been exploited to make a contrast. The 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association recommends using 10px for advanced voiced velar plosives and 10px for regular ones where the two are contrasted, but this suggestion was never accepted by phoneticians in general, and today 10px is the symbol used in the International Phonetic Alphabet, with 10px acknowledged as an acceptable variant.

Usage

In English, the letter can be pronounced as a "soft G" (IPA ), as in: giant, ginger, geology, or as a "hard G" (IPA ), as in: goose, gargoyle, game. In some words of French origin, as in French generally, the "soft G" is pronounced as IPA , as in rouge, beige, and genre. Generally, G is soft before E, I, and Y, and hard otherwise, but there are many English words of non-Romance origin where G is hard regardless of position, and two (gaol and margarine) in which it is soft even before an A. Most non-Romance languages pronounce G as regardless of position (however the Dutch language does not have a /g/ sound in its native words, and instead G is pronounced , a sound that does not occur in English) while in Romance languages the soft value varies, such as in French, Catalan, and Portuguese, in Italian, and in Spanish. The general rule is that soft G is pronounced the same as the J of the same language. Several digraphs are common in English. GH originally represented the letter yogh which English adopted from Old Irish, and took various values including , , , and . It now has a great variety of values, including in enough, in loan words like spaghetti, and silence in words like eight and night. GN, with value , is also common, as in sign. In Italian, GH is used to force a value before E and I where G would take a soft value, and GN is used for (rather like English NY in canyon). In Spanish, G before I or E is pronounced as the same as J. The Spanish poet Juan Ramón Jiménez proposed to simplify the Spanish spelling by using just the versions with j. The rest of Spanish speakers did not follow him, but his works, and the translations of Rabindranath Tagore made by Jiménez's wife Zenobia Camprubí, are published in his spelling.

Alternative representations

Golf represents the letter G in the NATO phonetic alphabet. In international Morse code the letter G is DahDahDit: - - · In Braille the letter G is represented as ⠛ (in Unicode), the dot pattern,

XX
XX
..

Computing

In Unicode the capital G is codepoint U+0047 and the lowercase g is U+0067. The ASCII code for capital G is 71 and for lowercase g is 103; or in binary 01000111 and 01100111, correspondingly. The EBCDIC code for capital G is 199 and for lowercase g is 135. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "G" and "g" for upper and lower case respectively.

Meanings for G

- In architecture, often seen in elevators, G stands for the "Ground Floor" or "General Floor", usually the main entrance floor.
- In biochemistry,
- G is the symbol for glycine and guanosine.
- G is a type of protein.
- In the RGB color model, G stands for the color green.
- In programming languages,
- G is the graphical programming language used in LabVIEW.
- In computer games,
- G is a character in Sega's House of the Dead series of arcade games,
- G is the name of a currency in some computer role-playing games, meaning gold.
- 'G' is the class of gnomes and 'g' is a gremlin in the Roguelike game Nethack.
- In computing, G is a binary prefix for giga, meaning 2³⁰ = 1,073,741,824 (cf. G as an SI prefix in the Metric system, given below)
- In electrical engineering, G is often used as the name of the variable for conductance.
- In English slang, g is short for "gangsta" or gangster.
- In film,
- G is a rating given by the Motion Picture Association of America, meaning the film is suitable for all ("general") audiences.
- G is also the name of a British film from 1974. An American film, also called G, was released as an independent film in 2002; it was released to movie theaters in 2005.
- In finance, G is the New York Stock Exchange ticker symbol for The Gillette Company
- In international licence plate codes, G stands for Gabon.
- In literature, G. is the title of a book by John Berger. This book was awarded the Booker Prize 1972.
- In the SI system,
- capital G is the SI prefix for giga, meaning 10⁹ = 1,000,000,000.
- lowercase g is the symbol for a unit of mass, the gram.
- In the CGS system,
- capital G is also the symbol for the unit of magnetic induction, the gauss.
- In music, G is a note.
- In physics,
- G is the gravitational constant.
- g (always in lowercase) is the unit of acceleration due to gravity.
- As the first letter of a postal code,
- In Canada, G stands for the eastern part of Quebec.
- In the United Kingdom, G stands for Glasgow.
- In psychometrics, g (always in lowercase) is the symbol for general intelligence.
- In radiocommunication, G is one of the ITU prefixes allocated to the United Kingdom.
- In sexology, the G spot is a part of the vagina that allegedly causes an orgasm when stimulated.
- In television, G is the TV Rating that stands for General, meaning the program is appropriate for everyone.
- In economics, G is usually used to represent government spending or government expenditure.

Romance languages

The Romance languages, also called Romanic languages or New Latin languages, are a subset of the Italic languages, specifically the descendants of the Latin dialects spoken by the common people in what is known as Latin Europe (Italian/Portuguese/Spanish Europa latina, Catalan Europa llatina, French Europe latine, Romanian Europa latină) as Vulgar Latin later evolved in different areas after the break-up of the Roman Empire. Romance language native speakers:
- Western Group:
- Iberian and Americas: Spanish (300 million native speakers), Portuguese (230 million), Catalan (6.5 million), Galician (4 million)
- France: French (65 million), Occitan (2 million)
- Switzerland: Romansh (66,000)
- Italy: Sardinian (300,000), Northern Italian dialects, Dolomites Ladin, Friulian
- Eastern Group:
- Italy: Italian (60 million), Central and Southern Italian dialects including Corsican language, Sicilian
- Romania and Moldova: Romanian (30 million) Many of the differences from the Romance languages in relation to Latin are analytical: articles and prepositions instead of declension, use of auxiliary verbs for the composite verbs, etc. The daughter languages of Latin differ for several reasons: historical isolation, influence of prior languages in territories of Latin Europe that fell under Roman rule, invasions and instability after the fall of Rome, and contact with other cultures in the Renaissance, among others.

History

The term "Romance" comes from the Romance word romance or romanz, from Latin romanice, the adverbial form of romanicus, in expressions like parabolare romanice ("to speak in Roman"). The modern Romance languages differ from Classical Latin in a number of fundamental respects:
- No declensions, that is, they generally no longer alter a noun to indicate its grammatical role, though there may be a few exceptions such as in pronouns. An exception is Romanian, which continues to use declensions.
- Only two grammatical genders, rather than the three of Classical Latin (except Romanian and Italian to a small extent, and except several gender-neutral pronouns in Spanish, Italian, Catalan etc.)
- Introduction of grammatical articles, based on Latin demonstratives
- Latin future tense scrapped, and new future and conditional tenses introduced, based on infinitive + present or imperfect tense of habere (to have), fused to form new inflections.
- Latin synthetic perfect tenses replaced by new compound forms with be or have + past participle (except Portuguese, where the Latin plusquamperfect tense has been retained and Romanian, which has 2 perfect tenses - one synthetic and one compound - that have the same meaning and also has a synthetic plusquamperfect tense in the indicative mood that is formed using the suffix "-se", derived from the suffix used in Latin to form the subjunctive plusquamperfect, "-isse").

Status

The most spoken Romance language is Spanish, followed by Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian and Catalan. Generally, the Romance languages have simplified the complex morphology and grammar of Latin. Italian, Sardinian and Romanian retain more original features than the rest. The Romance variants form a dialect continuum, and nearby languages usually have some mutual intelligibility. Portuguese and French are perhaps the most innovative of the languages, each in different ways. Sardinian is perhaps the most isolated and conservative variant. Languedocian Occitan is considered by some the most "average" western Romance language. In the history of the Romance languages, the first split was between Sardinian and the rest. Then of the rest, the next split was between Romanian in the east, and the others in the west. The third major split was between Italian and the Gallo-Iberian group. This latter then split into a Gallo-Romance group, which became the Oïl languages (including French), Occitan, Francoprovençal and Romansh, and an Iberian Romance group which became Spanish and Portuguese. Catalan is considered by many specialists as a transition language between the Gallic group and the Iberian group, since it shares characteristics from both groups; for example, 'fear' is 'medo' in Portuguese, 'miedo' in Spanish, but 'por' in Catalan — compare with 'peur' in French. There is much dialect diversity, and there is no clear differentiation between a "language" and a "dialect". Some varieties are privileged in that they are the main language of media and education in their countries (French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and, recently, Catalan, although it is not as spread on the media as the other cited languages are, particularly in Valencia and the Balearic Islands, where its presence on local newspapers and radio stations is almost minoritary; it is also much neglected in the area of the French state where it is spoken). Others are used as the language of instruction in schools and have some official status, such as Sardinian and Romansh. Many have suffered long periods of official neglect, such as Occitan (or Provençal), the Oïl languages other than French, and Venetian. Some of these possess several competing standards. And some minor variants which might have developed into distinct languages have been reduced to residual areas and restricted usage, like Astur-Leonese, Aragonese or Mirandese.

Typical characteristics

Characteristics typical of Romance languages include:
- General:
- Romance languages are "verb-framed" rather than "satellite-framed". This means that phrases indicating motion will tend to encode the motion's direction within the verb (e.g. "enter", "insert"), rather than in an external particle (e.g. "go in", "put in"). This is a feature of word formation.
- Romance languages frequently have two copula verbs (see Romance copula), from the Latin infinitives ESSE and STARE: one for essence and the other for status.
- Romance languages conjugate verbs in first, second, and third person forms, both singular and plural. The third person forms may also be inflected for gender, but the first- and second-person forms are not (compare with Hebrew, which inflects all three persons for gender and number.)
- Politeness forms include some form of the T-V distinction in all Romance languages.
- Romance languages have 2 or 3 genders for all nouns, but usually do not inflect nouns for case, though their parent Latin did.
- Romance languages include a default stress on the second-last syllable, and have euphony rules that avoid glottal stops, and multiple stop consonants in a row. (The second-last syllable becomes the last in languages like French that habitually drop the final Latin vowel.) The combination of these rules gives spoken Romance languages their characteristic high speed and flow. Compare Polish second-to-last stress.
- Written form only:
- The letters "W" and "K" are rarely used (except in names or borrowings, for example Kappa, or w in standard Walloon orthography).
- The letters "C" and "G" are usually "soft" postalveolar consonants before a front vowel, but "hard" velar consonants by default, or before a back vowel.
- In most Romance languages, proper adjectives (including nationalities, such as American and British), names of days of the week and months of the year are not capitalized. For example, nationalities are capitalized in French only when used as nouns.

Distinguishing features

Evolution compared to Latin

According to the results of the study of M. Pei in 1949, which compares the evolution degree of the languages with respect of their inheritance language (in the case of Romance languages the Latin language), here are the evolution degrees:
- Sardinian: 8 %;
- Italian: 12 %;
- Spanish: 20 %;
- Romanian: 23.5 %;
- Occitan: 25 %;
- Portuguese: 31 %;
- French: 44 %.

Formation of plurals

Some Romance languages form plurals by adding /s/ (derived from the plural of the Latin accusative case), while others form the plural by changing the final vowel (by influence of the Latin nominative ending /i/). See La Spezia-Rimini Line for more information.
- Plural in /s/: Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan, French, Sardinian.
- Vowel change: Italian, Romanian.

Omission of final Latin vowels

Some Romance languages have lost the final unstressed vowels from the Latin roots. For example: Latin lupus, luna become Italian lupo, luna but French loup /lu/), lune (/lyn/).
- Final vowels retained: Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Romanian (Southern dialects and old Romanian).
- Final vowels retained in feminine gender only: Catalan, Occitan, Romanian (Daco-Romanian).
- Final vowels dropped: French. Romance languages dropping the final vowel have one less syllable: the usual "penultimate syllable" accent is on the last syllable in these languages.

Words for "more"

Some Romance languages use a version of Latin plus, others a version of magis.
- Plus-derived: French plus /ply/, Italian più /pju/, dialectal Catalan pus /pus/ (this word is exclusively used on negative statements in Mallorcan Catalan)
- Magis-derived: Portuguese (mais), Spanish (más), Catalan (més), Occitan (mai), Romanian (mai), Italian (mai, used only in the construction non...mai, meaning "never")

The number 16

In some languages the word for the number 16 is irregular after the fashion of English "sixteen", as are all the Romance numerals from 11 to 15. In other Romance languages, 16 is literally "ten and six", like the numbers from 17 to 19.
- "Sixteen": Catalan, Occitan, French, Italian, Romanian.
- "Ten and six": Portuguese, Spanish.

To have and to hold

The verbs derived from Latin habere and tenere are used differently for the concepts of "to hold", "to have", "to have" (auxiliary for complex tenses), and existence statements ("there is"). For instance, in French, je tiens, j'ai, j'ai fait, il y a: these are respectively derived from tenere, habere, habere and habere. If we use T for tenere and H for habere, in these four meanings, we can encode the difference as follows:
- TTTT: Some varieties of Brazilian Portuguese.
- TTTH: Portuguese/Galician.
- TTHH: Spanish, Catalan.
- THHH: Occitan, French. There is also essere in Italian and este in Romanian, used for "to be":
- THHE: Romanian, Italian

To have or to be

Some languages use their equivalent of "have" as an auxiliary verb to form the perfect forms (e. g. French passé composé) of all verbs; others use "be" for some verbs and "have" for others.
- "Have" only: Catalan, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian.
- "Have" and "be": Occitan, French, Italian. In the latter, the verbs which use "be" as an auxiliary are unaccusative verbs, that is, intransitive verbs that show motion not directly initiated by the subject or changes of state, such as "fall", "come", "become". All other verbs (intransitive unergative verbs and all transitive verbs) use "have". For example, in French, J'ai vu "I have seen" vs. Je suis tombé "I am fallen" ("I have fallen").

Pidgins and creoles

The global spread of colonial Romance languages has given rise to numerous creoles and pidgins. Some of the lesser-spoken languages have also had influences on varieties spoken far from their traditional regions.
- List creoles and pidgins, grouped by source-language.
- Lingua Franca, influenced by the Romance languages of the Western Mediterranean and Arabic.
- French Creoles
- Haitian Creole is a national language of Haiti
- Antillean Creole spoken primarily in Dominica and St. Lucia.
- Kreyol Lwiziyen Louisiana creole
- Mauritian Creole is the lingua franca in Mauritius
- Seychellois Creole Also known as Seselwa, Seychellois Creole is an official language, along with English and French, as well as the lingua franca of the Seychelles.
- Lanc-Patuá Spoken in Brazil, mostly in Amapá state. It has been influenced by Portuguese. It was developed by immigrants from neighboring French Guiana and French territories of the Caribbean Sea.
- Portuguese Creoles
- Angolar Spoken in coastal areas of São Tomé Island, São Tomé and Príncipe.
- Annobonnese Spoken in the island of Annobón, Equatorial Guinea.
- Crioulo do Barlavento (Criol) Spoken in Barlavento islands of Cape Verde.
- Crioulo de São Vicente Spoken in São Vicente Island, Cape Verde. It could not be a, de facto, Creole.
- Crioulo do Sotavento (Kriolu) Spoken in Sotavento islands of Cape Verde.
- Daman Indo-Portuguese Spoken in Daman, India. Decreolization process occurred.
- Diu Indo-Portuguese Spoken in Diu, India. Almost extinct.
- Forro Spoken in São Tomé Island, São Tomé and Príncipe.
- Kristang Spoken in Malaysia.
- Kristi Spoken in the village of Korlay, India.
- Lunguyê Spoken in Príncipe Island, São Tomé and Príncipe. Almost extinct.
- Macanese Spoken in Macau and Hong Kong. Decreolization process occurred.
- Papiamento Spoken in the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. Spanish influenced.
- Saramaccan Portuguese/English Creole. Spoken in Surinam.
- Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese Spoken in Coastal cities of Sri Lanka.
- Upper Guinea Creole (Kriol) lingua franca of Guinea-Bissau, also spoken in Casamance, Senegal.
- Spanish Creoles
- Chavacano -Spoken in Zamboanga and Cavite , Philippines.
- Palenquero
- Papiamento. It is often hard to tell Portuguese influences from Spanish ones.
- Spanglish, spoken in northern Mexico and southern United States.
- Yanito While not being pidgins nor creoles, English (see Middle English creole hypothesis) and Basque have a substantial Romance influence in their vocabularies.

Constructed languages

Latin and the Romance languages also give rise to numerous constructed languages, both international auxiliary languages (well-known examples of which are Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua) and languages created for artistic purposes only (such as Brithenig and Wenedyk).

Listing

Here is a more detailed listing of languages and dialects (roughly ordered from west to east):
- Iberian Romance languages
- Portuguese-Galician
- Portuguese language
- European Portuguese
- Brazilian Portuguese
- African Portuguese
-
- Angolan Portuguese
-
- Capeverdean Portuguese
-
- Guinean Portuguese
-
- Mozambican Portuguese
-
- São Tomean Portuguese
- Judeo-Portuguese
- Galician
- Eonaviegan (a Galician dialect with some traits of Asturian)
- Fala language (spoken in a a valley of the northwestern part of Extremadura in Spain)
- Astur-Leonese
- Leonese
- Asturian (the variant with more vitality)
- Mirandese (spoken in a tiny corner of Portugal — very archaic)
- Extremaduran (the south variant, more Castilian like)
- Spanish (Castilian)
- Ladino (Judæo-Spanish)
- Aragonese
- Mozarabic variants (extinct by the 15th century)
- Catalan
- Western Catalan
- North-Western Catalan
-
- Ribagorçan (transitional to Aragonese)
- Valencian
- Eastern Catalan
- Central Catalan (includes Barcelona dialect)
- Northern Catalan (Roussillonese)
- Balearic
- Alguerese
- Occitan or langue d'oc
- Gascon
- Aranese
- Lemosin
- Auvernhat
- Aupenc
- Lengadocian
- Provençal
- Niçard
- Francoprovençal
- langues d'oïl
- French
- Picard language
- Walloon language
- Norman language
- Jèrriais
- Dgèrnésiais
- Anglo-Norman language (extinct)
- Gallo language
- Franc-Comtois
- Champenois
- Poitevin-Saintongeais
- Bourguignon-Morvandiau
- Lorrain
- Rhaetian languages
- Friulian
- Ladin
- Romansh
- Italian
- Gallo-Italian languages
- Piemontese
- Ligurian
- Monegasque
- Lombard
- Emilio-Romagnolo
- Venetian
- Napoletano-Calabrese
- Sicilian
- Corsican (closely related to Tuscan dialects, with Ligurian elements)
- Gallurese (close to Corsican)
- Sassarese (transitional to Corsican)
- Sardinian
- Campidanese
- Logudorese
- Dalmatian (extinct)
- Istriot
- Eastern Romance languages
- Romanian (also named Moldovan in Moldova)
- Aromanian
- Meglenitic
- Istro-Romanian (these latter three are sometimes regarded as dialects of the Romanian language).

Ethnologue classification

The classification below is largely based on the analysis provided at ethnologue.com. The ISO-639-2 code roa is applied by the ISO for any Romance language that does not have its own code. The Ethnologue classification (produced by the SIL International) is at one extreme of linguists, who divide into 'splitters' and 'lumpers'. Ethnologue produce a very detailed classification, which is more precise than many other linguists would accept, but it is valuable as a description of varieties. The Southern group
- Sardinian Four versions recognized; all are included in ISO 639-1 code, sc; ISO 639-2 code, srd)
- Sardinian, Sassarese - (SIL code, SDC)
- Sardinian, Gallurese - (SIL Code, SDN)
- Sardinian, Logudorese - (SIL Code, SRD)
- Sardinian, Campidanese - (SIL Code, SRO)
- Corsican - (SIL Code, COI; ISO 639-1 code, co; ISO 639-2 code, cos) The Italo-Western group
The Western sub-group
. .Gallo-Iberian division
. . .Ibero-Romance sub-division
. . . .West Iberian section
- Asturo-Leonese
- Asturian - (SIL Code, AUB; ISO 639-2 code, ast)
- Mirandese - (SIL Code, MWL; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Castilian
- Spanish - (SIL Code, SPN; ISO 639-1 code, es; ISO 639-2 code, spa)
- Spanish, Loreto-Ucayali - (SIL Code, SPQ; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Ladino (Judæo-Spanish) - (SIL Code, SPJ; ISO 639-2 code, lad)
- Extremaduran - (SIL Code, EXT; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Caló - (SIL Code, RMR; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Portuguese-Galician
- Portuguese - (SIL Code, POR; ISO 639-1 code, pt; ISO 639-2 code, por)
- Galician - (SIL Code, GLN; ISO 639-1 code, gl; ISO 639-2 code, glg)
- Fala - (SIL Code, FAX; ISO 639-2 code, roa) . . . .East Iberian section

- Catalan-Valencian-Balear - (SIL Code, CLN; ISO 639-1 code, ca; ISO 639-2 code, cat) . . . .Oc section

- Occitan (langue d'oc) - Six versions recognized; all are included in ISO 639-1 code, oc; ISO 639-2 code, oci) - all are from France
- Auvergnat - (SIL Code, AUV)
- Gascon - (SIL Code, GSC)
- Limousin - (SIL Code, LMS)
- Languedocien - (SIL Code, LNC)
- Provençal - (SIL Code, PRV)
- Shuadit - (SIL Code, SDT) . . .Gallo-Romance sub-division
. . . .Gallo-Rhaetian section
- Rhaetian
- Friulian - (SIL Code, FRL; ISO 639-2 code, fur)
- Ladin - (SIL Code, LLD; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Romansh - (SIL Code, RHE; ISO 639-1 code, rm; ISO 639-2 code, roh)
- Langues d'Oïl
- French (langue d'oïl)
- Standard French - (SIL Code, FRN; ISO 639-1 code, fr; ISO 639-2(B) code, fre; ISO 639-2(T) code, fra)
- Cajun French - (SIL Code, FRC; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Picard - (SIL Code, PCD; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Zarphatic - (SIL Code, ZRP; ISO 639-2 code, roa) - extinct
- Franco-Provençal - (SIL Code, FRA; ISO 639-2 code, roa) . . . .Gallo-Italian section
- Emilio-Romagnolo - (SIL Code, EML; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Ligurian - (SIL Code, LIJ; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Lombard - (SIL Code, LMO; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Piemontese - (SIL Code, PMS; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Venetian - (SIL Code, VEC; ISO 639-2 code, roa) . .Pyrenean-Mozarabic division
- Pyrenean
- Aragonese - (SIL Code, AXX; ISO 639-1 code, an;ISO 639-2 code, arg)
- Mozarabic
- Mozarabic - (SIL Code, MXI; ISO 639-2 code, roa) - Extinct for common speech The Italo-Dalmatian sub-group
- Italian - (SIL Code, ITN; ISO 639-1 code, it; ISO 639-2 code, ita)
- Napoletano-Calabrese - (SIL Code, NPL; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Sicilian - (SIL Code, SCN; ISO 639-2 code, scn)
- Judeo-Italian - (SIL Code, ITK; ISO 639-2 code, roa)
- Dalmatian - (SIL Code, DLM; ISO 639-2 code, roa) - extinct in 19th century.
- Istriot - (SIL Code, IST; ISO 639-2 code, roa) The Eastern group
- Romanian - (SIL Code, RUM; ISO 639-1 code, ro; ISO 639-2(B) code, rum; ISO 639-2(T) code, ron) - Includes Daco-Romanian.
- :Also as Moldovan - (ISO 639-1 code, mo; ISO 639-2 code, mol)
- Macedo Romanian - (SIL Code, RUP; ISO 639-2 code, rup) - known by native speakers as Aromanian
- Megleno Romanian - (SIL Code, RUQ; ISO 639-2 code, roa) - also known as Moglenitic or Meglenitic
- Istro Romanian - (SIL Code, RUO; ISO 639-2 code, roa)

External links

- [http://www.orbilat.com/ Orbis Latinus, site on Romance languages] als:Romanische Sprachen ja:ロマンス語 simple:Romance languages zh-min-nan:Romance gí-giân

Digital Heaven

Digital Heaven Ltd is a cutting edge post-production facility and software development house based in London, UK. Founded by Martin Baker in 1998, the company harnesses his 14 years of broadcast editing experience along with co-developer Toby Uffindell-Phillips’ software engineering talent. In October 2005, Digital Heaven successfully launched the world-renowned VideoSpace freeware program. The latest in a growing number of practical and useful software available from the company. In November 2005, Digital Heaven launched, for Final Cut Pro, the MovieLogger range of software. Which has already started to change the way that post production is implemented though its labour saving methods of logging multi programme rushes. This software has been seen to add another string to the bow of Final Cut Pro in its competition with the Avid editing software. Other development areas include: Final Cut Plug-ins
Multicam Lite
EDL Mirror

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Wendy Darling vit avec ses parents et ses deux