.um is the Internetcountry codetop-level domain (ccTLD) for the United States Minor Outlying Islands. It is administered by the United States Minor Outlying Islands Registry. Originally, registrants could only register third-level domains or higher, but in April 2002 second-level domains became available.
However, as of October, 2005, neither the registry site nor any other .um site found through a [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=site%3A.um Google search] appears to be functional. Hence, it appears that the entire .um domain is not in operation at the present time. Given that the islands it represents are not presently inhabited, there is little use for the domain, except for domain hacks, as a sizable number of English words end in -um.
External links
- [http://www.iana.org/root-whois/um.htm IANA .um whois information]
- [http://www.nic.um United States Minor Outlying Islands NIC]
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/suggest/aum.htm Domain Hacks Suggest] - 3,800+ domain hack suggestions for .um domains.
U mU m
Internet
:For the more general networking concept, see internetworking.
The Internet, or simply the Net, is the worldwide system of interconnected computer networks which makes information stored on it accessible. This information is transmitted by packet switching using a standardized Internet Protocol (IP) and many other protocols. It is made up of thousands of smaller commercial, academic, domestic and government networks. It carries various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
Creation of the Internet
During the 1950s, several communications researchers realized that there was a need to allow general communication between users of various computers and communications networks. This led to research into decentralized networks, queuing theory, and packet switching. The subsequent creation of ARPANET in the United States in turn catalyzed a wave of technical developments that made it the basis for the development of the Internet. Contrary to popular myth, the DoD did not create the ARPANET so that they could communicate to the US Government after a nuclear war.
The first TCP/IP wide area network was operational in 1984 when the United States' National Science Foundation (NSF) constructed a university network backbone that would later become the NSFNet. It was then followed by the opening of the network to commercial interests in 1995. Important separate networks that offered gateways into, then later merged into the Internet include Usenet, Bitnet and the various commercial and educational X.25 networks such as Compuserve and JANET. The ability of TCP/IP to work over these pre-existing communication networks allowed for a great ease of growth. Use of Internet as a phrase to describe a single global TCP/IP network originated around this time.
The collective network gained a public face in the 1990s. In August1991CERN in Switzerland publicized the new World Wide Web project, two years after Tim Berners-Lee had begun creating HTML, HTTP and the first few web pages at CERN in Switzerland. In 1993 the Mosaic web browser version 1.0 was released, and by late 1994 there was growing public interest in the previously academic/technical Internet. By 1996 the word "Internet" was common public currency, but it referred almost entirely to the World Wide Web.
Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously existing public computer networks (although some networks such as FidoNet have remained separate). This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.
Today's Internet
FidoNets, FTP client, and Telnet client]]
Apart from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is held together by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (for example peering agreements) and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network.
Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined by its interconnections and routing policies. In an often-cited, if perhaps gratuitously mathematical definition, Seth Breidbart once described the Internet as "the largest equivalence class in the reflexive, transitive, symmetric closure of the relationship 'can be reached by an IP packet from'".
Unlike older communications systems, the Internet protocol suite was deliberately designed to be independent of the underlying physical medium. Any communications network, wired or wireless, that can carry two-way digital data can carry Internet traffic. Thus, Internet packets flow through wired networks like copper wire, coaxial cable, and fiber optic; and through wireless networks like Wi-Fi. Together, all these networks, sharing the same high-level protocols, form the Internet.
The Internet protocols originate from discussions within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and its working groups, which are open to public participation and review. These committees produce documents that are known as Request for Comments documents (RFCs). Some RFCs are raised to the status of Internet Standard by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).
Some of the most used protocols in the Internet protocol suite are IP, TCP, UDP, DNS, PPP, SLIP, ICMP, POP3, IMAP, SMTP, HTTP, HTTPS, SSH, Telnet, FTP, LDAP, SSL, and TLS.
Some of the popular services on the Internet that make use of these protocols are e-mail, Usenet newsgroups, file sharing, Instant Messenger, the World Wide Web, Gopher, session access, WAIS, finger, IRC, MUDs, and MUSHs. Of these, e-mail and the World Wide Web are clearly the most used, and many other services are built upon them, such as mailing lists and blogs. The Internet makes it possible to provide real-time services such as Internet radio and webcasts that can be accessed from anywhere in the world.
Some other popular services of the Internet were not created this way, but were originally based on proprietary systems. These include IRC, ICQ, AIM, and Gnutella.
There have been many analyses of the Internet and its structure. For example, it has been determined that the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of scale-free networks.
Similar to how the commercial Internet providers connect via Internet exchange points, research networks tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as:
- GEANT - Internet2 - GLORIAD
These in turn are built around relatively smaller networks. See also the list of academic computer network organizations
In network schematic diagrams, the Internet is often represented by a cloud symbol, into and out of which network communications can pass.
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers. A globally unified namespace (i.e., a system of names in which there is one and only one holder of each name) is essential for the Internet to function. ICANN is headquartered in Marina del Rey, California, but is overseen by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and non-commercial communities. The US government continues to have a privileged role in approving changes to the root zone file that lies at the heart of the domain name system. Because the Internet is a distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet, as such, has no governing body. ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body on the global Internet, but the scope of its authority extends only to the Internet's systems of domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers.
The World Wide Web
Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Google, millions worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.
Some companies and individuals have adopted the use of 'weblogs' or blogs, which are largely used as easily-updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, via whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work.
For more information on the distinction between the World Wide Web and the Internet itself — as in everyday use the two are sometimes confused — see Dark internet where this is discussed in more detail.
Remote access
The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world.
They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.
This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working book-keepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private, leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice.
An office worker away from his or her desk, perhaps the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a remote desktop session into his or her normal office PC using a secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives him or her complete access to all their normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while they are away.
A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networking.
In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication; the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption and money may change hands before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example a credit card whose details are also passed - hopefully fully encrypted - across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 message digests.
These simple features of the Internet, over a world-wide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale and distribution of many types of product, wherever they can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of office documents, publications, software products, music, photography, video, animations, graphics and the other arts. This in turn is causing seismic shifts in each of the existing industry associations, such as the RIAA and MPAA, that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products.
Streaming media and VoIP
Many existing radio and television broadcasters have provided Internet 'feeds' of their live audio and video streams (for example, the BBC). They have been joined by a range of pure Internet 'broadcasters' who never had on-air licences. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a TV or radio receiver. The range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly specialised technical web-casts. The simplest equipment can allow anybody, with little censorship or licencing control, to broadcast on a worldwide basis. Time-shift viewing or listening is not a problem as the BBC have shown with their Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features.
Web-cams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. In this case the picture may update only slowly - perhaps once every few seconds or slower, but Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal or the traffic at a local roundabout live and in real time. Video chat rooms, video conferencing, and remote controllable webcams have become popular. Some people install webcams in their bedrooms that can be accessed by other voyeurs, often with two-way sound.
VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the Instant Messaging systems that took off around the turn of the millennium. In recent years many people and organizations have made VoIP systems as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the actual voice traffic is carried by the Internet, VoIP is free or costs much less than an actual telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on ADSL or DSL Internet connections anyway. The disadvantages are that it is still difficult to initiate a call with someone, unless they also have a VoIP phone or are at their computer and that there are still several competing standards that are mitigating against universal acceptance.
In all of these cases, existing large organisations, that have grown accustomed to regular incomes for their services, are finding increased competition in their service areas, coming directly from the Internet. While newcomers strive to make these inroads, the traditional industries are having to adapt, adopt, complain or suffer. Meanwhile the consumer in each case most probably benefits from the increased range of services and possible price reductions. Some worry about censorship and control while others see a continuing globalisation of culture and norms.
Language
Main article: English on the Internet
The most prevalent language for communication on the Internet is English. This may be due to the Internet's origins or to the growing role of English as an international language. It may also be related to the poor capability of early computers to handle characters other than those in the basic Latin alphabet (see Unicode).
After English (32 % of web visitors) the most-requested languages on the world wide web are Chinese 13 %, Japanese 8 %, Spanish 6 %, German 6 % and French 4 %. (From [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm Internet World Stats])
By continent, 33 % of the world's Internet users are based in Asia, 29 % in Europe and 23 % in North America.[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm]
The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years that good facilities are available for development and communication in most widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake still remain.
Cultural awareness
From a cultural awareness perspective, the Internet has been both an advantage and a liability. For people who are interested in other cultures it provides a significant amount of information and an interactivity that would be unavailable otherwise. However, for people who are not interested in other cultures there is some evidence indicating that the Internet enables them to avoid contact to a greater degree than ever before.
Censorship
Some countries, such as Iran and the People's Republic of China, restrict what people in their countries can see on the Internet, especially unwanted political and religious content.
In the Western world, it is Germany that has the highest rate of censorship. Internet Service Providers are required by law to block some sites that contain child pornography or Nazi or Islamist propaganda.
Censorship is sometimes done through government sponsored censoring filters, or by means of law or culture, making the propagation of targeted materials extremely hard. At the moment most Internet content is available regardless of where one is in the world, so long as one has the means of connecting to it.
Internet access
Germany
Common methods of home access include dial-up, landline broadband (over coaxial cable, fiber optic or copper wires), Wi-Fi, satellite and cell phones.
Public places to use the Internet include libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places like airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee based.
Wi-Fi provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself. Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi-cafes, where a would-be user needs to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. The whole campus or park, or even the entire city can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks.
Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular or mobile phone networks, and fixed wireless services. These services have not enjoyed widespread success due to their high cost of deployment, which is passed on to users in high usage fees. New wireless technologies such as WiMAX have the potential to alleviate these concerns and enable simple and cost effective deployment of metropolitan area networks covering large, urban areas. There is a growing trend towards wireless mesh networks, which offer a decentralized and redundant infrastructure and are often considered the future of the Internet.
Broadband access over power lines was approved in 2004 in the United States in the face of stiff resistance from the amateur radio community. The problem with modulating a carrier signal onto power lines is that an above-ground power line can act as a giant antenna and jam long-distance radio frequencies used by amateurs, seafarers and others.
Countries where Internet access is available to a majority of the population include Germany, India, China, Chile, Iceland, Finland, Sweden, Greece, Italy, Australia, Denmark, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, South Korea and Norway. The use of the Internet around the world has been growing rapidly over the last decade, although the growth rate seems to have slowed somewhat after 2000. The phase of rapid growth is ending in industrialized countries, as usage becomes ubiquitous there, but the spread continues in Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Middle East.
However, there are still problems for many. ADSL and other broadband access are rare or nonexistent in most developing countries. Even in developed countries, high prices, mediocre performance and access restrictions often limit its uptake. Within individual countries, wide differences may exist between larger cities (often having multiple providers of broadband access) and some rural areas, where no broadband access may be available at all.
The expansion of the availability of Internet access is a way to bridge the so-called digital divide.
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social experiments such as MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related USENET groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to neta; short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular.
The pornography and gambling industries have both taken full advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other Web sites. Although many governments have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the Internet, this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity.
One main area of leisure on the Internet is multiplayer gaming. This form of leisure creates communities, bringing people of all ages and origins to enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing games to online gambling. This has revolutionized the way many people interact and spend their free time on the Internet.
Online gaming began with services such as GameSpy and MPlayer, which players of games would typically subscribe to. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of gameplay or certain games. With the release of Diablo by Blizzard Entertainment, gamers were treated to a built in online game service that was free of charge. With Blizzard's next game, StarCraft, the gaming world saw an explosion in the numbers of players using the Internet to play multi-player games. StarCraft may have been the first non-MMO game in which most players utilized the online gameplay as opposed to the single-player gameplay.
Online gaming has progressed so much in the last 10 years that gamers earn a living from being a professional at the subject by winning tournaments and prizes as well as signing sponsor deals. Because there is a large support for certain online games, a new community has been born for people modding games, where users edit games to add a whole new element to it. This is how games such as Counter-Strike were born from the Half-Life Gaming Engine.
Cyberslacking has become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spends 57 minutes a day surfing, according to a study by Peninsula Business Services[http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=914&id=1001802003].
A complex system
Many computer scientists see the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system" (Willinger, et al). The Internet is extremely heterogeneous. (For instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely.) The Internet exhibits "emergent phenomena" that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity.
Marketing
The Internet has also become a big market, and the biggest companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient low-cost advertising and commerce through the Internet. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast community of people all at once. The Internet has revolutionized shopping –– a person can order a CD online and receive it in the mail within a couple of days, or download it directly in some cases.
Criticism
Many hyperlinks are outdated as time takes its toll on the existence of URL weblinks. These weblinks are often times defunct and are retained as hyperlinks for extended timeframes as a result of laziness or being busy enough to be sidetracked away from updating webpages. This is a common hoax for people who are fans in the field of what those links provide them with/to.
- [http://www.channel101.com/ Internet TV Stations]
- [http://www.isoc.org/ The Internet Society (ISOC)]
- [http://www.techterms.org/internet.php Internet Dictionary] - Definitions of Internet-related terms
- [http://www.experienced-people.co.uk/1099-webmaster-glossary/ The Alternate Internet Glossary] (Humor)
- A [http://www.illusivecreations.com Calgary Web Design] company that has put together over 300 articles about the internet and web development. You can view them by going [http://www.illusivecreations.com/articles/ here].
- [http://www.clickz.com/stats/sectors/geographics/article.php/5911_151151 Internet access stats]
- [http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/ Glossary of Computer and Internet Terms]
- [http://scoreboard.keynote.com/scoreboard/Main.aspx?Login=Y&Username=public&Password=public Internet Health Report] from Keynote
- [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats]
Articles
- [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/29/business/net.php "EU and U.S. clash over control of the Net" - International Herald Tribune article by Tom Wright]
- [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/intro.html "10 Years that changed the world" - WiReD looks back at the evolution of the Internet over last 10 years]
- [http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/digital-imprimatur/ John Walker: The Digital Imprimatur]
- [http://www.addressingtheworld.info addressingtheworld.info] - website accompanying a book (ISBN 0742528103) on the history of DNS
- [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm How Stuff Works explanation of the Infrastructure of the Internet]
- [http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/net-explained-1.php Internet Explained] Seven part article explaining the origins to the present and a future look at the Internet.
- [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,64596,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_7 "It's Just the 'internet' Now" - Wired.com article by Tony Long]
History
- [http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml The Internet Society History Page]
- [http://www.internetvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.txt How the Internet Came to Be]
- [http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/ Hobbes' Internet Timeline v7.0]
- [http://www.ciolek.com/PAPERS/e-scholarship2000.html Futures and Non-futures for Scholarly Internet. ]
- [http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/internet_history.html History of the Internet links]
- [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc801.txt RFC 801, planning the TCP/IP switchover]
- [http://www.archive.org/ Internet Archive] - A searchable database of old cached versions of websites dating back to 1996
- A list of lectures, some of which relate to the Internet, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is available [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Comparative-Media-Studies/CMS-930Media--Education--and-the-MarketplaceFall2001/VideoLectures/index.htm here]. Of particular interest is lecture #3 The Next Big Thing: Video Internet which is delivered in Real Player format. The lecture gives a brief history of networking; discusses convergence between the internet/telephone/television networks; the expansion of broadband access; makes predictions about the future of delivery of video over the internet.
Country codes are short alphabetic or numeric geographicalcodes (geocodes) developed to represent countries and dependent areas, for use in data processing and communications. Several different systems have been developed to do this. The most famous of these is ISO 3166-1.
The following can represent countries:
- The initial digits of International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN) are group identifiers for countries, areas, or language regions.
- The first three digits of EAN-UCC article numbers, e.g. in barcodes, designate (national) numbering agencies.
- Comparison of various systems: http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/codes/country.htm
- Another comparison: http://www.statoids.com/wab.html
- [http://www.countrycallingcodes.com/ Country calling codes]
- [http://www.doublestandards.org/country/ list with flags]
Category:Geocodes!Category:Telephonyja:国名コードth:รหัสประเทศ
Top-level domain
A top-level domain (TLD) is the last part of an Internet domain name; that is, the letters which follow the final 'dot' of any URL. For example, in the domain name wikipedia.org, the top-level domain is org (or ORG, as domain names are not case-sensitive).
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) currently classifies top-level domains into three types:
- country code top-level domains (ccTLD): Used by a country or a dependent territory. It is two letters long, for example jp for Japan.
- generic top-level domain (gTLD): Used (at least in theory) by a particular class of organizations (for example, com for commercial organizations). It is three or more letters long. Most gTLDs are available for use worldwide, but for historical reasons gov and mil are restricted to the government and military, respectively, of the USA.
- infrastructure top-level domain: The top-level domain arpa is the only one.
A full list of currently existing TLDs can be found at the list of Internet top-level domains.
Historical TLDs
A nato TLD was added in the late 1980s by the NIC for the use of NATO, who felt that none of the then existing TLDs adequately reflected their status as an international organization. Soon after this addition, however, the NIC created the int TLD for the use of international organizations, and convinced NATO to use nato.int instead. However, the nato TLD, although no longer used, was not deleted until July 1996.
In the past the Internet was just one of many wide-area computer networks. Computers not connected to the Internet, but connected to another network such as Bitnet or UUCP, could generally exchange e-mail with the Internet via e-mail gateways. When used on the Internet, addresses on these networks were often placed under pseudo-domains such as bitnet and uucp; however these pseudo-domains were not real top-level domains and did not exist in DNS.
Most of these networks have long since ceased to exist, and although UUCP still gets significant use in parts of the world where Internet infrastructure has not yet become well-established, it subsequently transitioned to using Internet domain names, so pseudo-domains now largely survive as historical relics.
Reserved TLDs
RFC 2606 reserves the following four top-level domain names for various purposes, with the intention that these should never become actual TLDs in the global DNS:
- example — reserved for use in examples
- invalid — reserved for use in obviously invalid domain names
- localhost — reserved to avoid conflict with the traditional use of localhost - test — reserved for use in tests
TLDs in alternative roots
Alternative DNS roots have their own sets of TLDs. See that article for details.
- Addressing the World: National Identity and Internet Country Code Domains, edited by Erica Schlesinger Wass (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003, ISBN 0742528103) [http://www.addressingtheworld.info], examines connections between cultures and their ccTLDs.
- Ruling the Root by Milton Mueller (MIT Press, 2001, ISBN 0262134128) [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?sid=5BA098F1-E04D-4D4D-98EE-4BF1DDA75B9C&ttype=2&tid=8809], discusses TLDs and domain name policy more generally.
Category:Domain Name SystemCategory:Internet governanceIANACategory:Top-level domainsko:최상위 도메인ja:トップレベルドメインth:โดเมนระดับบนสุด
There are over 243 ccTLDs; see the list of Internet TLDs and [http://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htm IANA's list of ccTLDs]. Most ccTLDs correspond to the two-letter ISO 3166-1 country codes, but there are several differences, explained below. Each country appoints managers for its ccTLD and sets the rules for allocating domains. Some countries allow anyone in the world to acquire a domain in their ccTLD, for example Armenia (am), Austria (at) Cocos (Keeling) Islands (cc), Germany (de), Niue (nu), Samoa (ws), Tonga (to), Turkmenistan (tm) and Tuvalu (tv). Other countries or dependent territories allow only residents to acquire a domain in their ccTLD, for example Australia (au), Canada (ca) and Mongolia (mn).
ISO 3166-1 codes not used as ccTLDs
The codes EH and KP, although theoretically available as ccTLDs for Western Sahara and North Korea, have never been assigned and do not exist in DNS.
Similarly, the new codes CS (Serbia and Montenegro) and AX (Åland Islands) are not yet assigned as ccTLDs (cs was previously assigned to Czechoslovakia). TL (post-independence East Timor), is now being introduced to replace TP.
All other current ISO 3166-1 codes have been assigned and do exist in DNS.
However, some of these are effectively unused.
In particular, the ccTLDs for the Norwegian territories Bouvet Island (bv) and Svalbard (sj) do exist in DNS, but no subdomains have been assigned, and it is Norid policy not to assign any at present.
Only one domain (dra.hmg.gb, for the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency) is still registered in gb (United Kingdom, although the letters actually stand for Great Britain, a subset of the UK) and no new registrations are being accepted for it. Sites in the UK use uk (see below).
ccTLDs not in ISO 3166-1
Nine ccTLDs are currently in use despite not being ISO 3166-1 two-letter codes:
- uk (United Kingdom): The ISO 3166-1 code for the United Kingdom is GB, however JANET had already selected uk as a top-level identifier for a pre-existing naming scheme, and this was incorporated into the top-level. gb was assigned with the intention of a transition, but this never occurred and the use of uk is now entrenched.
- su (the obsolete ISO 3166-1 code for Soviet Union): The su managers stated in 2001 they will commence accepting new su registrations, but it is unclear whether this action is compatible with ICANN policy.
- ac (Ascension Island), gg (Guernsey), im (Isle of Man) and je (Jersey): These codes came from IANA's decision in 1996 to allow the use of codes reserved in the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 reserve list for use by the Universal Postal Union. The decision was later reversed, and only these four ccTLDs were assigned under this rule.
- eu (European Union): On September 25, 2000, ICANN decided to allow the use of any two-letter code in the ISO 3166-1 reserve list that is reserved for all purposes. Only EU currently meets this criterion. Following a decision by the EU's Council of Telecommunications Ministers in March 2002, progress has been slow, but a registry (named [http://www.eurid.org/ EURid]) has been chosen by the European Commission, and criteria for allocation set: ICANN approved the eu as a ccTLD, and opened for registrations on 7 December 2005 for the holders of prior rights. From 7 April 2006 registration will be available for all.
- tp (the previous ISO 3166-1 code for East Timor): To be phased out in favour of tl during 2005.
- yu (the previous ISO 3166-1 code for Serbia and Montenegro, when it was still known as Yugoslavia)
There are two ccTLDs which have been deleted after the corresponding 2-letter code was withdrawn from ISO_3166-1, namely cs (for Czechoslovakia) and zr (for Zaire). There may be a significant delay between withdrawal from ISO 3166-1 and deletion from the DNS; for example, ZR ceased to be an ISO 3166-1 code in 1997, but the zr ccTLD was not deleted until 2001. Other ccTLDs corresponding to obsolete ISO 3166-1 have not yet been deleted; in some cases they may never be deleted due to the amount of disruption this would cause for a heavily used ccTLD. In particular, the Soviet Union's ccTLD su remains in use more than a decade after SU was removed from ISO 3166-1.
- [http://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htm IANA's list of ccTLDs] - official site.
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/ Domain Hacks] - domain hack search utility, extensively uses ccTLDs in unconventional ways.
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/suggest/ Domain Hacks Suggest] - 300,000+ domain hack suggestions filtered by first letter, word length, and TLD.
Category:Top-level domains
Domain hack
A domain hack is an unconventional domain name that uses parts other than the SLD (second level domain) or third level domain to create the full title of the domain name. Typical domain names follow the structure of "example.com", where "example" is the SLD and "com" is the TLD (top level domain). A domain hack could be "examp.le", where "examp" is the SLD and "le" is the TLD (however this is an impossible example as "le" is not an existing TLD). A domain hack can be composed of more than just a domain name, and also make use of the server's file structure. Various structures such as "examp.le", "exam.ple", "ex.am.ple", "ex.am/ple", are all possible structures used to create domain hacks. One popular website featuring a domain hack is del.icio.us.
The most popular and most sought after domain hacks are those that use only the SLD and TLD (top level domain) to contruct the full title, as shown by the "tit.le" example structure, above. However, a domain hack may use third level domains, fourth level domains, etc., and even directories/folders after the domain name to construct the title. A non-working, extreme, example of this would be http://do.ma.in/ha/ck/. More domain hacks are possible than one might assume due to the approximately 300 gTLDs and ccTLDs that exist all around the world.
Naming convention
The "hack" part of domain hack (and also "email hack") is meant in the computer programming sense, not the computer security sense. In other words, a domain hack is a hack of the domain name system in the sense that it makes it do something it was not intended to do. It is not a hack in the sense of an illegal security system hack.
History
On Monday, November 231992, inter.net was registered and is thought to be the first domain hack ever. On Friday, May 32002, icio.us was registered and eventually became del.icio.us, the most visited domain hack, with the appending of the "del" third level domain. On June 142005, Yahoo! acquired blo.gs[http://blo.gs/for-sale.php].
List of active or registered domain hacks
An incomplete list of currently active or registered domain hacks, sorted alphabetically ignoring the dots:
A
- [http://ab.cd ab.cd] (parked)
- [http://adm.in adm.in] (parked)
- [http://albe.it albe.it] (parked)
- [http://amphibio.us amphibio.us]
- [http://assass.in assass.in]
- [http://a.vg/ a.vg] (blank)
B
- [http://becau.se becau.se] (non-public)
- [http://blog.iamri.ch blog.iamri.ch]
- [http://blo.gs blo.gs]
- [http://bullshitt.in bullshitt.in] (parked)
- [http://bullypara.de bullypara.de]
- [http://burri.to burri.to] (parked)
C
- [http://catpa.ws catpa.ws]
- [http://www.columni.st columni.st]
- [http://conte.ntio.us conte.ntio.us]
- [http://conscie.ntio.us conscie.ntio.us]
- [http://come.to come.to] (V3)
- [http://convert.it convert.it]
- [http://cryp.to cryp.to]
- [http://cr.yp.to cr.yp.to]
D
- [http://databa.se databa.se]
- [http://del.icio.us del.icio.us]
- [http://doma.in doma.in] (parked)
- [http://dontclick.it dontclick.it] (flash required)
- [http://dren.ch dren.ch]
E
- [http://edacio.us]
- [http://einste.in einste.in]
- [http://e.tc e.tc]
- [http://erdely.ma erdely.ma] ("Transylvania.today" in Hungarian)
F
- [http://fa.gs fa.gs]
- [http://fi.gs fi.gs] (parked)
- [http://filecabi.net filecabi.net]
- [http://fir.st fir.st] (blank)
- [http://freespee.ch freespee.ch]
- [http://fuck.it fuck.it] (no server)
G
- [http://gada.be gada.be]
- [http://gamecu.be gamecu.be] (parked?)
- [http://getit.at getit.at] (V3)
- [http://gh.etto.fa.bulo.us gh.etto.fa.bulo.us]
- [http://gm.tv gm.tv]
- [http://go.to go.to] (V3)
- [http://got.it got.it]
- [http://greenday-cyb.org greenday-cyb.org]
- [http://gul.li gul.li]
H
- [http://hi.fi hi.fi]
- [http://hone.st hone.st]
- [http://how.to how.to] (V3)
I
- [http://i.am i.am] (V3)
- [http://i.am/canadian i.am/canadian]
- [http://iamserio.us iamserio.us]
- [http://infote.ch infote.ch]
- [http://www.inter.net inter.net]
- [http://in.sectici.de in.sectici.de]
- [http://int.er.net int.er.net] (parked)
- [http://invalid.name invalid.name]
- [http://ita.ly ita.ly]
J
- [http://jes.us jes.us]
- [http://jglo.be jglo.be]
K
- [http://kev.in kev.in]
L
- [http://la.st la.st] (parked)
- [http://last.fm/ last.fm]
M
- [http://mic.ro mic.ro]
- [http://mov.ie mov.ie]
- [http://www.movi.es movi.es]
N
- [http://na.no na.no] (no server)
O
- [http://on.to on.to] (V3)
P
- [http://page.to/come page.to/come]
- [http://place.to.be place.to.be]
- [http://pla.net pla.net] (parked)
- [http://plu.to plu.to] (blank)
- [http://podca.st podca.st]
- [http://populicio.us populicio.us]
- [http://prete.ntio.us prete.ntio.us]
- [http://p.ro p.ro]
- [http://pro.am pro.am] (parked)
- [http://www.prof.it prof.it]
Q
- [http://quickly.to quickly.to] (V3)
R
- [http://rab.in rab.in]
- [http://redirect.to redirect.to] (V3)
- [http://ridiculo.us ridiculo.us] (parked)
- [http://rome.ro rome.ro]
S
- [http://sci.fi sci.fi]
- [http://sear.ch sear.ch]
- [http://seat.tl seat.tl] (no server)
- [http://sit.com sit.com] (blank)
- [http://stop.spamming.us stop.spamming.us]
T
- [http://tech.ie tech.ie] (parked)
- [http://www.tech.no tech.no]
- [http://tele.com/ tele.com]
- [http://te.st te.st] (parked)
- [http://tetr.is tetr.is]
- [http://www.TrafficGeni.us]
- [http://trashbat.co.ck trashbat.co.ck]
U
- [http://www.unfortu.net unfortu.net]
- [http://www.u.tv u.tv]
V
- [http://viol.in viol.in] (parked)
- [http://ven.us ven.us] (parked)
W
- [http://w3.to w3.to] (V3)
- [http://websear.ch websear.ch]
- [http://who.is who.is]
- [http://windo.ws windo.ws]
- [http://window.to window.to] (V3)
- [http://w.tf/ w.tf] (blank)
X
- [http://xa.bi xa.bi]
- [http://xbo.cx/ xbo.cx] (blank)
Y
Z
The above domain hacks are domain hacks only technically speaking. This list does not imply the above domain names intend to spell out the full words or title in which the TLD is a part of the word or title of the website.
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/ Domain Hacks] - domain hack and email hack searching utility.
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/suggest/ Domain Hacks Suggest] - 300,000+ domain hack suggestions, filtered by first letter, word length, and TLD.
- [http://xona.com/2004/11/03.html Domain Hacks & Email Hacks] - domain and email hacks explained.
- [http://www.v3.com/sub-domain-list.shtml V3 Free Sub Domains Options] - domain hack options for sub domains at V3.
- [http://frenchfragfactory.net/ozh/articles/non-dot-com-cool-domain-names/ Non Dot Com Cool Domain Names]
- [http://mamchenkov.net/wordpress/?p=9028 Domain hunting: 220,000+ domain ideas]
- [http://websear.ch/ Websear.ch] - web hosting with domain hack choices
Domain hack
A domain hack is an unconventional domain name that uses parts other than the SLD (second level domain) or third level domain to create the full title of the domain name. Typical domain names follow the structure of "example.com", where "example" is the SLD and "com" is the TLD (top level domain). A domain hack could be "examp.le", where "examp" is the SLD and "le" is the TLD (however this is an impossible example as "le" is not an existing TLD). A domain hack can be composed of more than just a domain name, and also make use of the server's file structure. Various structures such as "examp.le", "exam.ple", "ex.am.ple", "ex.am/ple", are all possible structures used to create domain hacks. One popular website featuring a domain hack is del.icio.us.
The most popular and most sought after domain hacks are those that use only the SLD and TLD (top level domain) to contruct the full title, as shown by the "tit.le" example structure, above. However, a domain hack may use third level domains, fourth level domains, etc., and even directories/folders after the domain name to construct the title. A non-working, extreme, example of this would be http://do.ma.in/ha/ck/. More domain hacks are possible than one might assume due to the approximately 300 gTLDs and ccTLDs that exist all around the world.
Naming convention
The "hack" part of domain hack (and also "email hack") is meant in the computer programming sense, not the computer security sense. In other words, a domain hack is a hack of the domain name system in the sense that it makes it do something it was not intended to do. It is not a hack in the sense of an illegal security system hack.
History
On Monday, November 231992, inter.net was registered and is thought to be the first domain hack ever. On Friday, May 32002, icio.us was registered and eventually became del.icio.us, the most visited domain hack, with the appending of the "del" third level domain. On June 142005, Yahoo! acquired blo.gs[http://blo.gs/for-sale.php].
List of active or registered domain hacks
An incomplete list of currently active or registered domain hacks, sorted alphabetically ignoring the dots:
A
- [http://ab.cd ab.cd] (parked)
- [http://adm.in adm.in] (parked)
- [http://albe.it albe.it] (parked)
- [http://amphibio.us amphibio.us]
- [http://assass.in assass.in]
- [http://a.vg/ a.vg] (blank)
B
- [http://becau.se becau.se] (non-public)
- [http://blog.iamri.ch blog.iamri.ch]
- [http://blo.gs blo.gs]
- [http://bullshitt.in bullshitt.in] (parked)
- [http://bullypara.de bullypara.de]
- [http://burri.to burri.to] (parked)
C
- [http://catpa.ws catpa.ws]
- [http://www.columni.st columni.st]
- [http://conte.ntio.us conte.ntio.us]
- [http://conscie.ntio.us conscie.ntio.us]
- [http://come.to come.to] (V3)
- [http://convert.it convert.it]
- [http://cryp.to cryp.to]
- [http://cr.yp.to cr.yp.to]
D
- [http://databa.se databa.se]
- [http://del.icio.us del.icio.us]
- [http://doma.in doma.in] (parked)
- [http://dontclick.it dontclick.it] (flash required)
- [http://dren.ch dren.ch]
E
- [http://edacio.us]
- [http://einste.in einste.in]
- [http://e.tc e.tc]
- [http://erdely.ma erdely.ma] ("Transylvania.today" in Hungarian)
F
- [http://fa.gs fa.gs]
- [http://fi.gs fi.gs] (parked)
- [http://filecabi.net filecabi.net]
- [http://fir.st fir.st] (blank)
- [http://freespee.ch freespee.ch]
- [http://fuck.it fuck.it] (no server)
G
- [http://gada.be gada.be]
- [http://gamecu.be gamecu.be] (parked?)
- [http://getit.at getit.at] (V3)
- [http://gh.etto.fa.bulo.us gh.etto.fa.bulo.us]
- [http://gm.tv gm.tv]
- [http://go.to go.to] (V3)
- [http://got.it got.it]
- [http://greenday-cyb.org greenday-cyb.org]
- [http://gul.li gul.li]
H
- [http://hi.fi hi.fi]
- [http://hone.st hone.st]
- [http://how.to how.to] (V3)
I
- [http://i.am i.am] (V3)
- [http://i.am/canadian i.am/canadian]
- [http://iamserio.us iamserio.us]
- [http://infote.ch infote.ch]
- [http://www.inter.net inter.net]
- [http://in.sectici.de in.sectici.de]
- [http://int.er.net int.er.net] (parked)
- [http://invalid.name invalid.name]
- [http://ita.ly ita.ly]
J
- [http://jes.us jes.us]
- [http://jglo.be jglo.be]
K
- [http://kev.in kev.in]
L
- [http://la.st la.st] (parked)
- [http://last.fm/ last.fm]
M
- [http://mic.ro mic.ro]
- [http://mov.ie mov.ie]
- [http://www.movi.es movi.es]
N
- [http://na.no na.no] (no server)
O
- [http://on.to on.to] (V3)
P
- [http://page.to/come page.to/come]
- [http://place.to.be place.to.be]
- [http://pla.net pla.net] (parked)
- [http://plu.to plu.to] (blank)
- [http://podca.st podca.st]
- [http://populicio.us populicio.us]
- [http://prete.ntio.us prete.ntio.us]
- [http://p.ro p.ro]
- [http://pro.am pro.am] (parked)
- [http://www.prof.it prof.it]
Q
- [http://quickly.to quickly.to] (V3)
R
- [http://rab.in rab.in]
- [http://redirect.to redirect.to] (V3)
- [http://ridiculo.us ridiculo.us] (parked)
- [http://rome.ro rome.ro]
S
- [http://sci.fi sci.fi]
- [http://sear.ch sear.ch]
- [http://seat.tl seat.tl] (no server)
- [http://sit.com sit.com] (blank)
- [http://stop.spamming.us stop.spamming.us]
T
- [http://tech.ie tech.ie] (parked)
- [http://www.tech.no tech.no]
- [http://tele.com/ tele.com]
- [http://te.st te.st] (parked)
- [http://tetr.is tetr.is]
- [http://www.TrafficGeni.us]
- [http://trashbat.co.ck trashbat.co.ck]
U
- [http://www.unfortu.net unfortu.net]
- [http://www.u.tv u.tv]
V
- [http://viol.in viol.in] (parked)
- [http://ven.us ven.us] (parked)
W
- [http://w3.to w3.to] (V3)
- [http://websear.ch websear.ch]
- [http://who.is who.is]
- [http://windo.ws windo.ws]
- [http://window.to window.to] (V3)
- [http://w.tf/ w.tf] (blank)
X
- [http://xa.bi xa.bi]
- [http://xbo.cx/ xbo.cx] (blank)
Y
Z
The above domain hacks are domain hacks only technically speaking. This list does not imply the above domain names intend to spell out the full words or title in which the TLD is a part of the word or title of the website.
חסידות סאטמר - חסידות גדולה שמקורה בעיר סאטמר שבהונגריה/רומניה. ידועה כמובילת המאבק נגד מדינת ישראל ובעלת איבה עזה למפעל הציוני שבתחילתו רבים מגדולי ישראל שיתפו פעולה עמו והאדמו"ר מסאטמר רבי יואל טייטלבוים ראה בו שורש כל רע וחורבנו הרוחני של עם ישראל.
כיום מושבה העיקרי הוא בווילאמסבורג שבברוקלין, ארצות הברית. מנהיגם היה רבי יואל טייטלבוים, מגדולי הלוחמים נגד מדינת ישראל. כיום מנהיגם הוא רבי משה טייטלבוים שמשמש גם כנשיא העדה החרדית.
חסידי סאטמר הם מגדולי התורמים לעדה החרדית, וכן למוסדות חרדיים רבים שאינם מקבלים כסף ממדינת ישראל. הם נחשבים כעמוד הפיננסי של הנטורי קרתא.
חסידות סאטמר הקימה בארה"ב ארגוני חסד רבים עבור כל יהודי שעוסקים בסיוע למאושפזים בבתי חולים לעודד את רוחם וכן בעזרה רפואית מקצועי והם גם עוזרים למשפחת החולה בעידוד ובמציאת מגורים בקירוב לבתי החולים.
חסידות סאטמר מפולגת כיום בין תומכי זלמן לייב טייטלבוים לתומכי אחיו, אהרן. אביהם, משה טייטלבוים, הוא מנהיג החסידות שכבר אינו בקו הבריאות, וכל אחד מהם רוצה להנהיג את החצר לאחר פטירתו.
סאטמר
Nadja
Nadja, eller Nadia, är ett kvinnonamn med ryskt ursprung.
Det är en förkortad form av Nadeschda som betyder "hopp". Nadja har använts i Sverige sedan slutet av 1800-talet men inte nått någon popularitet förän de sista decennierna på 1900-talet. Stavningen Nadia används av ungefär 40% av bärarna.
Det fanns 31 december 2004 totalt 3 900 personer i Sverige med Olof von Dalin.
Utgivningen började i december 1732. Genom sin stora spridning och sitt moderna språkbruk fick den stor betydelse för det svenska språkets utveckling. Påverkan var så stor att dess utgivning har kommit att göra gräns mellan äldre- och yngre nysvens
Tanja
Tanja, eller Tania, är ett kvinnonamn med ryskt ursprung och en kortform av Tatjana, som i sin tur kommer från det latinska kvinnonamnet namnet Tatiana vilket, liksom motsvarande maskulina form Tatianus, tros vara avlett från ett romerskt familjenamn - Tatius.
Tatjana var också ett grekisk-ortodoxt helgon som dog martyrdöden år 22
