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Wahabi

Wahabi

Wahhabism (Arabic الوهابية, Wahabism, Wahabbism) is a fundamentalist Islamic movement, named after Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703–1792). It is the dominant form of Islam in Saudi Arabia.

Origin of the term "Wahhabi"

The term "Wahhab" (Wahhābīya) refers to the movement's founder Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab. It is rarely used by members of this group today, although the Saudis did use it in the past. The Wahhabis claim to hold to the way of the "Salaf as-Salih", the 'rightly guided or pious predecessors' as earlier propagated mainly by Ibn Taymiyya, his students Ibn Al Qayyim and later by Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahab and his followers. The term is considered offensive by some members who prefer to call themselves al-Muwahhidun (the monotheists) or the movement Salafism.

Beliefs

Wahhabism accepts the Qur'an and hadith as basic texts. It also accepts various commentaries including Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's Kitab al-Tawhid ("Book of Monotheism"), and the works of the earlier scholar Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328). Wahhabis do not follow any specific maddhab (method or school of jurisprudence), but claim to interpret the words of the prophet Muhammad directly, using the four maddhab for reference. However, they are often associated with the Hanbali maddhab. Wahhabis hold that some Muslim groups such as Sufism and Shia Islam follow novel (and thus non-Islamic) practices. Wahhabi theology advocates a puritanical and legalistic stance in matters of faith and religious practice. Wahhabists see their role as a movement to restore Islam from what they perceive to be innovations, superstitions, deviances, heresies and idolatries. There are many practices that they believe are contrary to Islam, such as:
- The invoking of any prophet, saint or angel in prayer, other than God alone (Wahhabists believe these practices are polytheistic in nature)
- Supplications at graves, whether saints' graves, or the prophet's grave
- Celebrating annual feasts for dead saints
- Wearing of charms, and believing in their healing power
- Practicing magic, or going to sorcerers or witches seeking healing
- Innovation in matters of religion (e.g. new methods of worship)
- Erecting elaborate monuments over any grave Wahhabis ban pictures, some ban photographs (others do not), and celebrating Muhammad's birthday, among many other things, based on their interpretation of the hadith. Many Wahhabi men grow their beards and wear their traditional dresses above their ankles. Wahhabis in South Asia are called "Ahl ul Hadith".

Early history of Wahhabism

Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia began with Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, an Arabian cleric who had come to believe that Sunni Islam had been corrupted by innovations (bidah) such as Sufism. He discovered the works of the early Muslim thinker Ibn Taymiyya and started preaching a reformation of Islam based on Ibn Taymiyya's ideas. He was repudiated by his father and brother, who were both clerics, and expelled from his home village in Najd, in central Arabia. He then moved to the Najdi town of Diriya and formed an alliance with the Saudi chieftain Muhammad bin Saud. Bin Saud made Wahhabism the official religion in the First Saudi State. Al Wahhab gave religious legitimacy to Ibn Saud's career of conquest. Ibn Taymiyya had been controversial in his time because he held that some self-declared Muslims (such as the Mongol conquerors of the Abbasid caliphate) were in fact unbelievers and that orthodox Muslims could conduct violent jihad against them. Bin Saud believed that his campaign to restore a pristine Islam justified the conquest of the rest of Arabia. In 1801, the Saudis attacked the Iraqi city of Kerbala and sacked the Shi'a shrine there. In 1803, Saudis conquered Mecca and Medina and sacked or demolished various shrines and mosques. The Saudis held the two cities until 1817, until they were retaken by Mohammed Ali Pasha, acting on behalf of the Ottomans. In 1818, the Ottoman forces invaded Najd, captured the Saudi capital of Diriya and the Saudi emir Abdullah bin Saud. He and his chief lieutenants were taken to Istanbul and beheaded. However, this did not destroy Wahhabism in Najd. The House of Saud returned to power in the Second Saudi State in 1824. The state lasted until 1899, when it was overthrown by the Emir of Hayel, Mohammed Ibn Rasheed. However, Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud reconquered Riyadh in 1902 and after a number of other conquests, founded the modern Saudi state, Saudi Arabia in 1932.

Modern spread of Wahhabism

In 1924 the Wahhabi al-Saud dynasty, conquered Mecca and Medina, the Muslim holy cities. This gave them control of the Hajj, the annual pilgrimage, and the opportunity to preach their version of Islam to the assembled pilgrims. However, Wahhabism was a minor current within Islam until the discovery of oil in Arabia, in 1938. Vast oil revenues gave an immense impetus to the spread of Wahhabism. Saudi laypeople, government officials and clerics have donated many tens of millions of dollars to create Wahhabi-oriented religious schools, newspapers and outreach organizations. Some Muslims believe that Saudi funding and Wahhabi proselytization have had a strong effect on world-wide Sunni Islam (they may differ as to whether this is a good thing, or a bad one). Other Muslims say that while the Wahhabis have bought publicity and visibility, it is not clear that they have convinced even a sizable minority of Muslims outside Saudi Arabia to adopt Wahhabi norms.

"Salafi" vs. "Wahabi" vs. "Qutbi"

:See Note on Salafi vs. Wahabi vs. Qutubi at Salafi as well as the article on Qutbism.

External links

- [http://www.sunna.info/antiwahabies/wahhabies/htm/fitnat_al_wahhabiyyah.htm Background On The Tribulations Of The Wahhabis]
- [http://www.islamicweb.com/beliefs/creed/wahhab.htm Justifying Wahhabism The relationship between Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhab and Ibn Taymiyah ]
- [http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=7&ID=124&CATE=24 Is Salafi Aqida (Belief) the Same as Sunni Aqida (Belief)?]
- [http://www.thewahhabimyth.com/salafism.htm An interesting article from the perspective of the Wahhabi/Salafi - The Wahhabi Myth]
- [http://www.masjiduthaymeen.org/posts/2003/06/06/17.htm Saudi's King 'Abdul 'Azeez on the term Wahhabi]
- [http://www.masjiduthaymeen.org/posts/2005/03/02/55.htm Wahhabi Islamic Scholar asked about Wahhabism]
- [http://www.hizmetbooks.org/Advice_for_the_Muslim/wah-39.htm Sunni criticism of Wahabi persecution in Mecca]
- [http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=7&ID=918&CATE=1 Wahhabism: Imam Muhammad Abu Zahra Explains]
- [http://www.dailytargum.com/global_user_elements/printpage.cfm?storyid=709035 An introductory study of the term "Wahhabi"]
- [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article?tocId=9382215 Britannica Concise Encyclopedia article]
- [http://www.ahya.org/amm/modules.php?name=Sections&sop=viewarticle&artid=126 A Correction Of Misunderstandings Found In Non-Arabic Sources About The Movement Of Sheikh Muhammad Bin Abdul Wahhab - A compendium of Wahhabi apologetics targeted to Muslims]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/07/magazine/07SAUDIS.html?ex=1115524800&en=a3e776e41989a547&ei=5070&pagewanted=1&oref=login NY Times]
- [http://www.hizmetbooks.org/Sunni_Path/suwahhab.htm Sunni theological refutation of Wahabism]
- Ziauddin Sardar, New Statesman, June 14, 2004, [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4692_133/ai_n6156769 'Is Muslim civilisation set on a fixed course to decline?' Wahhabism, the Saudis' brand of Islam, negates the very idea of evolution in human thought and morality]

Fundamentalist

In comparative religion, fundamentalism has come to refer to several different understandings of religious thought and practice, including literal interpretation of sacred texts such as the Bible or the Quran and sometimes also anti-modernist movements in various religions. In some ways religious fundamentalism is a modern phenomenon, characterized by a sense of embattled alienation in the midst of the surrounding culture, even where the culture may be nominally influenced by the adherents' religion. The term can also refer specifically to the belief that one's religious texts are infallible and historically accurate, despite possible contradiction of these claims by modern scholarship. Many groups described as fundamentalist often strongly object to this term because of the negative connotations it carries, or because it implies a similarity between themselves and other groups, which they find objectionable.

The fundamentalist phenomenon

Although the term fundamentalism in popular usage sometimes refers derogatorily to any fringe religious group, or to extremist ethnic movements with only nominally religious motivations, the term does have a more precise denotation. "Fundamentalist" describes a movement to return to what is considered the defining or founding principles of the religion. It has especially come to refer to any religious enclave that intentionally resists identification with the larger religious group in which it originally arose, on the basis that fundamental principles upon which the larger religious group is supposedly founded have become corrupt or displaced by alternative principles hostile to its identity. This formation of a separate identity is deemed necessary on account of a perception that the religious community has surrendered its ability to define itself in religious terms. The "fundamentals" of the religion have been jettisoned by neglect, lost through compromise and inattention, so that the general religious community's explanation of itself appears to the separatist to be in terms that are completely alien and fundamentally hostile to the religion itself. Fundamentalist movements are therefore founded upon the same religious principles as the larger group, but the fundamentalists more self-consciously attempt to build an entire approach to the modern world based on strict fidelity to those principles, to preserve a distinctness both of doctrine and of life. The term itself is borrowed from the title of a four volume set of books called The Fundamentals published in 1909 (ISBN: 0801012643). The books were published by the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now Biola University), and was edited by R.A. Torrey, who was a minister affiliated with the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago. Initially the project was funded by Lyman Stewart, president and cofounder of the Union Oil Company of California (currently known as UNOCAL), and cofounder of B.I.O.L.A. The books were a republication of a series of essays that were sent by mail to every minister in the United States. They were called "The Fundamentals" because they appealed to all Christians to affirm specific fundamental doctrines such as The Virgin Birth and bodily Resurrection of Jesus. This series of essays came to be representative of the "Fundamentalist-Modernist controversy" which appeared early in the 20th century within the Protestant churches of the United States, and continued in earnest through the 1920s. The pattern of the conflict between Fundamentalism and Modernism in Protestant Christianity has remarkable parallels in other religious communities, and in its use as a description of these corresponding aspects in otherwise diverse religious movements the term "fundamentalist" has become more than only a term either of self-description or of derogatory contempt. Fundamentalism is therefore a movement through which the adherents attempt to rescue religious identity from absorption into modern, Western culture, where this absorption appears to the enclave to have made irreversible progress in the wider religious community, necessitating the assertion of a separate identity based upon the fundamental or founding principles of the religion. Fundamentalists believe their cause to have grave and even cosmic importance. They see themselves as protecting not only a distinctive doctrine, but also a vital principle, and a way of life and of salvation. Community, comprehensively centered upon a clearly defined religious way of life in all of its aspects, is the promise of fundamentalist movements, and it therefore appeals to those adherents of religion who find little that is distinctive, or authentically vital in their previous religious identity. The fundamentalist "wall of virtue", which protects their identity, is erected against not only alien religions, but also against the modernized, compromised, nominal version of their own religion. In Christianity, fundamentalists are "Born again" and "Bible-believing" Protestants, as opposed to "Mainline", "liberal", "modernist" Protestants, who represent "Churchianity"; in Islam they are jama'at (Arabic: (religious) enclaves with connotations of close fellowship) self-consciously engaged in jihad (struggle) against Western culture that suppresses authentic Islam (submission) and the God-given (Shari'ah) way of life; in Judaism they are Haredi "Torah-true" Jews; and they have their equivalents in Hinduism and other world religions. These groups insisting on a sharp boundary between themselves and the faithful adherents of other religions, and finally between a "sacred" view of life and the "secular" world and "nominal religion". Fundamentalists direct their critiques toward and draw most of their converts from the larger community of their religion, by attempting to convince them that they are not experiencing the authentic version of their professed religion. Many scholars see most forms of fundamentalism as having similar traits. This is especially obvious if modernity, secularism or an atheistic perspective is adopted as the norm, against which these varieties of traditionalism or supernaturalism are compared. From such a perspective, Peter Huff wrote in the International Journal on World Peace: :"According to Antoun, fundamentalists in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, despite their doctrinal and practical differences, are united by a common worldview which anchors all of life in the authority of the sacred and a shared ethos that expresses itself through outrage at the pace and extent of modern secularization." [http://www.worldandi.com/subscribers/feature_detail.asp?num=24175]

Fundamentalism and politics

Objections to the use of the term

Christian fundamentalists, who generally consider the term to be positive when used to refer to themselves, often strongly object to the placement of themselves and Islamist groups into a single category, and resent being labeled together with factions that use kidnapping, murder, and terrorist acts to achieve their ends. They feel that characteristics based on the new definition are wrongly projected back onto Christian fundamentalists by their critics. There is however no objection to the term fundamentalist when used to describe only Christian groups, and objections to the term Muslim fundamentalist are much less strong. Many Muslims protest the use of the term when referring to Islamist groups, because all Muslims believe in the absolute inerrancy of the Qur'an, and western writers only use the term to refer to extremist groups. Furthermore, many Muslims strongly object to being placed in the same category as Christian fundamentalists, who they see as being religiously incorrect. Unlike Christian fundamentalist groups, Islamist groups do not use the term fundamentalist to refer to themselves. However, in the Islamic world, Wahhabis are overwhelmingly considered to be fundamentalists; Shiite groups which are considered fundamentalist in the western world are not considered such in the Islamic world. The Associated Press stylebook now recommends that the term fundamentalist not be used for any group that does not apply the term to itself. This would include Christian fundamentalist groups but exclude Islamist groups. Some news writers ignore this recommendation, however.

Basic beliefs of religious fundamentalists

For religious fundamentalists, sacred scripture is considered the authentic word of God. Fundamentalist beliefs depend on the twin doctrines that God articulated his will precisely to prophets, and that followers also have a reliable and perfect record of that revelation, which has been passed down to modern day in an unbroken chain of tradition. Since Scripture is considered the word of God, fundamentalists believe that no person has the right to change it or disagree with it. As a result, people are "obliged" to obey the word of God. The appeal of this point of view is its simplicity: people must do what God tells them to do. However, the fundamentalist insistence on strict observation of religious laws may lead to an accusation of "legalism" in addition to exclusivism in the interpretation of metaphysical beliefs.

Christian views

Self-described Christian fundamentalists see their scripture, a combination of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, as both infallible and historically accurate. The New Testament represents a new covenant between God and human beings, which is held to fulfill the Old Testament, in regard to God's redemptive plan. On the basis of this confidence in Scripture, fundamentalist Christians accept the account of scripture as being literally true and believe that Jesus was raised from the dead and rules the church from heaven. They believe that the church has been granted the gift of the Holy Spirit, who leads the church into fulfillment of God's will according to the Scriptures. Avowedly Fundamentalist Christians do not believe that it is possible to infallibly interpret the Bible on every point, and yet, they usually do not perceive this as a contradiction to their main premise concerning the necessity of infallible scriptures. Nevertheless, they typically believe, it is the church's obligation (imperfectly realized) to understand the Scriptures, to believe what they say, and to act accordingly. However, there are types of Christian belief that attach infallible authority to the interpretations of some single, living individual or ruling body. The latter might be popularly called fundamentalist in the broad sense, but they are not part of the Fundamentalist Christian movement - among whom such groups would be regarded as non-Christian "cults". Originally the term fundamentalist referred to all Protestants who held to the inerrancy of the Bible as well as other historic doctrines. This wider movement of Fundamentalist Christianity has since broken up into various movements which are better described in other terms. Early "fundamentalists" included J. Gresham Machen and B.B. Warfield, men who would not be considered "Fundamentalists" today. Over time the term came to be associated with a particular segment of evangelical Protestantism, who distinguished themselves by their separatist approach toward modernity, toward aspects of the culture which they feel typify the modern world, and toward other Christians who did not similarly separate themselves. Examples of things that fundamentalists might believe important to avoid are, modern translations of the Bible, alcoholic drinks or recreational drugs, tobacco, modern popular music including Christian contemporary music, folk instruments in worship, dancing, "mixed bathing" (men and women swimming together), and gender-neutral or trans-gender clothing and hair-styles. Such things might seem innocuous to the outsider, but to the fundamentalists they represent the leading edge of a threat to the virtuous way of life and the purer form of belief that they seek to protect and to hold forth before the world as an example. Many fundamentalists accept only the King James Version translation of the Bible and study tools based on it, such as the Scofield Reference Bible. Because of the prevalence of dispensational eschatology, many fundamentalists vehemently support the modern nation of Israel, believing the Jews to have significance in God's purposes parallel to the Christian churches, and a special role to play at the end of the world. The term, fundamentalist, is difficult to apply unambiguously. Many self-described Fundamentalists would include Jerry Falwell in their company, but would not embrace Pat Robertson as a fundamentalist because of his espousal of charismatic teachings. Fundamentalist institutions include Pensacola Christian College, and Bob Jones University, but classically Fundamentalist schools such as Fuller Theological Seminary and Biola University no longer describe themselves as Fundamentalist, although in the broad sense described by this article they are fundamentalist (better, Evangelical) in their perspective.

Catholic fundamentalists

Aside from the Protestant movement mentioned above, there are other movements within the spectrum of Christian thought and belief, such as so-called Traditional Catholicism which, based on the definition given at the beginning of this article, may be considered fundamentalist in character, as they define themselves in terms of a reaction against modern or liberal influences on the Christian faith. Henceforth, French Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre founded the Society of St. Pius X in 1970 in reaction against the reforms brought about by the Second Vatican Council (1962-65). French traditional catholics are, according to :fr:Les droites en France by French historian:fr: René Rémond, a component of what he dubbed ":fr: légitimisme" (the right-wing formed afterward 1789 French Revolution, refusing any advancement after this time). As such, St Nicolas du Chardonnet Church is a symbol of links between christian fundamentalism and far-right movements, such as Jean-Marie Le Pen's Front National. After the controversial ordination of four bishops in 1988, Archbishop Lefebvre was excommunicated by Pope John Paul II, but relations were afterward normalized between the Society of St. Pius X and the Holy See. In 1983, Society of St. Pius V (SSPV) was formed by nine priests who refused Lefebvre acceptance of the 1962 typical edition of the Roman Missal and questioning his acceptance of John Paul II as Pope. Within a few years, half of the initial SSPV priests formed a sedevacantist group, refusing the present Pope's legitimacy.

Mormon fundamentalism

Main article: Mormon fundamentalism Mormon fundamentalism is a conservative movement of Mormonism that believes or practices what its adherents consider to be the fundamental aspects of Mormonism. Most often, Mormon fundamentalism represents a break from the brand of Mormonism practiced by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and a return to Mormon doctrines and practices which adherents believe the LDS Church has wrongly abandoned, such as plural marriage, the Law of Consecration, the Adam-God theory, blood atonement, the Patriarchal Priesthood, elements of the Mormon Endowment ritual, and often the exclusion of Blacks from the priesthood. Mormon fundamentalists have formed numerous sects, many of which have established small, cohesive, and isolated communities in areas of the Western United States.

Jewish views

Jewish denominations believe that the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible or Old Testament) cannot be understood literally or alone, but rather needs to be read in conjunction with additional material known as the oral law; this material is contained in the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash. While the Tanakh is not read in a literal fashion, Orthodox Judaism does view the text itself as divine, infallible, and transmitted essentially without change, and places great import in the specific words and letters of the Torah. As well, some adherents of Orthodox Judaism, especially Haredi Judaism, see the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash as divine and infallible in content, if not in specific wording. Hasidic Jews usually ascribe infallibility to their rebbe's interpretation of the traditional sources of truth.

Islamic views

Muslims believe that their religion was revealed by God (Allah in Arabic) to Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. However, the Muslims brand of conservatism which is generally termed Islamic fundamentalism encompasses all the following:
- It describes the beliefs of traditional Muslims that they should restrict themselves to literal interpretations of their sacred texts, the Qur'an and Hadith. This may describe the private religious attitudes of individuals and have no relationship with larger social groups.
- It describes a variety of religious movements and political parties in Muslim communities.
- As opposed to the above two usages, in the West "Islamic fundamentalism" is most often used to describe Muslim individuals and groups which advocate Islamism, a political ideology calling for the replacement of state secular laws with Islamic law. The more radical of these Islamists may advocate violent overthrow of secular states, or even Islamist terrorism. In all the above cases, Islamic fundamentalism represents a conservative religious belief, as opposed to liberal movements within Islam.

"Non-Abrahamic" religions

Some argue that the religious idea of fundamentalism is limited to "Abrahamic religions", and have connected the phenomenon specifically to the notion of revealed religion. However, the answer to the question, Who is a fundamentalist? is in the eye of the beholder. It is not uncommon for detractors to apply the fundamentalist label to Wiccans or virtually anything else religious, describing an attitude rather than a self-perception or a doctrine. In the landmark series on fundamentalism, scholars led by liberal Christian scholar Martin Marty have identified fundamentalism also in Hinduism. Followers of Hinduism generally adhere to the Vedic statement, "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously", which would seem to make relativism practically a fundamental tenet. However, a few sects within Hinduism do have a tendency to dogmatically view the Vedas as divinely inspired, superior or even flawless. Regardless, some claim that no Hindu can be found who considers his/her name of God to be that of the "only true God" or their scriptures to be the "only scriptures truly inspired by God" or their prophet to be the "final one". In fact it is normal that Hinduism is itself divided into many different sects and groups with new sects and new philosophies continuously being added; consequently, the fundamentalist enclaves identified by The Fundamentalism Project, which claim to be purer than others, are regarded as aberrant within Hinduism. The Japanese Nichiren sect of Buddhism, which believes that other forms of Buddhism are heretical, is also sometimes labelled fundamentalist. However, Nichiren Buddhism contains influences from Shintoism and a strongly nationalistic streak that would disqualify it from being fundamentalist in the strictest sense.

Non-religious fundamentalism

Some refer to any literal-minded or intolerant philosophy with pretense of being the sole source of objective truth, as fundamentalist, regardless of whether it is usually called a religion. For example, when Albania under Enver Hoxha declared itself an "atheist state", it was deemed by some to be a kind of "Fundamentalist Atheism" or more accurately "Stalinist Fundamentalism". There are people who in their attempt to live according to the writings of Ayn Rand seem to detractors to transgress respect for other perspectives in propagating their views, so that they are deemed to be a kind of "Objectivist Fundamentalist", and they are spoken of derogatorily as, "Randroids." In France, the imposition of restrictions on public display of religion has been labelled by some as "Secular Fundamentalism." The idea of non-religious Fundamentalism almost always expands the definition of "Fundamentalism" along the lines of criticisms. Occasionally, it represents an idea of purity, and is self-applied as signifying a rather counter-cultural fidelity to some noble, simple, but overlooked principle, as in Economic fundamentalism; but the same term can be used in a critical way.

Arguments in favor of fundamentalist positions

Fundamentalists claim both that they practice their religion as the first adherents did and that this is how religion should be practiced. In other words, a Christian ought to believe and practice as those who knew and followed Jesus during His time on earth. A Muslim ought to give the same consideration to the followers of Muhammad. Analogous arguments can be made for most systems of religious belief. Fundamentalists justify this belief on the idea that the founders of the world's religions said and did things that were not written down; in other words, their original disciples knew things that we don't. For fundamentalist Christians, this claim is justified by the Gospel of John, which ends with the statement "there are also many other things that Jesus did, which if they were written one by one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that would be written." (John 21:25, NKJV) Further justification is adduced from the static or falling attendance of many liberal or reformed congregations, from the scandals that have struck, for example, the Roman Catholic church, and from the increasing difficulty of distinguishing between religiously liberal and avowedly secularist views on such matters as homosexuality, abortion and women's rights.

Criticism of the fundamentalist position

Many criticisms of the fundamentalist position have been offered. The most common is that the theological claims made by fundamentalist groups cannot be proven. Another criticism is that the rhetoric of these groups offers an appearance of uniformity and simplicity, yet within each faith community, one actually finds different texts of religious law that are accepted; each text has varying interpretations. Consequently, each fundamentalist faith is observed to splinter into many mutually antagonistic groups. They are often as hostile to each other as they are to other religions. In addition, it has been observed that there is no such thing as a Muslim, Jewish, or Christian Fundamentalist. Rather, a fundamentalist's fundamentalism is their primary concern, over and above other denominational or faith considerations. In order to carry out the fundamentalist program in practice, critics claim that one would first need a perfect understanding of the ancient language of the original text, if indeed the true text can be discerned from among variants. Furthermore, they charge that fundamentalists fail to recognize that fallible human beings are the ones who transmit this tradition. Elliot N. Dorff writes "Even if one wanted to follow the literal word of God, the need for people first to understand that word necessitates human interpretation. Through that process human fallibility is inextricably mixed into the very meaning of the divine word. As a result, it as impossible to follow the indisputable word of God; one can only achieve a human understanding of God's will. (A Living Tree, Dorff, 1988) Most fundamentalists do not deal with this argument. Those that do reply to this critique hold their own religious leaders are guided by God, and thus partake of divine infallibility. Fundamentalism is held by many to cause followers of a faith to become overly attached to their religion's leaders. Followers believe that person to be infallible, or the voice of God, and who can direct them infallibly in the interpretation of the sources of truth. Religions which have such a hold over their followers are often referred to as cults. A general criticism of fundamentalism is the claim that fundamentalists are selective in what they believe and practice. For instance, the book of Exodus dictates that when a man's brother dies, he must marry his widowed sister-in-law. Yet fundamentalist Christians do not adhere to this doctrine, despite the fact that it is not contradicted in the New Testament. Christian fundamentalists often insist that the Bible is infallible in its various prophetic assertions. However, in the book of Ezekiel, there is a prophecy recorded in the text which does not come about. Later in the text the prophet admits this, the book then addresses what it means for a prophet, God's anointed, to be incorrect. This intra-textual discussion about the accuracy of prophecy would seem to indicate that the Bible is fallible. Fundamentalist teachings are criticised by questioning the historical accuracy of the religious texts in question when compared to other historical sources; as well as questioning how documents containing so many contradictions could be considered infallible. The novelist Bernard Cornwell was brought up as a Christian fundamentalist and studied theology in order to falsify the claims made by his adoptive parents. He stated (on BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs programme on 18 April 2004) that his conversion came when he realised that the whole idea of fundamentalist religion was total rubbish and that the happiness of this realisation has never left him.

Fundamentalism and politics

"Fundamentalism" is a morally charged, emotive term, often used as a term of opprobrium, particularly in combination with other epithets (as in the phrase "Muslim fundamentalists" and "right-wing fundamentalists"). Very often religious fundamentalists, in all religions, are politically aware. They feel that legal and government processes must recognise the way of life they see as prescribed by God and set forth in Scripture. The state must be subservient to God, in their eyes: this, however is a basic belief of most religions, even if their practitioners do not insist upon it. Most "Christian" countries go through a similar stage in their development. The governments of many Muslim countries, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, are Islamic, and include people with fundamentalist beliefs. More secular politicians are often to be found working in opposition movements in these countries. Christian fundamentalism is most prevalent in the politics of northern Ireland.

External links

- [http://www.icapi.org International Coalition Against Political Islam]
- [http://www.ntpi.org No to Political Islam]
- [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejcmmsm/article/index.html Psychological Issues of Former Members of Restrictive Religious Groups] by Jim Moyers, MA, MFT; originally written for psychotherapists working with ex-fundamentalists
- [http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1004/p25s1-wosc.html Q & A on Islamic Fundamentalism]
- [http://www.brucegourley.com/fundamentalism/ Introduction to Fundamentalism]
- [http://www.blessedquietness.com/ www.blessedquietness.com] is also such a website, maintained by Steve van Natten
- [http://www.geocities.com/realitywithbite/index.htm Reality With Bite ] A site highlighting the danger of religious fundamentalism, especially how it affects women.
- [http://www.reandev.com/taliban/ American Taliban] Quotes, mainly from fundamentalists, referred to here as the "American Taliban"
- [http://waf.gn.apc.org/ Women Against Fundamentalisms (UK)]

References

- Appleby, R. Scott, Gabriel Abraham Almond, and Emmanuel Sivan (2003). Strong Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226014975
- Armstrong, Karen (2001). The Battle for God: A History of Fundamentalism. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-39169-1
- Brasher, Brenda E. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415922445
- Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law, SUNY Press, 1988.
- Marty, Martin E. and R. Scott Appleby (eds.). The Fundamentalism Project. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- (1991). Volume 1: Fundamentalisms Observed. ISBN 0-226-50878-1
- (1993). Volume 2: Fundamentalisms and Society. ISBN 0-226-50880-3
- (1993). Volume 3: Fundamentalisms and the State. ISBN 0-226-50883-8
- (1994). Volume 4: Accounting for Fundamentalisms. ISBN 0-226-50885-4
- (1995). Volume 5: Fundamentalisms Comprehended. ISBN 0-226-50887-0
- Ruthven, Malise (2005). "Fundamentalism: The Seach for Meaning". Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192806068 Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements ja:原理主義 simple:Religious fundamentalism

1703

Events

- February 2 - Earthquake in L'Aquila, Italy
- February 4 - In Japan, the 47 samurai commit seppuku (ritual suicide)
- February 14 - Earthquake in Norcia, Italy
- April 21 - Company of Quenching of Fire (ie. fire brigade) founded in Edinburgh, Scotland
- May 27 - Founding of St Petersburg in Russia. Onlooker throw flowers on him.
- May 26 - Portugal joins Grand Alliance
- July 29-31 - Daniel Defoe is placed in a pillory for the crime of seditious libel after publishing a politically satirical pamphlet
- September 12 - War of the Spanish Succession – Habsburg Archduke Charles proclaimed King of Spain
- October - A whirlwind blows down the tower of the Gan Takal in Gondar, capital of Ethiopia, killing 30.
- November 19 - Unknown masked prisoner dies in Bastille
- November 24 to December 2 - the Great Storm of 1703 ravages southern England and the English Channel, killing thousands
- December 27 - Portugal and England sign the Methuen Treaty which gives preference to Portuguese imported wines into England.
- A Tale of a Tub, first major satire by Jonathan Swift, published
- George Psalmanazar arrives in London
- Isaac Newton becomes the chairman of Royal Society
- Ahmed III (1703-1730) succeeds Mustafa II (1695-1703) as emperor of the Ottoman Empire.

Births

- February 5 - Gilbert Tennent, Irish-born religious leader (d. 1764)
- March 5 (N. S.) - Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, Russian poet (d. 1768)
- May 14 - David Brearly, delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (d. 1785)
- June 17 - John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (d. 1791)
- June 26 - Thomas Clap, first president of Yale University (d. 1767)
- June 28 - John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (d. 1791)
- August 2 - Lorenzo Ricci, Italian Jesuit leader (d. 1775)
- October 5 - Jonathan Edwards, American preacher (d. 1758)
- October 28 - Antoine Deparcieux, French mathematician (d. 1768)
- November 25 - Jean-François Séguier, French astronomer and botanist (d. 1784)
- November 26 - Theophilus Cibber, English actor and writer (d. 1758)
- December 2 - Ferdinand Konščak, Croatian explorer (d. 1759)
- François Boucher, French painter (d. 1770)

Deaths

- Phetracha, king of Ayutthaya
- January 11 - Johann Georg Graevius, German classical scholar and critic (b. 1632)
- March 3 - Robert Hooke, English scientist (b. 1635)
- March 31 - Johann Christoph Bach, German composer (b. 1642)
- April 20 - Lancelot Addison, English royal chaplain (b. 1632)
- May 16 - Charles Perrault, French author (b. 1628)
- May 26 - Samuel Pepys, English civil servant and diarist (b. 1633)
- June 14 - Jean Herauld Gourville, French adventurer (b. 1625)
- September 22 - Vincenzo Viviani, Italian mathematician and scientist (b. 1622)
- September 25 - Archibald Campbell, 1st Duke of Argyll, Scottish privy councillor (b. 1658)
- September 29 - Charles de Saint-Évremond, French soldier (b. 1610)
- October 28 - John Wallis, English mathematician (b. 1616)
- November 30 - Nicolas de Grigny, French organist and composer (b. 1672)
- December 28 - Mustafa II, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1664) Category:1703 ko:1703년 ms:1703 simple:1703

Saudi-Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest country on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Jordan on the north, Iraq on the north and north-east, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the south and south-east, and Yemen on the south, with the Persian Gulf to its north-east and the Red Sea to its west. It is called "the land of the two holy mosques", a reference to Mecca and Medina, Islam's two holiest places.

History

The Saudi state began in central Arabia in about 1750. A regional ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd Al-Wahhab, to create a new political entity. Over the next one hundred and fifty years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, and other Arabian families for control on the peninsula. The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (known internationally as Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud). In 1902 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud captured Riyadh, the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Ahsa, Al-Qatif, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. On 8 January 1926 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud became the King of Hijaz. On 29 January 1927 he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the Treaty of Jedda, signed on May 20, 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm, then known as the Kingdom of Hijaz and Nejd. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The discovery of oil in March 1938 transformed the country economically, and has given the kingdom great legitimacy over the years. Besides Liechtenstein, Saudi Arabia remains the only country in the world named after its ruling family. Many opponents of the House of Saud reject the family's legitimacy and decline to speak of the country as "Saudi Arabia".

Politics

House of Saud House of Saud The central institution of Saudi Arabian Government is the Saudi monarchy. The Basic Law adopted in 1992 declared that Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the first king, Abd Al Aziz Al Saud, and that the Holy Qur'an is the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a). There are no recognized political parties or national elections. The king is often classified as an absolute monarch, but his powers are theoretically limited within the bounds of Shari'a and other Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the Saudi royal family, religious leaders (ulema), and other important elements in Saudi society. The state's ideology is Salafi. This flavour of Islam spreads further by funding construction of mosques and Qur'an schools around the world. The leading members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent approval of the ulema. Saudi kings have gradually developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers, appointed by and responsible to the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. This council consists of a prime minister, the first and second deputy prime ministers, 20 ministers (of whom the minister of defense also is the second deputy prime minister), two ministers of state, and a small number of advisers and heads of major autonomous organizations. Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Shari'a (Islamic law). Justice is administered according to the Shari'a by a system of religious courts whose judges are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, composed of 12 senior jurists. The independence of the judiciary is protected by law. The king acts as the highest court of appeal and has the power to pardon. Access to high officials (usually at a majlis, or public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions. Saudi Municipal elections took place in 2005 as a first step to open the way to form political parties in the future. Saudi courts impose capital punishment and corporal punishment, including amputations of hands and feet for serious robbery, and floggings for lesser crimes such as "sexual deviance" (i.e. homosexuality) and drunkenness. The number of lashes is not clearly prescribed by law and varied according to the discretion of judges, and ranges from dozens of lashes to several thousand, usually applied over a period of weeks or months.In 2002, the United Nations Committee against Torture criticised Saudi Arabia over the amputations and floggings it carries out under the Shari'a. The Saudi delegation responded defending "legal traditions" held since the inception of Islam in the region 1400 years ago and rejected interference in its legal system. (Source: BBC, see [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=saudi+torture&btnG=Google+Search]) Religious police enforce a modest code of dress and many institutions from schools to ministries are gender-segregated. Homosexual men and women are prosecuted (sometimes publicly) and/or executed, if they are found to be engaging in same-sex sexual activities.

Provinces

Homosexual Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces (manatiq, singular - mintaqah). #Al Bahah #Al Hudud ash Shamaliyah #Al Jawf #Al Madinah #Al Gassim #Ar Riyad #Eastern Province #'Asir #Ha'il #Jizan #Makkah #Najran #Tabuk

Geography

Tabuk The kingdom occupies eighty percent of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country's boundaries with the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen are undefined, so the exact size of the country remains unknown. The Saudi government's estimate is 2,217,949 square kilometers (856,355 mi²). Other reputable estimates vary between 2,149,690 square kilometers (830,000 mi²) and 2,240,000 square kilometers (864,869 mi²). The climate is dry and hot. Dry desert with great extremes of temperature and the terrain is mostly uninhabited, sandy desert. In most parts of the country, vegetation is limited to weeds, xerophytic herbs and shrubs. Animals include the ibex, wildcats, baboons, wolves, and hyenas in the highlands. Small birds are found in the oases. The coastal area of the Red Sea, especially the coral reefs, have a rich marine fauna. Saudi Arabia has a coastline of 2,640 kilometers (1,640 mi). Saudi Arabia consists mostly of semi-desert and desert with oases. Almost half of the total country is uninhabitable desert with annual precipitation up to 100 millimetres (4 in) in most regions. The western regions are plateau and the east is lowland. The southwest region has mountains as high as 3000 metres (9,840 ft), and is an area is known for greenest and freshest climate in all of the country. The capital, Riyadh, which is to the center-east has an average temperature in July of 42ºC (108°F) and 14ºC (57°F) in January. In contrast, Jedda on the western coast has 31ºC (88°F) in July and 23ºC (73°F) in January. Less than 2 percent of the total area is suitable for cultivation, and in the early 1990s, population distribution varied greatly among the towns of the eastern and western coastal areas, the densely populated interior oases, and the vast, almost empty deserts, such as the Rub' al Khali (desert), the Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands. There are no permanent rivers and lakes in Saudi Arabia.

Economy

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Also: Oil boom (1974-85) Saudi Arabia has an oil-based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. Saudi Arabia is known to be in possession of 260.1 billion barrels of oil reserves as of 2003, about 24% of the world's proven total petroleum reserves. It ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum and plays a leading role in OPEC. Moreover, the proven reserves increase gradually as more oil fields are discovered, unlike most other oil-producing countries. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 75% of budget revenues, 40% of the GDP, and 90% of export earnings. About 35% of the GDP comes from the private sector. Saudi Arabia was a key player in the successful efforts of OPEC and other oil producing countries to raise the price of oil in 1999 to its highest level since the Gulf War by reducing production. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. The government is expected to continue calling for private sector growth to lessen the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment opportunities for the swelling Saudi population. Shortages of water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural products. In recent years, Saudi Arabia has experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income has fallen from $25,000 in 1980 to $8,000 in 2003, up from about $7,000 in 1999. The decline in inflation-adjusted per-capita income from 1980 to 1999 set a record, being by far the worst such decline suffered by any nation-state in history. Recently, with higher oil prices, however, Saudi Arabia's oil revenues have increased dramatically. Saudi Arabia's budget surplus has crossed $28 billion (SR110 billion) in 2005. The Tadawul (The Saudi stock market Index) (TASI) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23 percent to close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14 percent from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion (SR589.93 billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.‏ Saudi Arabia has officially become a WTO member in December 2005.

Forced labor

Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa seeking work. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from third world regions migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia. A minority of these immigrants are trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, begging, or involuntary servitude. Many of these involuntary workers suffer from abuse, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their freedom of movement and non-consensual contract alterations.

Demographics

wage Saudi Arabia's 2003 population is estimated to be about 24.3 million, including about 6.4 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or semi-nomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. The birth rate is 29.74 births per 1,000 people. The death rate is only 2.66 deaths per 1,000 people. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometre (2,600 /mi²). Most Saudis are ethnically Arab. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Malays, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of South and South East Asian expatriates mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of which live in compounds. According to the CIA World Fact Book, 100% of Saudi Arabias citizens are Muslims. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html#People] The exit and entry visa cards ask applicants for their religious affiliation and officially bans entry to atheists, Israelis or anyone with an official stamp from the State of Israel.

Culture

Israel]] Israel]] Israel
- Music of Saudi Arabia
- Islam in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian culture revolves almost entirely around the religion of Islam. Islam's two holiest sites, Mecca and Medina, are located in the country. Every day, five times a day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which dot the country. The weekend consists of Thursday and Friday. Islam itself derives from the same monotheistic roots as Judaism and Christianity, and traditionally Muslims generally regarded other religions with respect Jews and Christians are considered fellow 'People of the Book'. However the public practice of Christianity, the presence of churches and open possession of Christian religious materials are outlawed in Saudi Arabia. Israelis are also banned from entering the country. Islam's holy book The Qur'an is Saudi Arabia's constitution, and Shari'ah (Islamic law) is the foundation of its legal system. See Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia One of Saudi Arabia's most compelling folk rituals is the Ardha, the country's national dance. This sword dance is based on ancient Bedouin traditions: drummers beat out a rhythm and a poet chants verses while sword-carrying men dance shoulder to shoulder. Al-sihba folk music, from the Hijaz, has its origins in Arab Andalusia, a region of medieval Spain. In Mecca, Medina and Jeddah, dance and song incorporate the sound of the al-mizmar, an oboe-like woodwind instrument. The drum also an important instrument according to traditional and tribal customs. Saudi Arabian dress is strongly symbolic, representing the people's ties to the land, the past, and Islam. The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering garments reflect the practicalities of life in a desert country as well as Islam's emphasis on conservative dress. Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle-length shirt woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a ghutra (a large square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. However, Saudi women must wear a long cloak (abaya) and veil (niqab) when they leave the house to protect their modesty. The law does not apply to foreigners at such a high degree, but both men and women are told to dress modestly. Islam forbids the eating of pork and the drinking of alcohol, and this law is followed strictly throughout Saudi Arabia. Arabic unleavened bread, or khobz, is eaten with almost all meals. Other staples include cooked lamb, grilled chicken, felafel (deep-fried chickpea balls), shwarma (spit-cooked sliced lamb), and fuul (a paste of fava beans, garlic and lemon). Traditional coffee houses used to be ubiquitous, but are now being displaced by food-hall style cafes. Arabic tea is also a famous custom, which is used in both casual and formal meetings between friends, family and even strangers. The tea is black (without milk) and has herbal flavoring that comes in many variations. Public theatres and cinemas are prohibited, as Wahabbi tradition deems those institutions to be incompatible with Islam. However, in private compounds such as Dhahran and Ras Tanura public theaters can be found, but often are more popular for local music, arts, and theatre productions rather than the exhibition of motion pictures. Recently plans for some cinemas that will allow Arabic cartoons to be featured in cinemas for women and children were announced. The cultural heritage is celebrated at the annual Jenadriyah Cultural festival. An institution found in Saudi Arabia is the Mutaween, or religious police, also known as the Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice. There are 3,500 officers assisted by thousands of volunteers, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2399885.stm] whose job it is to enforce religious doctrine (Muslim Shari'a law as defined by the Saudi government) and to root out "un-Islamic" activities. They have the power to arrest any unrelated males and females caught socializing, and to ban consumer products and media, such as games and toys, various Western musical groups, and television shows. The Mutaween recently launched a website where people can file anonymous tips about "un-Islamic" activities. On March 11, 2002 the Mutaween prevented schoolgirls from escaping from their burning school in Mecca because the girls were not wearing headscarves and abayas (black robes). Fifteen girls died and 50 were injured as a result. There was widespread public criticism, and the Saudi government and religious leaders condemned the Mutaween for their actions. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm]. Although their influence and power has declined recently, they had been the focus of a few human rights concerns.

Miscellaneous topics

- Mecca
- Medina
- Communications in Saudi Arabia
- Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia
- Holidays in Saudi Arabia
- Insurgency in Saudi Arabia
- List of Arabian Houses
- List of cities in Saudi Arabia
- List of Saudi Arabian companies
- List of Saudi Arabian universities
- Military of Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Aramco
- Transportation in Saudi Arabia
- Human rights in Saudi Arabia
- Human trafficking in Saudi Arabia
- Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia
- Green Party of Saudi Arabia
- Irrigation in Saudi Arabia

Bibliography

- Baer, Robert, Sleeping With The Devil: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude (Crown, 2003) ISBN 1400050219
- Gold, Dore, Hatred's Kingdom : How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (Regnery Publishing, Inc. 2004) ISBN 0895260611
- Lippman, Thomas W. "Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia" (Westview 2004) ISBN 0813340527
- Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) ISBN 0395411653
- Ménoret, Pascal, The Saudi Enigma: A History (Zed Books, 2005) ISBN 1842776053
- al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 052164335

References

- [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/10/international/middleeast/10saudi.html The New York Times "Asterisk Aside, First National Vote for Saudis" February 10, 2005]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4230685.stm BBC "Q&A: Saudi municipal elections"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4252305.stm BBC "Saudis' first exercise in democracy"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm "Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue"]
- [http://www.hesbah.com/disapprove.asp Hesbah.com site of Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice] Form for Saudis to anonymously report "un-Islamic" activities to the Mutaween.
- [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=8696492 "Saudi says US human trafficking criticism unfounded"]

External links

Government
- [http://www.saudinf.com Saudi Arabian Information Resource] from the Saudi Ministry of Culture and Information Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791936.stm BBC News Country Profile - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html CIA World Factbook - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2419.htm US State Department - Saudi Arabia] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saud/ PBS Frontline - "House of Saud"] February 2005 documentary Directories
- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/saudi.htm Arab Gateway - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.findouter.com/Saudi_Arabia Findouter - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Saudi_Arabia/ Open Directory Project - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Saudi_Arabia/ Yahoo! - Saudi Arabia] directory category News
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc?tmpl=fc&cid=34&in=world&cat=saudi_arabia Yahoo! News Full Coverage - Saudi Arabia] news headline links Other
- [http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Asia/saudiarc.htm Saudi Arabia: Historical Demographic Data Factsheet]
- [http://www.asinah.org/travel-guides/saudiarabia.html Asinah - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.bbg-jed.org British Business Group, Jeddah]
- [http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/fara/Fara1st02/COUNTRY/SAUDIARA.HTM#2165 U.S. Department of Justice: Foreign Agents Registration Act]
- [http://www.TourSaudiArabia.com/ A Virtual Tour of Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2004/01/07/5 Amir Butler: Leave change in Saudi Arabia to the Saudis] (Discusses the question of Saudi liberalization) Category:Arab League Category:Arabia Category:Persian Gulf states Category:Monarchies Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Southwest Asian countries Category:Arab Gulf states zh-min-nan:Saudi Arabia ko:사우디아라비아 ms:Arab Saudi ja:サウジアラビア th:ประเทศซาอุดีอาระเบีย

Salafism

A Salafi (Arabic سلفي referring to early Muslim), from the Arabic word Salafسلف (literally meaning predecessors or early generations), is an adherent of a contemporary movement in Sunni Islam that is sometimes called Salafism or Wahhabism. Salafis themselves insist that their beliefs are simply pure Islam as practiced by the first three generations of Muslims and that they should not be regarded as a sect. Most do not like to be called Wahhabis, although this name was acceptable in the past.

Overview

The word Salaf means predecessors (or ancestors) and refers to the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (the Sahaba), the early Muslims who followed them, and the scholars of the first three generations of Muslims. They are also called Al-Salaf Al-Saalih or "the Righteous Predecessors". The Salafis view the first three generations of Muslims, who are the prophet Muhammad's companions, and the two succeding generations after them, the Taba'een and the taba Tabe'een as perfect examples of how Islam should be practiced in everyday life. These three generations are often referred to as the Pious generations. This principle of law is derived from the following hadith (tradition) stated by the Prophet Muhammad: "The best of people is my generation, then those who come after them, then those who come after them (i.e. the first three generations of Muslims)." (Reported by Bukhari and Muslim b. al-Hajjaj).

Distinctive beliefs and practices

Salafis claim to preach a purified Islamic monotheism, or tawhid. Salafis believe that widespread Muslim practices such as venerating the graves of Islamic prophets and saints are wrong. Photographs of any living being that possesses a soul are forbidden. Celebration of Muhammad's birthday (Mawlid) is discouraged. All these practices are considered shirk (a comprehensive term which is commonly translated as polytheism), or as bidah. Salafis in general are opposed to Sufism and Shi'a Islam, which they regard as heresies. In matters of theology and law, most Salafis do not follow mainstream Sunni theology (kalam), nor do they adhere to any of the four recognized schools of traditional legal interpretation (madhabs) — though the jurisprudence of the strict Hanbali madhhab is viewed less unfavorably than the others. They believe that literal readings of the Qur'an and the hadith (or oral traditions), are sufficient guidance for the believing Muslim. However, they do have high regard for the teachings of the controversial 14th century Syrian scholar Ibn Taymiya, and his students Ibn al-Qayyim and Ibn Kathir. Ibn Taymiya's teachings were revived by the 18th-century teacher Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, of Nejd in Arabia, and were instrumental in the rise of the House of Saud to power. Prominent Saudi Salafi scholars include Ibn Baz, Muhammad Naasiruddeen al-Albaanee, Muhammad Ibn Saalih Ibn 'Uthaymeen, and Shaykh Muqbil ibn Haadee al-Waadi'ee. Salafis insist that Salafism is not a purely Arabian movement, and regard some clerics and scholars outside Arabia as proto-Salafis or Salafi-influenced. The names cited include the Egyptian Muhammad Abduh and his student Rashid Rida, the publisher of the influential journal Al-Manar. Hasan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood movement, is said to have been influenced by the ideas of Abduh and Rida. According to Salafis, Ibn Taymiya's teachings were revived in Syria by al-Qasimi and in Iraq by al-Alusi.

Currents of thought within Salafism

Some Salafis distinguish between traditional Wahhabism and modern Salafism. They say that Wahhabism is practiced in Saudi Arabia and propounded by Saudi regime scholars such as Ibn Humaid, Ibn Baz, and Ibn Uthaymin. Wahhabis adhere to the Hanbali school of law. Non-Wahhabi Salafis, they say, are possibly best represented by the Syrian based scholar Al-Albani, the 19th century Yemeni scholar ash-Shawkani and his Indian student Siddiq Hasan Khan. Other Salafis would disagree that a distinction could be drawn between Wahhabi and non-Wahhabi Salafis and regard "Wahhabi" as purely a pejorative term. Salafis also disagree as to the status of the Saudi government and the necessity of violent jihad. Some Salafis believe that Saudi Arabia and the House of Saud are to be supported and accepted as a righteous regime. Ibn Baz, now deceased, was a strong supporter of the Saudi state. Currently, the scholar Rabi' al-Madkhali is perhaps the best-known of the pro-government Salafis. Some Salafis distance themselves from the Saudi government, but will not oppose it so long as it does not require them to do anything against their understanding of Islam. In this they follow a long line of Muslim thought which emphasizes the importance of avoiding fitna, discord in the community. Some Salafis believe that the Saudi government has strayed from true Islamic purity and is to be opposed, albeit non-violently. One such prominent Salafi is the scholar Safar Al-Hawali. Some Salafis believe that most majority-Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia, have strayed and that the only answer to the plight of Muslims today is violent jihad. These are the Salafis often called Islamists, jihadis, or Qutbis. These are the Salafis who are linked with terrorism. Many Salafis feel that the jihadis have misinterpreted the views of Muhammad and the early Muslims on warfare. They argue that the prophet himself engaged in war only as a last resort. The Quran prohibits the harming of innocents and the wanton destruction of property. The jihadis, say these Salafis, fight without justification and ignore the Quranic rules of war.

Note on Salafi vs. Wahabi vs. Qutubi

The term Wahhabi was coined as a reference to Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, an Arabian teacher instrumental in reviving Ibn Taymiya's thought. While the term was once used in Saudi Arabia, it is now usually considered derogatory by self-described Salafis. Qutbist Salafis follow the thought of Sayyid Qutb. Those Salafis who do not support terrorism insist that Qutbis are not true Salafis. Others regard such statements as mere "spin" and obfuscation. These critics say that the Saudi establishment has consistently backed the militants, even while claiming not to do so. See the article on Qutbism for further discussion of this controversy.

Notable Salafis

- Ibn Taymiya
- Ibn Kathir
- Ibn al-Qayyim
- Al-Tahawi
- Al-Tabarani
- Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab
- Ibn al-Jawzi
- Syed Nazeer Husain
- Shams-ul-haq Azeemabadi
- Shaykh 'Abdur-Rahman as-Sa'di
- Shaykh Muhammad Amin ash-Shanqiti
- Abdul 'Azeez ibn Abdullaah ibn Baaz
- Muhammad Naasiruddeen al-Albaanee
- Muhammad Ibn Saalih Ibn 'Uthaymeen
- Abdullaah ibn Ghudayyaan
- Shaykh 'Abdullaah Ibn Qu'ood
- Shaykh Rabee' bin Haadee Al-Madkhalle
- Abdur-Rahman al-Mu'allimee al-Yamani
- Shaykh Muhammad Al-Sumaalee
- Shaykh Ubayd ibn Abdullaah al-Jaabiree
- Ibn Humaid
- Shaykh Hamdee 'Abdul-Majeed
- Shaykh Muhammad 'Eed 'Abbaasee
- Dr. 'Umar Sulaymaan al-Ashqar
- Shaykh Muhammad lbraheem Shaqrah
- Shaykh Muqbil ibn Haadee al-Waadi'ee
- Shaykh Alee Khushshaan
- Shaykh Muhammad Jameel Zaynoo
- Shaykh Abdur-Rahmaan Abdus-Samad
- Shaykh Alee Hasan Abdul-Hameed al-Halabee
- Shaykh Saleem al-Hilaalee
- Shaikh Abdul-Azeez bin Abdullaa bin Muhammad Aal ash-Shaikh
- Shaykh Abdallah Ibn Abdul-Rahman Al-Jibreen
- Saalih Al-Sadlaan
- Osama bin Laden (disputed by most Salafis)
- Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (disputed by most Salafis)
- Ayman al-Zawahiri (disputed by most Salafis)

External links

Non-Salafi

- [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/051212fa_fact New Yorker article on Osama bin Laden and Salafism]

Pro-Salafi

- [http://www.masjiduthaymeen.org/posts/2005/03/02/55.htm A Salafi Scholar asked about Wahhabism]
- [http://www.masjiduthaymeen.org/posts/2003/06/06/17.htm Saudi's King 'Abdul 'Azeez on the term Wahhabi]
- http://www.albani.co.uk
- http://www.binuthaymin.co.uk
- http://www.muqbil.co.uk
- http://www.ubayd.co.uk
- http://www.qss.org
- http://www.twtpubs.com/home/
- http://www.Madeenah.com
- http://www.thewahhabimyth.com
- http://www.salaf.dk
- http://www.islam-qa.com
- http://www.salafis.org
- http://www.thetruereligion.org
- http://www.islaam.net
- http://www.troid.org
- http://www.salafipublications.com
- http://www.salafitapes.com
- http://www.fatwa-online.com
- http://www.al-meezaan.com
- http://english.islamway.com
- http://www.islamworld.net
- http://www.calgaryislam.com
- http://www.salaf.com
- http://www.salafisisters.org
- http://www.bakkah.net
- http://www.masjiduthaymeen.org
- http://www.allaahuakbar.net/
- http://www.therighteouspath.com
- http://www.al-athariyyah.com
- http://www.salafitalk.net
- http://www.lightuponlight.com
- http://www.qssea.net (Salafi site in Swahili language)

Hadith

Hadith (, Arabic pl. ahadith; in English academic usage, hadith is often both singular and plural, and sometimes spelled haddith) are traditions relating to the sayings and doings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, or sahaba. Hadith collections are regarded as important tools for determining the Sunnah, or Muslim way of life, by all traditional schools of jurisprudence.

Types of hadith

Muslim scholars classify hadith relating to Muhammad as follows:
- What Muhammad said (qawl)
- What Muhammad did (fi'l)
- What Muhammad approved (taqrir) in others' actions. There are also hadith relating to the sayings and doings of the companions, but they may not have the same weight as those about Muhammad. Western scholars note that there is a great overlap between the records of early Islamic traditions. Accounts of early Islam are also to be found in:
- sira (histories, especially biographies of Muhammad)
- tafsir (commentary on the Qur'an)
- fiqh (juristic reasoning) Some of these accounts are also found as hadith; some aren't. For a Western historian, these are all simply historical sources; for the Muslim scholar, hadith have a special status citing sura Al-A'raf 157: :Those who follow the messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own (scriptures),- in the Law and the Gospel;- for he commands them what is just and forbids them what is evil; he allows them as lawful what is good (and pure) and prohibits them from what is bad (and impure); He releases them from their heavy burdens and from the yokes that are upon them. So it is those who believe in him, honour him, help him, and follow the light which is sent down with him,- it is they who will prosper. (Yusuf Ali translation) They take this and other Qur'anic verses to require Muslims to follow authentic hadith. However, a small number of "Quran-only" Muslims disagree with this view and interpret these verses differently; they argue that the hadith are of human creation and have no authority.

How are hadith collections viewed?

The overwhelming majority of Muslims consider hadiths to be essential supplements to and clarifications of the Qur'an, Islam's holy book.
- In the matter of what is called fiqh, or Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims. However, there are many matters of concern, both religious and practical, on which there are no specific Quranic rules. Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or sunnah, of Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid.
- In the matter of what is called tafsir, or exposition of the meaning of the Qur'an, Muslim scholars believe that it is useful to know how Muhammad or his companions explained the revelations, or upon what occasion Muhammad received them. Sometimes this will clarify a passage that otherwise seems obscure.
- Hadith are a source for Islamic history and biography.
- For the vast majority of devout Muslims, authentic hadith are also a source of religious inspiration. A very small proportion of the global Muslim poplulation, such as Rashad Khalifa's followers United Submitters International, advocate following the "Qur'an alone" and claim that hadiths are unnecessary to supplement a complete book, often arguing that hadiths lead believers away from submission to God by adding another source of law. Muslims who advocate following the "Qur'an alone" viewpoint are regarded as apostates or sinners by mainstream Muslim scholars, and by the vast majority of Muslims. They argue that many Qur'anic instructions are impossible to fulfill without guidance from the ahadith. (The Qur'an does not, for example, specify how many prayer cycles constitute fulfillment of each of the daily prayers. See salat.)

Value of hadith compared to the value of the Qur'an

Muslims who accept hadith believe that trusted hadith are in most cases the words of Muhammad and not the word of God, like the Qur'an. Hadith Qudsi form a partial exception; this small minority of hadith purports to express words spoken by God to Muhammad but not included in the Qur'an, or the sense of them. While both hadith and Qur'an have been translated, most Muslims believe that translations of the Qur'an are inherently deficient, amounting to little more than a commentary upon the text. There is no such belief regarding hadith. Practicing Muslims cleanse themselves (wudu) and pray before reading or reciting the Qur'an; there is no such requirement for reading or reciting hadith. Even for Muslims who accept the hadith, they are clearly of inferior rank.

Hadith accepted by Sunni Islam

The Sunni canon of hadith took its final form four to five centuries after the death of Muhammad. Later scholars may have debated the authenticity of particular hadith but the authority of the canon as a whole was not questioned. This canon includes: # al-Bukhari (d. 870) included 7275 hadiths # Muslim b. al-Hajjaj (d. 875) included 9200. # Abu Da'ud (d. 888) # al-Tirmidhi (d. 892) # al-Nasa'i (d. 915) # Ibn Maja (d. 886). al-Bukhari and Muslim are usually considered the most reliable of these collections. There is some debate over whether the sixth member of this canon should be Ibn Maja or the Muwatta of Imam Malik, which is the earliest hadith canon but predates much of the methodology developed by the classic hadith scholars. While there are still many traditional Muslims who rely on the ulema and its long tradition of hadith collection and criticism, other contemporary Sunni Muslims are willing to reconsider tradition. Liberal Muslims are most apt to trust the individual conscience, but there are also Salafis who demand the same freedom. The Salafis claim that the ordinary believer can trust his or her own judgment (even if he or she is not trained in Islamic scholarship) if he or she relies on Bukhari and Muslim, the commentators deemed to be most correct (sahih), and ignores the weak hadith.

Hadith accepted by Shi'a Islam

Shi'a Muslims feel that hadith transmitted through scholars or collectors who rejected Ali ibn Abi Talib and his descendents are less reliable than hadith transmitted by those who remained true to Ali. They accept many of the Sunni hadith, but reject others. There is no one canonical hadith collection recognized by all Shi'a sects or teachers. It is also interesting to note that Shia's themselves have no set of authenthic books of hadith, There seems to be no methodology adapted. Many a time, sahih ahadith are discarded because they go against 'common' practices/beliefs. Many (MOST) a time, weak ahadith are simply picked out of hadith books and are accepted.Here are the words of Hurr Al-Amili a great classical Shia Scholar, in his famous book Wasa'il Ash-Shi'a, 30:260-61: ويلزم بطلان الإجماع ، الذي علم دخول المعصوم فيه ـ أيضا ـ كما تقدم . واللوازم باطلة ، وكذا الملزوم . بل يستلزم ضعف الأحاديث كلها ، عند التحقيق ، لأن الصحيح ـ عندهم ـ : « ما رواه العدل ، الإماميّ ، الضابط ، في جميع الطبقات » . ولم ينصوا على عدالة أحد من الرواة ، إلا نادراً ، وإنما نصوا على التوثيق ، وهو لايستلزم العدالة ، قطعا ، بل بينهما عموم من وجه ، كما صرح به الشهيد الثاني ، وغيره . ودعوى بعض المتأخرين : أن « الثقة » بمعنى « العدل ، الضابط » . ممنوعة ، وهو مطالب بدليلها . وكيف ؟ وهم مصرحون بخلافها ، حيث يوثقون من يعتقدون فسقه ، وكفره ، وفساد مذهبه ؟ ! وإنما المراد بالثقة : من يوثق بخبره ، ويؤمن منه الكذب عادة ، والتتبع شاهد به ، وقد صرح بذلك جماعة من المتقدمين ، والمتأخرين . ومن معلوم ـ الذي لاريب فيه ، عند منصف ـ : أن الثقة تجامع الفسق ، بل الكفر . وأصحاب الاصطلاح الجديد قد اشترطوا ـ في الراوي ـ العدالة فيلزم من ذلك ضعف جميع أحاديثنا ، لعدم العلم بعدالة أحد منهم ؛ إلا نادرا . ففي إحداث هذا الاصطلاح غفلة ، من جهات متعددة ، كما ترى . وكذلك كون الراوي ضعيفا في الحديث لا يستلزم الفسق ، بل يجتمع مع العدالة ، فإن العدل ، الكثير السهو ، ضعيف في الحديث ، والثقة ، والضعف غاية ما يمكن معرفته من أحوال الرواة . ومن هنا يظهر فساد خيال من ظن أن آية ( إن جائكم فاسق بنبأ ) [ الآية (6) من سورة الحجرات (49) ] تشعر بصحة الاصطلاح الجديد . مضافا إلى كون دلالتها بالمفهوم الضعيف ، المختلف في حجيته . ويبقى خبر مجهول الفسق : فان أجابوا : بأصالة العدالة . أجبنا : بأنه خلاف مذهبهم ، ولم يذهب إليه منهم إلا القليل . ومع ذلك : يلزمهم الحكم بعدالة المجهولين ، والمهملين ، وهم لا يقولون به . ويبقى اشتراط العدالة بغير فائدة . الخامس عشر : أنه لو لم يجز لنا قبول شهادتهم في صحة أحاديث كتبهم ، وثبوتها ، ونقلها من الأصول الصحيحة ، والكتب المعتمدة ، وقيام القرائن على ثبوتها ، لما جاز لنا قبول شهادتهم في مدح الرواة ، وتوثيقهم . فلا يبقى حديث ، صحيح ، ولاحسن ، ولاموثق ، بل يبقى جميع أحاديث كتب الشيعة ضعيفة He is clear in point out that weakness and the 'fakeness' of the system, and that it was created as a defense reaction at the criticism of the sunnis that they have no system, and that if the system was actually applied, only a handful of ahadith would prove to be sahih, hasan or muwathaq. Another great Shia Scholar Ayatullah Brujerdi in his book Taraif al-Maqal 2:380 states that أخبار المحمدين بصحة ما في كتبهم جميعا في حيز المنع ، سيما مع ملاحظة إدراجهم الضعاف فيها بل هي أكثر ، ولعل الصحيح المعتبر المدرج في تلك الكتب كالشعرة البيضاء في البقرة السوداء which rougly translates to: "To believe in the authenticity of the narrations reported by the Muhammads is impossible, especially with the reports of weak narrators among them. Rather, the weak are far more (than the authentic), whereas the authentic ones in those books are like the white hair on a black cow."

Hadith accepted by Ibadi Islam

Ibadi Islam (centered primarily in the Arabian kingdom of Oman) accepts many Sunni hadith, while rejecting others, and accepts some hadith not accepted by Sunnis. Ibadi jurisprudence is based only on the hadith accepted by Ibadis, which are far less numerous than those accepted by Sunnis. Several of Ibadism's founding figures - in particular Jabir ibn Zayd - were noted for their hadith research, and Jabir ibn Zayd is accepted as a reliable narrator by Sunni scholars as well as Ibadi ones. The principal hadith collection accepted by Ibadis is [http://www.islamfact.com/books-htm/ibadi/39.htm al-Jami'i al-Sahih], also called Musnad al-Rabi ibn Habib, as rearranged by Abu Ya'qub Yusuf b. Ibrahim al-Warijlani. A large proportion of its narrations are via Jabir ibn Zaid or Abu Yaqub; most are reported by Sunnis, while several are not. The total number of hadith it contains is 1005, and an Ibadi tradition recounted by al-Rabi has it that there are only 4000 authentic Prophetic hadith. The rules used for determining the reliability of a hadith are given by Abu Ya'qub al-Warijlani, and are largely similar to those used by Sunnis; they criticise some of the companions (sahaba), believing that some were corrupted after the reign of the first two caliphs. The Ibadi jurists accept hadith narrating the words of Muhammad's companions as a third basis for legal rulings, alongside the Qur'an and hadith relating Muhammad's words.

How hadith were collected and evaluated

Traditions regarding the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam were passed down orally for more than a hundred years after the death of Muhammad in 632. Muslim historians say that it was the caliph Uthman (the third caliph, or successor of Muhammad, who had formerly been Muhammad's secretary), who first urged Muslims both to write down the Qur'an in a fixed form, and to write down the hadith. Uthman's labors were cut short by his assassination, at the hands of aggrieved soldiers, in 656. The Muslim community (ummah) then fell into a prolonged civil war, termed the Fitna by Muslim historians. After the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, was assassinated, control of the Islamic empire was seized by the Umayyad dynasty in 661. Ummayad rule was interrupted by a second civil war (the Second Fitna), re-established, then ended in 758, when the Abbasid dynasty seized the caliphate, to hold it, at least in name, until 1258. Muslim historians say that hadith collection and evaluation continued during the first Fitna and the Umayyad period. However, much of this activity was presumably oral transmission from early Muslims to later collectors, or from teachers to students. If any of these early scholars committed any of these collections to writing, they have

Wahabi

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Hadith

Types of hadith

How are hadith collections viewed?

Value of hadith compared to the value of the Qur'an

Hadith accepted by Sunni Islam

Hadith accepted by Shi'a Islam

Hadith accepted by Ibadi Islam

How hadith were collected and evaluated