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William Holabird

William Holabird

William Holabird (September 11 1854 Amenia, New York - July 19 1923 Evanston, Illinois) was an American architect. Holabird studied at the Military Academy at West Point but resigned and moved to Chicago to marry. He worked for William Le Baron Jenney and afterwards for Burnham and Root. He established his own firm in 1880 with Ossian Simonds, another draftsman from Jenney's office. Martin Roche joined him in 1881. One of their first commissions was Graceland Cemetery. Simonds left the practice in 1883 to concentrate on landscape design, and the firm was renamed Holabird & Roche. Together they contributed many innovations to the Chicago School including the Chicago School windows, a facade made almost entirely of glass. They designed buildings including the Marquette Building and the Gage Building. The later included a façade designed by Louis Sullivan and was cited a Chicago architectural landmark in 1962. William Holabird passed away in 1923 and Martin Roche followed in 1927. Holabird's son John took over the firm with John Wellborn Root, Jr., and it was renamed Holabird & Root.

External Links

- [http://www.holabird.com Holabird & Root's current website]
- [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2704.html Holabird & Roche/Root Encyclopedia of Chicago entry]
- [http://www.chicagohs.org/collections/architecture.html Holabird & Roche Archive at the Chicago Historical Society]

September 11

September 11 is the 254th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (255th in leap years). There are 111 days remaining. It is usually the first day of the Coptic calendar and Ethiopian calendar (in the period AD 1900 to AD 2099). The terms "September 11", "11th September", and "9/11" have been widely used in the Western media as a shorthand for the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and The Pentagon in the United States of America.

Events

- 1226 - The Catholic practice of Perpetual adoration begins.
- 1297 - Battle of Stirling Bridge: Scots led by William Wallace defeat the English.
- 1541 - Santiago, Chile, is destroyed by indigenous warriors.
- 1609 - Henry Hudson lands on Manhattan island.
- 1690 - Expulsion order announced against the Moriscos of Valencia; beginning of the expulsion of all Spain's Moriscos.
- 1649 - Siege of Drogheda ends: Oliver Cromwell's English Parliamentarian troops take the town and massacre its garrison.
- 1709 - Battle of Malplaquet: Great Britain, Netherlands and Austria fight against France.
- 1714 - Barcelona surrenders to Spanish and French Bourbonic armies in the War of the Spanish Succession.
- 1776 - British-American peace conference on Staten Island fails to stop nascent American Revolution.
- 1777 - Battle of Brandywine - Major American Revolutionary war victory for British in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
- 1786 - The Beginning of the Annapolis Convention.
- 1789 - Alexander Hamilton is appointed as first Secretary of the Treasury.
- 1814 - The Battle of Plattsburgh.
- 1847 - Stephen Foster's most memorable song, Oh! Susanna, is first performed at a saloon in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
- 1857 - The Mountain Meadows Massacre: Mormon settlers and Paiutes massacre 120 pioneers at Mountain Meadows, Utah.
- 1869 - Work completed on the Wallace Monument.
- 1888 - Death of the Argentine politician Domingo Sarmiento, after whom the Latin American Teacher's Day was chosen.
- 1893 - First World Parliament of Religions conference held.
- 1897 - After months of pursuit, generals of Menelik II of Ethiopia capture Gaki Sherocho, the last king of Kaffa, bringing an end to that ancient kingdom.
- 1911 - Middle Tennessee State University is founded in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, as Middle Tennessee Normal School.
- 1914 - Australia invades New Britain, defeating a German contingent there.
- 1916 - The Quebec Bridge collapses for a second time, killing 11 men. The bridge initially collapsed on August 29, 1907.
- 1918 - Baseball: The Boston Red Sox won the World Series; they would do so again on October 27, 2004 after 86 years.
- 1919 - US Marines invade Honduras.
- 1921 - Motion picture star Fatty Arbuckle is arrested for rape.
- 1922 - The British Mandate of Palestine begins.
- 1922 - One of the Herald Sun of Melbourne, Australia's predecessor papers The Sun News-Pictorial is founded.
- 1926 - An assassination attempt on Benito Mussolini fails.
- 1931 - Salvatore Maranzano is murdered by Charles Luciano's hitmen.
- 1932 - Franciszek Żwirko and Stanisław Wigura, Polish Challenge 1932 winners, killed in a plane crash as their RWD 6 crashed into the ground during a storm.
- 1940 - George Stibitz pioneers the first remote operation of a computer.
- 1941 - Ground broken for the construction of The Pentagon.
- 1941 - World War II: US Navy ordered to attack German U-boats.
- 1943 - World War II: German troops occupy Corsica and Kosovo-Metohien
- 1943 - World War II: start of the liquidation of the Ghettos in Minsk and Lida by the Nazis
- 1944 - World War II: the first allied troops of the US Army cross the western border of Nazi Germany
- 1948 - Henri Queuille becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1955 - Dedication of the first Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Europe, the Bern Switzerland Temple.
- 1960 - Young Americans for Freedom meeting at home of William F. Buckley, Jr. promulgates the Sharon Statement.
- 1961 - Formation of the World Wildlife Fund.
- 1962 - The Beatles record their debut single, Love Me Do.
- 1965 - The 1st Cavalry Division of the United States Army arrives in Vietnam.
- 1970 - The Ford Pinto is introduced.
- 1971 - The Egyptian Constitution becomes official.
- 1972 - Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) in America begins regular service.
- 1973 - A military coup in Chile headed by General Augusto Pinochet topples the democratically elected President Salvador Allende.
- 1974 - The Stranglers are a British rock music group, was formed in Guildford.
- 1981 - The Pee-wee Herman Show airs as a special on HBO.
- 1985 - Baseball: Pete Rose gets his 4,192nd career base hit, breaking Ty Cobb's record which stood for over 60 years.
- 1987 - 9-1-1 Emergency Number Day.
- 1987 - CBS Evening News anchor Dan Rather, angry over being preempted for a tennis match, marches off the set, leaving affiliates with six minutes of an empty news desk.
- 1987 - Reggae musician Peter Tosh is murdered in his own home in Kingston.
- 1989 - The iron curtain opens between the communist Hungary and Austria. From Hungary thousands of East Germans throng to Austria and West Germany.
- 1990 - President George H. W. Bush delivers a nationally televised speech in which he threatens the use of force to remove Iraqi soldiers from Kuwait, which Iraq had recently invaded.
- 1992 - Hurricane Iniki, one of the most damaging hurricane in United States history during its time, devastates the State of Hawai'i, especially the islands of Kaua'i and Oahu.
- 1996 - Union Pacific Railroad purchases Southern Pacific Railroad
- 1997 - Scotland votes to re-establish its own Parliament on the 700th anniversary of the Battle of Stirling Bridge, after 290 years of union with England.
- 1998 - Independent counsel Kenneth Starr sends a report to the U.S. Congress accusing President Bill Clinton of 11 possible impeachable offenses.
- 1999 - Tennis: Serena Williams, 2 weeks short of her 18th birthday, wins her first Grand Slam tournament when she became US Open champion, becoming the first African American woman to win a Grand Slam tournament since Althea Gibson in 1958.
- 2000 - Activists protest against the World Economic Forum meeting in Melbourne, Australia.
- 2001 - The September 11 attacks destroy the World Trade Center in New York City, part of The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and down a passenger airliner in Pennsylvania. In total, almost 3,000 are killed.
- 2003 - Swedish foreign minister Anna Lindh dies after being assaulted and fatally wounded on September 10.
- 2004 - Petros VII, the (Greek Orthodox) Patriarch of Alexandria and his company are killed in an unexplained helicopter crash outside Mount Athos, Greece.
- 2005 - The State of Israel officially declares an end to military rule in the Gaza Strip after 38 years of occupation.
- 2005 - Monsters of Rock held up in Buenos Aires, Argentina at the F. C. O. Stadium. Headlined by Judas Priest, Whitesnake and Rata Blanca were also in the show.

Births

- 1182 - Minamoto no Yoriie, Japanese shogun (d. 1204)
- 1522 - Ulisse Aldrovandi, Italian naturalist (d. 1605)
- 1524 - Pierre de Ronsard, French poet (d. 1585)
- 1611 - Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne, Marshal of France (d. 1675)
- 1681 - Johann Gottlieb Heineccius, German jurist (d. 1741)
- 1700 - James Thomson, Scottish poet (d. 1748)
- 1711 - William Boyce, English composer (d. 1779)
- 1723 - Johann Bernhard Basedow, German educational reformer (d. 1790)
- 1798 - Franz Ernst Neumann, German mineralogist and physicist (d. 1895)
- 1816 - Carl Zeiss, German lens maker (d. 1888)
- 1825 - Eduard Hanslick, German music critic (d. 1904)
- 1836 - Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American author (d. 1870)
- 1838 - John Ireland, American Catholic archbishop (d. 1918)
- 1862 - O. Henry, American writer (d. 1910)
- 1865 - Rainis, Latvian poet and playwright (d. 1929)
- 1885 - D.H. Lawrence, English novelist (d. 1930)
- 1899 - Jimmie Davis, composer (d. 2000)
- 1903 - Theodor Adorno, German sociologist (d. 1969)
- 1913 - Paul "Bear" Bryant, American football coach (d. 1983)
- 1917 - Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines (d. 1989)
- 1917 - Jessica Mitford, British writer (d. 1996)
- 1923 - Dharmsamrat Paramhans Swami Madhavananda, Hindu guru
- 1924 - Tom Landry, American football coach (d. 2000)
- 1927 - G. David Schine, American businessman (d. 1996)
- 1933 - Dr. William L. Pierce, American author and activist (d. 2002)
- 1935 - Arvo Pärt, Estonian composer
- 1935 - Gherman Titov, cosmonaut (d. 2000)
- 1939 - Charles Geschke, American inventor and businessman
- 1940 - Brian de Palma, American film director
- 1940 - Theodore Olson, U.S. Solicitor General
- 1942 - Lola Falana, American singer
- 1943 - Mickey Hart, American drummer (Grateful Dead)
- 1943 - Raymond Villeneuve, Canadian terrorist
- 1944 - Everaldo, Brazilian football player
- 1945 - Franz Beckenbauer, German footballer
- 1945 - Felton Perry, American actor
- 1948 - John Martyn, English musician
- 1950 - Barry Sheene, British motorcyclist
- 1957 - Brad Bird, American animator
- 1961 - Virginia Madsen, American actress
- 1962 - Elizabeth Daily, American actress
- 1962 - Filip Dewinter Belgian politician
- 1962 - Kristy McNichol, American actress
- 1964 - Ellis Burks, baseball player
- 1964 - Roxann Dawson, American actress
- 1964 - Victor Wooten, American musician
- 1965 - Bashar al-Assad, Syrian dictator
- 1965 - Paul Heyman, American professional wrestling promoter, manager, and writer
- 1965 - Moby, American musician
- 1965 - David Roe, English snooker player
- 1967 - Maria Bartiromo, Canadian broadcast journalist
- 1967 - Harry Connick, Jr., American singer
- 1968 - Kay Hanley, American musician
- 1971 - Richard Ashcroft, British singer
- 1976 - Elephant Man, Jamaican musician
- 1977 - Ludacris, American rapper
- 1977 - Matthew Stevens, Welsh snooker player
- 1978 - Ed Reed, American football player
- 1981 - Dylan Klebold, American mass murderer (d. 1999)

Deaths

- 1161 - Queen Melisende of Jerusalem (b. 1105)
- 1279 - Robert Kilwardby, Archbishop of Canterbury
- 1298 - Philip of Artois, French soldier (b. 1269)
- 1349 - Bonne of Luxembourg, queen of John II of France (b. 1315)
- 1599 - Beatrice Cenci, Italian noblewoman executed for conspiring to kill her father (b. 1577)
- 1677 - James Harrington, English politicial philosopher (b. 1611)
- 1680 - Roger Crab, English Puritan political writer (b. 1621)
- 1680 - Emperor Go-Mizunoo of Japan (b. 1596)
- 1721 - Rudolf Jakob Camerarius, German botanist and physician (b. 1665)
- 1760 - Louis Godin, French astronomer (b. 1704)
- 1823 - David Ricardo, economist
- 1843 - Joseph Nicollet, mathematician and explorer
- 1851 - Sylvester Graham, American nutritionist
- 1888 - Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, President of Argentina
- 1921 - Subramanya Bharathy, Tamil poet (b. 1882)
- 1931 - Salvatore Maranzano, crime boss
- 1932 - Franciszek Żwirko and Stanisław Wigura, Polish pilots (plane crash)
- 1948 - Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder of Pakistan
- 1950 - Jan Smuts, South African soldier and statesman
- 1956 - Billy Bishop, Canadian pilot in World War I
- 1958 - Robert W. Service, Scottish-born Canadian poet
- 1966 - C. E. Woolman, American airline magnate
- 1971 - Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev, Soviet politician and leader (b. 1894)
- 1972 - Max Fleischer, American animator (b. 1883)
- 1973 - Salvador Allende, President of Chile (presumed suicide) (b. 1908)
- 1978 - Georgi Markov, Bulgarian dissident (assassinated) (b. 1929)
- 1978 - Janet Parker, medical photographer, the final victim of smallpox
- 1985 - William Alwyn, English composer (b. 1905)
- 1987 - Lorne Greene, Canadian actor (b. 1915)
- 1987 - Peter Tosh, Jamaican musician and singer (b. 1944)
- 1988 - John Sylvester White, American actor (b. 1919)
- 1990 - Myrna Mack, Guatemalan anthropologist (assassinated) (b. 1949)
- 1993 - Erich Leinsdorf, Austrian conductor (b. 1912)
- 1994 - Jessica Tandy, American actress (b. 1909)
- 1995 - Anita Harding, neurologist
- 1998 - Dane Clark, American actor (b. 1913)
- 2001 - David Angell, American sitcom creator (9/11 attacks) (b. 1946)
- 2001 - Muhammad Atta, Egyptian terrorist (9/11 attacks) (b. 1968)
- 2001 - Todd Beamer, passenger on United Airlines Flight 93 (9/11 attacks) (b. 1968)
- 2001 - Angel Juarbe, Jr., American firefighter, winner of Murder in Small Town X (9/11 attacks) (b. 1966)
- 2001 - Barbara Olson, American political commentator (9/11 attacks) (b. 1955)
- 2002 - Kim Hunter, American actress (b. 1922)
- 2002 - Johnny Unitas, American football player (b. 1933)
- 2003 - Anna Lindh, Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs (assassinated) (b. 1957)
- 2003 - John Ritter, American actor (b. 1948)
- 2004 - Patriarch Peter VII of Alexandria (helicopter crash) (b. 1949)
- 2004 - Fred Ebb, American lyricist (b. 1933)
- 2004 - David Mann, U.S. artist (emphysema) (b. 1939)
- 2005 - Chris Schenkel, American sportscaster (b. 1923)

Holidays

- RC Saints - Virgin of the Holy cave; Saint Deiniol, Our Lady of Coromoto, Protus & Hyacynthus Also see September 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Coptic Orthodox Church - Feast of Neyrouz, the New Year's Day in the Coptic calendar
- New Year's Day in the Ethiopian calendar (Enkutatash)
- Catalonia (Spain) - National Day
- Patriot Day (USA) - Anniversary of the September 11 attacks
- Latin America Teacher's Day, after the death of Argentine Domingo F. Sarmiento
- Death anniversary of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder of Pakistan

Other observances

- Proclaimed 9-1-1 Emergency Number Day by President Reagan on August 26 in 1987 and celebrated since then by some United States communities, particularly the local emergency services.
- Feast day of Saint Deiniol

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/11 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050911.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- September 10 · September 12 · August 11 · October 11 · more historical anniversaries ko:9월 11일 ms:11 September ja:9月11日 simple:September 11 th:11 กันยายน

Amenia

Amenia may refer to:
- Amenia (town), New York
- Amenia, North Dakota
- Amenia (CDP), New York

1923

1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January-June

- January 1 - Grouping of all UK railway companies into four larger companies
- January 10 - Lithuania seizes and annexes Memel
- January 11 - Troops from France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr area to force Germany to pay its reparation payments
- February 16 - Howard Carter unseals the burial chamber of Pharaoh Tutankhamun
- February 22 - Barcelona (Catalonia): Albert Einstein visits the city, invited by the scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa, as part of the monografics course of High Studies and Exchange organized by the Mancomunitat de Catalunya and conducted by Rafael de Campalans.
- March - Antigone by Jean Cocteau appears on a Paris stage. Settings by Pablo Picasso, music by Arthur Honegger, and costumes by Gabrielle Chanel. Antonin Artaud played the part of Tiresias.
- March 1 - USS Connecticut decommissioned
- March 2 - Time Magazine hits newsstands for the first time
- March 9 - Vladimir Lenin suffers a stroke, his third, which renders him bedridden and unable to speak; consequently he retires his position as Chairman of the Soviet government.
- April - End of Irish Civil War
- April 12 - Kandersteg International Scout Centre came into existence.
- April 23 - Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia Seaport
- April 26 - Wedding of Prince Albert and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in Westminster Abbey
- May 23 - Launch of Belgium's SABENA Airlines
- May 27 - Ku Klux Klan defies law requiring publication of its members
- June 9 - Military coup in Bulgaria - prime minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski is ousted (he is killed June 14)
- June 18 - Etna volcano erupts - 60.000 made homeless

July-September

- July 6 - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics established
- July 10 - Large hailstones kill 23 in Rostow, Soviet Russia
- July 19-20 night - Assassination of Pancho Villa
- July 24 - The Treaty of Lausanne, settling the boundaries of modern Turkey, is signed in Switzerland by Greece, Bulgaria and other countries that fought in the First World War
- August 2 - Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States (1921 - 1923) dies in office and is succeeded by Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929).
- August 13 - First major sea-going ship arrives at Gdynia, newly constructed Polish seaport
- August 13 - Gustav Stresemann is named chancellor and founds a coalition government in Weimar Republic Germany
- September 1 - Great Kantō earthquake devastates Tokyo and Yokohama killing 142.807 people
- September 4 - In Lakehurst, New Jersey, the first American airship, the "USS Shenandoah, takes to the sky for the first time
- September 6 - Italian navy occupies Corfu in retaliation of murder of an Italian officer. League of Nations protests and they leave September 29
- September 8 - Honda Point Disaster: Seven US Navy destroyers ran aground off the California coast.
- September 9 - Atatürk founded the CHP.
- September 13 - Military coup in Spain - Miguel Primo de Rivera takes over, setting up a dictatorship.
- September 18-26 - Newspaper printers strike in New York
- September 26 - In Bayern, Gustav von Kuhr declares independence from Berlin

October-December

- October 29 - Turkey becomes a republic following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
- November 8 - Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government. Police and troops crush the attempt the next day
- November 12- Her Highness Princess Maud of Fife marries Captain Charles Alexander Carnegie in Wellington Barracks, London.
- November 15 - The inflation in Germany reaches its height. One dollar is worth 4,200,000,000,000 Reichsmarks (4.2 trillion). Gustav Stresemann abolishes the old currency
- November 23 - Gustav Stresemann's coalition government collapses
- December 12 - Po river dam bursts - 600 dead
- December 27 - Assassination attempt against the crown prince of Japan in Tokyo

Unknown dates

- Juan de la Cierva invents the autogyro, a rotary-winged aircraft with an unpowered rotor.
- Finnish flag carrier Finnair airline is started in Aero Oy.
- Interpol is set up.
- International Police Conference in Vienna
- Hoda Cha'arawi Association (formerly The Egyptian Feminist Union) is established in Egypt.
- Trade unions banned in Spain for 10 years.
- Police strike in Australia
- Regia Aeronautica, air force of Fascist Italy, is founded.
- American Law Institute established
- Moderation League of New York became part of movement for repeal of prohibition in United States.

Births

January-February

- January 1 - Roméo Sabourin, Canadian World War II spy (d. 1944)
- January 5 - Sam Phillips, American record producer (d. 2003)
- January 6 - Jacobo Timerman, Argentine writer (d. 1999)
- January 7 - Hugh Kenner, Canadian literary critic (d. 2003)
- January 8 - Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985)
- January 16 - Anthony Hecht, American poet (d. 2004)
- January 19 - Jean Stapleton, American actress
- January 25 - Arvid Carlsson, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 26 - Anne Jeffreys, American actress
- January 29 - Paddy Chayefsky, American writer (d. 1981)
- January 31 - Norman Mailer, American writer and journalist
- February 2 - James Dickey, American poet and author (d. 1997)
- February 2 - Liz Smith, American gossip columnist
- February 9 - Brendan Behan, Irish author (d. 1964)
- February 12 - Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film and opera director
- February 13 - Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (d. 2003)
- February 13 - Chuck Yeager, American pilot and NASA official
- February 20 - Forbes Burnham, President of Guyana (d. 1985)
- February 24 - David Soyer, American cellist
- February 27 - Dexter Gordon, American jazz saxophone player (d. 1990)

March-April

- March 6 - Ed McMahon, American television personality
- March 9 - Walter Kohn, Austrian-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- March 10 - Val Logsdon Fitch, American nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- March 12 - Wally Schirra, astronaut
- March 21 - Shri Mataji Nirmala Shrivastava, Indian founder of Sahaja Yoga
- March 25 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003)
- March 26 - Bob Elliott, American comedian
- March 27 - Louis Simpson, Jamaican-born poet
- March 30 - Milton Acorn, Canadian writer (d. 1986)
- April 2 - G. Spencer-Brown, British mathematician
- April 8 - George Fisher, American political cartoonist (d. 2003)
- April 8 - Edward Mulhare, Irish actor (d. 1997)
- April 13 - Don Adams, American actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- April 20 - Mother Angelica, American founder of the Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN)
- April 22 - Bettie Page, American model
- April 22 - Aaron Spelling, American television producer and writer
- April 23 - Dolph Briscoe, Governor of Texas

May-August

- May 1 - Joseph Heller, American novelist (d. 1999)
- May 2 - Patrick Hillery, President of Ireland
- May 3 - Ralph Hall, American politician
- May 5 - Richard Wollheim, British philosopher (d. 2003)
- May 7 - Anne Baxter, American actress (d. 1985)
- May 13 - Bea Arthur, American actress
- May 15 - John Lanchbery, English composer (d. 2003)
- May 16 - Merton Miller, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- May 18 - Hugh Shearer, Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2004)
- May 21 - Armand Borel, Swiss mathematician (d. 2003)
- May 21 - Dorothy Hewett, writer (d. 2002)
- May 21 - Ara Parseghian, American football coach
- May 26 - James Arness, American actor
- May 27 - Henry Kissinger, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- May 28 - György Ligeti, Hungarian composer
- May 31 - Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (d. 2005)
- July 2 - Wislawa Szymborska, Polish writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 4 - Rudolf Friedrich, Swiss Federal Councilor
- July 8 - Harrison Dillard, American athlete
- July 18 - Jerome H. Lemelson, American inventor (d. 1997)
- July 20 - Stanisław Albinowski, Polish economist and journalist (d. 2005)
- July 21 - Rudolph A. Marcus, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 22 - Robert Joseph Dole, American politician and Presidential candidate
- July 22 - Mukesh, Indian singer (d. 1976)
- July 23 - Witto Aloma, Cuban Major League Baseball player (d. 1997)
- August 5 - Devan Nair, third President of Singapore (d. 2005)
- August 20 - Jim Reeves, American singer (d. 1964)
- August 21 - Shimon Peres, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- August 24 - Arthur Jensen, American educational psychologist
- August 26 - Wolfgang Sawallisch, German conductor and pianist

September-December

- September 1 - Kenneth Roy Thomson, 2nd Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian businessman and art collector
- September 1 - Rocky Marciano, American boxer (d. 1969)
- September 3 - Mort Walker, American cartoonist
- September 6 - King Peter II of Yugoslavia (d. 1970)
- September 9 - Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, American virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- September 11 - Dharmsamrat Paramhans Swami Madhavananda, Indian guru (d. 2003)
- September 17 - Hank Williams, American country musician (d. 1953)
- September 20 - Geraldine Clinton Little, Irish-born poet (D. 1997
- September 22 - Dannie Abse, Welsh poet
- September 26 - Dev Anand, Indian actor
- October 3 - Edward Oliver LeBlanc, Dominican politician (d. 2004)
- October 5 - Albert Guðmundsson, Icelandic professional football player and politician (d. 1994)
- October 5 - Glynis Johns, British actress
- October 13 - Faas Wilkes, Dutch football (soccer) player
- October 15 - Italo Calvino, Italian writer (d. 1985)
- October 23 - Frank Sutton, American actor (d. 1974)
- November 1 - Victoria de los Angeles, Catalan soprano (d. 2005)
- November 1 - Gordon R. Dickson, Canadian author (d. 2001)
- November 8 - Jack Kilby, American electrical engineer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics (d. 2005)
- November 20 - Nadine Gordimer, South African writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 22 - Arthur Hiller, Canadian film director
- November 23 - Billy Haughton, American harness driver and trainer (d. 1986)
- November 25 - Mauno Koivisto, President of Finland
- December 2 - Maria Callas, Greek soprano (d. 1977)
- December 12 - Bob Barker, American game show host
- December 13 - Philip Warren Anderson, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 13 - Larry Doby, baseball player (d. 2003)
- December 13 - Antoni Tàpies, Catalan painter
- December 14 - Gerard Reve, Dutch writer
- December 15 - Freeman Dyson, English-born physicist
- December 23 - Claudio Scimone, Italian conductor
- December 23 - James Stockdale, U.S. Navy admiral
- December 24 - George Patton IV, American general (d. 2004)
- December 25 - Sonia Olschanezky, World War II heroine (d. 1944)

Deaths

- Michel-Joseph Maunoury, French general (b. 1847)
- January 9 - Katherine Mansfield, British novelist (b. 1888)
- January 23 - Max Nordau, Hungarian author, philosopher, and Zionist leader (b. 1849)
- February 10 - Wilhelm Röntgen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1845)
- February 23 - Théophile Delcassé, French statesman (b. 1852)
- March 8 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1837)
- March 26 - Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (b. 1844)
- March 27 - Sir James Dewar, Scottish chemist (b. 1842)
- April 4 - John Venn, British mathematician (b. 1834)
- April 5 - George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, English financier of Egyptian excavations (b. 1866)
- June 9 - Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (b. 1846)
- August 2 - Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States (b. 1865)
- October 30 - Andrew Bonar Law, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1858)
- December 12 - Raymond Radiguet, French author (b. 1903)
- December 13 - Théophile Steinlen, Swiss painter (b. 1859)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Robert Andrews Millikan
- Chemistry - Fritz Pregl
- Physiology or Medicine - Frederick Grant Banting, John James Richard Macleod
- Literature - William Butler Yeats
- Peace - Not awarded
- ko:1923년 ms:1923 ja:1923年 simple:1923 th:พ.ศ. 2466

United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence. However, the structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1788, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" (became part of the United States). Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

Geography and climate

The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and territorial water boundaries with Canada, Russia, the Bahamas, and numerous smaller nations. It is otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea, in the west; the Arctic Ocean, in the northernmost areas; and the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, in the eastern and southeastern areas. Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, sometimes abbreviated CONUS, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada. The archipelago of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia also donated land, but it was returned in 1847.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization. When inland water is included in the total area, only Russia and Canada are larger than the United States; if inland water is excluded, China ranks third and the U.S. ranks fourth. The United States' total area is 3,718,711 square miles (9,631,418 km²), of which land makes up 3,537,438 square miles (9,161,923 km²) and water makes up 181,273 square miles (469,495 km²). The United States' landscape is one of the most varied among those of the world's nations: among its many features are temperate forestland and rolling hills, on the east coast; mangrove, in Florida; the Great Plains, in the center of the country; the Mississippi–Missouri river system; the Great Lakes, four of the five of which are shared with Canada; the Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains; deserts and temperate coastal zones, west of the Rocky Mountains; and temperate rain forests, in the Pacific northwest. Alaska's tundra, and the volcanic, tropical islands of Hawaii add to the geographic diversity. Hawaii The climate varies along with the landscape, from tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida to tundra in Alaska and atop some of the highest mountains. Most of the North and East experience a temperate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Most of the South experiences a subtropical humid climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. Rainfall decreases markedly from the humid forests of the Eastern Great Plains to the semi-arid shortgrass prairies on the high plains abutting the Rocky Mountains. Arid deserts, including the Mojave, extend through the lowlands and valleys of the southwest, from westernmost Texas to California and northward throughout much of Nevada. Some parts of California have a Mediterranean climate. Rainforests line the windward mountains of the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska.

History

American history started with the migration of people from Asia across the Bering land bridge approximately 12,000 years ago following large animals that they hunted into the Americas. These Native Americans left evidence of their presence in petroglyphs, burial mounds, and other artifacts. It is estimated that 2-9 million people lived in the territory now occupied by the U.S. before European contact, and the subsequent introduction of foreign diseases such as small pox that greatly diminished the native populations. Some advanced societies were the Anasazi of the southwest, who inhabited Chaco Canyon, and the Woodland Indians, who built Cahokia, located near present-day St Louis, a city with a population of 40,000 at its peak in AD 1200. Vikings first visited North America around 1000, but did not settle permanently. Following the discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus around 1492, other Europeans began to explore and settle there. During the 1500s and 1600s, the Spanish settled parts of the present-day Southwest and Florida, founding St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and Santa Fe (in what is now New Mexico) in 1607. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown, Virginia, also in 1607. Within the next two decades, several Dutch settlements, including New Amsterdam (the predecessor to New York City), were established in what are now the states of New York and New Jersey. In 1637, Sweden established a colony at Fort Christina (in what is now Delaware), but lost the settlement to the Dutch in 1655. This was followed by extensive British settlement of the east coast. The British colonists remained relatively undisturbed by their home country until after the French and Indian War, when France ceded Canada and the Great Lakes region to Britain. Britain then imposed taxes on the 13 colonies, widely regarded by the colonists as unfair because they were denied representation in the British Parliament. Tensions between Britain and the colonists increased, and the thirteen colonies eventually rebelled against British rule. British Parliament, George Washington (1789-1797).]] In 1776, the 13 colonies split from Great Britain and formed the United States, the world's first constitutional and democratic federal republic, after their Declaration of Independence of that year, and the Revolutionary War (1775 to 1783). The original political structure was a confederation in 1777, ratified in 1781 as the Articles of Confederation. After long debate, this was supplanted by the Constitution in 1789, forming a more centralized federal government. Prior to all these was the Albany Congress in 1754, in which a union was first seriously proposed. From early colonial times, there was a shortage of labor, which encouraged unfree labor, particularly indentured servitude and slavery. In the mid-19th century, a major division occurred in the United States over the issue of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. The northern states had become opposed to slavery, while the southern states saw it as necessary for the continued success of southern agriculture and wanted it expanded to the territories. Several federal laws were passed in an attempt to settle the dispute, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. The dispute reached a crisis in 1861, when seven southern states seceded¹ from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, leading to the Civil War. Soon after the war began, four more southern states seceded. During the war, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, mandating the freedom of all slaves in states in rebellion, though full emancipation did not take place until after the end of the war in 1865, the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the Thirteenth Amendment took effect. The Civil War effectively ended the question of a state's right to secede, and is widely accepted as a major turning point after which the federal government became more powerful than state governments. Thirteenth Amendment). The title of the painting, from a 1726 poem by Bishop Berkeley, was a phrase often quoted in the era of Manifest Destiny, expressing a widely held belief that civilization had steadily moved westward throughout history. [http://americanart.si.edu/t2go/1lw/1931.6.1.html (more)] ]] During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the continent. Manifest Destiny was a philosophy that encouraged westward expansion in the United States. As the population of the Eastern states grew and as a steady increase of immigrants entered the country, settlers moved steadily westward across North America. In the process, the U.S. displaced most American Indian nations. This displacement of American Indians continues to be a matter of contention in the U.S. with many tribes attempting to assert their original claims to various lands. In some areas American Indian populations were reduced by foreign diseases contracted through contact with European settlers, and US settlers acquired those emptied lands. In other instances American Indians were removed from their traditional lands by force. Though some would say the U.S. was not a colonial power until the Spanish-American War when it acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, the dominion exercised over land in North America the United States claimed is essentially colonial. The Philippines became independent in 1946. During this period, the nation also became an industrial power. This continued into the 20th century, which has been termed "the American Century" because of the nation's overriding influence on the world. The US became a center for innovation and technological development; major technologies that America either developed or was greatly involved in improving include the telephone, television, computer, the Internet, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, aviation, and aeronautics. In addition to the Civil War, another major traumatic experience for the nation was the Great Depression (1929 to 1939). The nation has also taken part in several major foreign wars, including World War I and World War II (in both of which the US later joined the Allies). During the Cold War, the US was a major player in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and, along with the Soviet Union, was considered one of the world's two "superpowers". With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. Beginning in the 1990s, the United States became very involved in police actions and peacekeeping, including actions in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the first Persian Gulf War driving Iraq out of Kuwait. After attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, the United States and other allied nations found themselves involved in what has come to be called the "War on Terrorism," which has primarily encompassed military actions in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

The United States is an example of a constitutional republic, with a government composed of and operating through a set of limited powers imposed by its design and enumerated in the United States Constitution. Specifically, the nation operates as a presidential democracy. There are three levels of government: federal, state, and local. Officials of each of these levels are either elected by eligible voters via secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Americans enjoy almost universal suffrage from the age of 18 regardless of race, sex, or wealth. There are some limits, however: felons are disenfranchised and in some states former felons are likewise. Furthermore, the national representation of territories and the federal district of Washington, DC in Congress is limited: residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes but their only Congressional representative is a non-voting delegate.

Federal government

The federal government is the national government, comprising the Legislative Branch (led by Congress), the Executive Branch (led by the President), and the Judicial Branch (led by the Supreme Court). These three branches were designed to apply checks and balances on each other. The Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to defense, foreign affairs, the issuing and management of currency, the management of trade and relations between the states, and the protection of human rights. In addition to these explicitly stated powers, the federal government—with the assistance of the Supreme Court—has gradually extended these powers into such areas as welfare and education, on the basis of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution.

The Congress

necessary and proper The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two Senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators, who serve six-year terms. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the necessary-and-proper clause, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers."

The President

necessary-and-proper clause At the top level of the executive branch is the President of the United States. The President and Vice-President are elected as 'running mates' for four-year terms by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D. C.) in both houses of Congress (see U.S. Electoral College). The relationship between the President and the Congress reflects that between the English monarchy and parliament at the time of the framing of the United States Constitution. Congress can legislate to constrain the President's executive power, even with respect to his or her command of the armed forces; however, this power is used only very rarely—a notable example was the constraint placed on President Richard Nixon's strategy of bombing Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The President cannot directly propose legislation, and must rely on supporters in Congress to promote his or her legislative agenda. The President's signature is required to turn congressional bills into law; in this respect, the President has the power—only occasionally used—to veto congressional legislation. Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both houses. The ultimate power of Congress over the President is that of impeachment or removal of the elected President through a House vote, a Senate trial, and a Senate vote. The threat of using this power has had major political ramifications in the cases of Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Bill Clinton. The President makes around 2,000 executive appointments, including members of the Cabinet and ambassadors, which must be approved by the Senate; the President can also issue executive orders and pardons, and has other Constitutional duties, among them the requirement to give a State of the Union address to Congress once a year. Although the President's constitutional role may appear to be constrained, in practice, the office carries enormous prestige that typically eclipses the power of Congress: the Presidency has justifiably been referred to as 'the most powerful office in the world'. The Vice President is first in the line of succession, and is the President of the Senate ex officio, with the ability to cast a tie-breaking vote. The members of the President's Cabinet are responsible for administering the various departments of state, including the Department of Defense, the Justice Department, and the State Department. These departments and department heads have considerable regulatory and political power, and it is they who are responsible for executing federal laws and regulations. George W. Bush is the 43rd President, currently serving his second term.

The Courts

George W. Bush The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of nine justices. The court deals with federal and constitutional matters, and can declare legislation made at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. Below the Supreme Court are the courts of appeals, and below them in turn are the district courts, which are the general trial courts for federal law. Separate from, but not entirely independent of, this federal court system are the individual court systems of each state, each dealing with its own laws and having its own judicial rules and procedures. A case may be appealed from a state court to a federal court only if there is a federal question; the supreme court of each state is the final authority on the interpretation of that state's laws and constitution.

State and local governments

supreme court of each state. Note that Alaska and Hawaii are shown at different scales, and that the Aleutian Islands and the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are omitted from this map.]] The state governments have the greatest influence over people's daily lives. Each state has its own written constitution and has different laws. There are sometimes great differences in law and procedure between the different states, concerning issues such as property, crime, health, and education. The highest elected official of each state is the Governor. Each state also has an elected legislature (bicameral in every state except Nebraska), whose members represent the different parts of the state. Of note is the New Hampshire legislature, which is the third-largest legislative body in the English-speaking world, and has one representative for every 3,000 people. Each state maintains its own judiciary, with the lowest level typically being county courts, and culminating in each state supreme court, though sometimes named differently. In some states, supreme and lower court justices are elected by the people; in others, they are appointed, as they are in the federal system. The institutions that are responsible for local government are typically town, city, or county boards, making laws that affect their particular area. These laws concern issues such as traffic, the sale of alcohol, and keeping animals. The highest elected official of a town or city is usually the mayor. In New England, towns operate directly democratically, and in some states, such as Rhode Island and Connecticut, counties have little or no power, existing only as geographic distinctions. In other areas, county governments have more power, such as to collect taxes and maintain law enforcement agencies.

Political divisions

With the Declaration of Independence, the thirteen colonies proclaimed themselves to be nation states modeled after the European states of the time. Although considered as sovereigns initially, under the Articles of Confederation of 1781 they entered into a "Perpetual Union" and created a fully sovereign federal state, delegating certain powers to the national Congress, including the right to engage in diplomatic relations and to levy war, while each retaining their individual sovereignty, freedom and independence. But the national government proved too ineffective, so the administrative structure of the government was vastly reorganized with the United States Constitution of 1789. Under this new union, the continued status of the individual states as sovereign nation states fell into dispute in 1861, as several states attempted to secede from the union; in response, then-President Abraham Lincoln claimed that such secession was illegal, and the result was the American Civil War. Since the Union victory in 1865, the independent status of the individual states has not been broached again by any state, and the status of each state within the union has been deemed by mainstream officials and academics to be settled as being subordinate to the union as a whole. In subsequent years, the number of states grew steadily due to western expansion, the purchase of lands by the national government from other nation states, and the subdivision of existing states, resulting in the current total of 50. The states are generally divided into smaller administrative regions, including counties, cities and townships. The United States–Canadian border is the longest undefended political boundary in the world. The U.S. is divided into three distinct sections:
- the "continental United States," also known as "the Lower 48" and more accurately termed the conterminous, coterminous or contiguous United States
- Alaska, which is physically connected only to Canada
- the archipelago of Hawaii, in the central Pacific Ocean. The United States also holds several other territories, districts, and possessions, notably the federal district of the District of Columbia, which is the nation's capital, and several overseas insular areas, the most significant of which are American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the United States' only incorporated territory; it is unorganized and uninhabited. The United States Navy has held a base at a portion of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, since 1898. The United States government possesses a lease to this land, which only mutual agreement or United States abandonment of the area can terminate. The present Cuban government of Fidel Castro disputes this arrangement, claiming Cuba was not truly sovereign at the time of the signing. The United States argues this point moot because Cuba apparently ratified the lease post-revolution, and with full sovereignty, when it cashed one rent check in accordance with the disputed treaty.

Foreign relations and military

sovereign] The immense military and economic dominance of the United States has made foreign relations an especially important topic in its politics, with considerable concern about the image of the United States throughout the world. Reactions towards the United States by other nationalities are often strong, ranging from uninhibited admiration and mimicking of all things American to anti-Americanism. US foreign policy has swung about several times over the course of its history between the poles of strict isolationism and imperialism and everywhere in between. Three of the nation's four military branches are administered by the Department of Defense: the Army, the Navy (including the Marine Corps), and the Air Force. The Coast Guard falls under the jurisdiction of the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime, but is placed under the Department of the Navy in time of war. The combined United States armed forces consist of 1.4 million active duty personnel, along with several hundred thousand each in the Reserves and the National Guard. Military conscription ended in 1973. The United States Armed forces are considered to be the most powerful military (of any sort) on Earth and their force projection capabilities are unrivaled by any other nation. The 2005 defense budget amounted to $401.7 billion, which is an increase of 4% over 2004 and of 35% since 2001. Over 50% of that number is spent in research & development. (For comparison, in 2004 the European Union (considered as the second-largest military force) had a combined total of 1.6 million troops, and a defense budget of €160 billion, with less than 10% of that being spent on R&D.)