:: wikimiki.org ::

Enugu

Enugu

Enugu is the capital city of Enugu State, Nigeria. It has a very large population of about 5 million (2005 census estimate) living in the vast city and its suburbs. The people of Enugu belong to the Igbo ethnic group, which is one of the three largest ethnic groups in Nigeria. The name Enugu comes from the two Igbo words enu Ugwu, or "the city on the hill." Enugu has three main tertiary institutions: the Enugu State University of Science & Technology (ESUT, or ESUTECH); the University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus (UNEC); and the Institute of Management & Technology (IMT). Among the city's television and radio stations are Nigerian Television Authority's network affliate (NTA Enugu); Enugu State Broadcasting Service Television (ESBS-TV), the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) network affliate station (Radio Enugu), and Cosmo FM 93.5 (a radio station alleged to be owned by the current state governor). Prominent Hotels in the city include the Presidential Hotel, Enugu, Zodiac Hotels Enugu, Modotel Enugu, and the Nike Lake Resort Hotel. The main stadium, the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium, has a capacity of 25,000 and a first division professional league team, Rangers Football Club. The city of Enugu is comprised of a number of areas, amongst which are Abakpa Nike, Trans Ekulu, Emene, the Government Reservation Area or G.R.A., Iva Valley, Ogui, Coal Camp, Uwani, Akwunanaw, Independence Layout, Timber Shed, Ogui New Layout, Obiagu, Artesan, New Haven, City Layout, Achara Layout, Golf Estate, Ebeano Estate, Loma Linda Estate and Uwgu Eron. The main high streets in Enugu are Okpara Avenue where most of the bank main branches are located, Chime Avenue, Ogui Road, Zik Avenue, Agbani Road, Abakpa Nike Road, Abakaliki Road, Airport Road, Emene Road, Presidential Road and Rangers Avenue. Enugu was originally the capital of the Eastern Region from Nigeria's independence in 1960 until 1967, when it was declared the capital of the short-lived nation of the Republic of Biafra. After the end of the Nigerian Civil War (in 1970), the old Eastern Region was divided into a number of states, and Enugu became the capital of Anambra State. In 1991, the military dictatorship of Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida divided the old Anambra State into two new states, Enugu State and Anambra State. Enugu remained as the capital of the newly-created Enugu State, while Awka was named as the capital of the new Anambra State. In the early 1900's, it became a major center for coal mining. Today, although coal mining is no longer the major source of income, the area is still associated with coal production. Enugu is often nicknamed "the Coal City".The city`s large airport which is one of the oldest airports in Nigeria have suffered considerable neglect and adverse politics to deny it an international status. Enugu's economy has been diversified in recent years, and is largely dominated by trading, commerce, and small-scale industry. Category:Cities in Nigeria Category:Nigerian state capitals

Enugu State, Nigeria

Enugu State is an inland state in southeastern Nigeria. Its capital is Enugu where the state derives it's name.Enugu state was created in 1991 from the old Anambra state. The principal cities in the state are Enugu, Nsukka, Awgu, Udi, Oji-River, and Agbani. The state is led by an American trained medical doctor Dr. Chimaroke Ogbonnia Nnamani affectionately known as Ebeano (an Igbo word translated literally in English language as "the place to be". But an expressed meaning of "the very best"or"state of the art"). The state government is struggling to rehabilitate the entire state which had suffered serious infrastructural decay since after the Nigerian civil war and the long years of corrupt military dictatorship. Although blessed with the largest deposits of coal in Africa,Natural gas, Limestone, Bauxite and very rich agricultural land, Enugu state had remained one of the poorest states in Nigeria. The current state government have however taken determined steps to reduce and ultimately eradicate abject poverty in the state using universal basic education, support for small scale enterprise and massive agricultural programme as cornerstone. Enugu, the Enugu state capital have been referred to as the education capital of Nigeria because it hosts an array of very fine institutions within the rolling green hills of the well planned city. Enugu state is is seeking to attract foreign investors to exploit it's huge solid minerals deposit and agricultural potential. Enugu state remains one of the most peaceful states in Nigeria. Category:States of Nigeria

Igbo people

The Igbo sometimes (especially formerly) referred to as Ibo are one of the largest single ethnicities in Africa. Most Igbo speakers are based in southeast Nigeria, where they constitute an estimated 18% of the population, but there they can be found in significant numbers in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Their language is also called Igbo. The primary Igbo states in Nigeria are Anambra, Abia, Imo, Ebonyi, and Enugu States. The Igbos also constitute more than 25% of the population in some Nigerian States like Delta State and Rivers State. Traces of the Igbo Culture and language could be found in Cross River, Akwa Ibom and Bayelsa States. Igbo language is predominant in such cities like Onitsha, Aba, Owerri, Enugu, Nsukka, Awka, Umuahia, and Asaba, amongst others.

Origins and Ancient History

Ndi Igbo ("the Igbo people") are a heterogenous society, with its clans migrating to their current locations at different times. However, the core Igbo, from which most of the culture, traditions, and religion come from, can trace their origin to the village of Nri, located in present day Anambra State, which was founded by its progenitor, Eri, around 900 AD. From this village, Nri people spread all across what is now considered Igboland, mixing with its indigenous people and assimilating aspects of their culture. The Igbo clans that trace their ancestry to Eri are the Umueri and Umunri (children of Nri or Eri). Igbo clans based in Onitsha, who trace their roots to the Kingdom of Benin, and the clan known as the Aros, based in Arochukwu, are among those that do not trace their lineage to Nri. Traces of ancient Igbo civilization can be found in the village of Ukwu, near Onitsha. Discovered by a farmer in 1938, the artifacts give a few clues about early Igbo culture and way of life. Amongst the artifacts found include bronze castings which date back to approximately 900 AD. and that predate the bronzes of Ife by 300-400 years, making them the first of their kind in sub-saharan Africa. These castings show a high degree of metal workmanship, and coupled with the fact that some of the materials used originated from Egpyt also shows the presence of an advanced inter-Saharan trade. Before the arrival of Europeans, the sense of a distinct cultural identity among the Igbo was much more diffuse: the Igbo did not have a centralized system of government and lived in small, democratically organized autonomous communities.

Post-Colonization

The arrival of the British in the 1870s and increased encounters between the Igbo and other Nigerians led to a deepening sense of a distinct Igbo ethnic identity. The Igbo also proved remarkably decisive and enthusiastic in their embrace of Christianity and Western education. Under British colonial rule, the diversity within each of Nigeria's major ethnic groups slowly decreased and distinctions between the Igbo and other large ethnic groups, such as the Hausa and the Yoruba became sharper.

Igbo Women's War of 1929

In November of 1929, thousands of Igbo women from the Bende District and nearby Umuahia and Ngwa as well as other places traveled to the Oloko to protest against the Warrant Chiefs who were restricting the role of women in the government.

Instability and Biafra succession

In 1966, a failed coup d'etat by Nigerian army officers led by an Igbo—Major Kaduna Nzeogwu—resulted in the death of Sir Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto, a prominent northern Nigerian of the Hausa tribe. Although the coup was foiled primarily by another Igbo, Colonel O. Ojukwu, the belief prevailed in northern Nigeria that Hausa leaders were singled out for death. This situation gave rise to a retaliatory pogrom in which tens of thousands of Igbo were murdered in northern Nigeria, which led to the headlong flight back to the Eastern Region of as many as two million Igbos. Eventually, the crisis reached an apex in May 1967 with the secession of the Igbo-dominated Eastern Region from Nigeria to form the Republic of Biafra headed by the aforementioned Colonel Ojukwu. The secession quickly led to civil war after talks between former Army colleagues, Yakubu Gowon and Ojukwu broke down. The Republic of Biafra lasted only until January 1970 after a campaign of starvation by the Nigerian Army led to a decisive victory.

Notable people

A number of Nigeria's well-known intellectuals and historic figures have been of Igbo descent:
- Chinua Achebe - author of Things Fall Apart
- King Jaja of Opobo - founder of the Opobo state
- Olaudah Equiano - eighteenth century writer whose autobiography was one of the earliest and most detailed narratives about the slave trade

Notes

# Oriji, John N.. (2000). Igbo Women From 1929-1960. West Africa Review: 2 , 1.

University of Nigeria

The University of Nigeria is a university situated in the town Nsukka. It was founded by Dr. Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe, the first president of Nigeria. It is the first indigenous university established in Nigeria. Noted author Chinua Achebe has held research and teaching appointments at the university since the early 1970s. Astronomer Samuel Ejikeme Okoye founded the Space Research Center at the university in 1972: the SRC remains one of the few institutions anywhere in Africa that researches and offers courses in astronomy at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. The University has two campuses. One in Nsukka (University of Nigeria Nsukka UNN) and one in Enugu (University of Nigeria Enugu campus UNEC). UNCE houses the Faculties of Medicine, Law, Business, Health Sciences and Environmental Studies. One of the premier universities in the country, University of Nigeria, also known as UNN has continued to produce graduates of both National and international appeal. The Medical school, in Enugu, has most of it activities in the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital (UNTH), also in Enugu. Here, doctors and other health workers are trained with the highest standards and have proven over the years that they can effect a significant positive change in Africa and indeed the entire worlds' healthcare system. Doctors and indeed nurses trained in the institution are seen all over the world contributing to the advancement of medicine. The College of Medicine, boasts of the first open heart surgery in Black Africa was carried out in 1974. It has since evolved into the center for Cardiothoracic Excellence for the West African Sub region. A lot of medical research is also being carried out in the college. Most of the projects are nearing completion, but it is pertinent to note that some too, have fallen short of completion due to lack of finances and the Government's reluctance to fund private research. Category:Universities and colleges in Nigeria Category:Education in Nigeria

Television

: Television is a telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound over a distance. The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television programming and transmission as well. programming ]]

History

The development of television technology can be partitioned along two lines: those developments that depended upon both mechanical and electronic principles, and those which are purely electronic. From the latter descended all modern televisions, but these would not have been possible without discoveries and insights from the mechanical systems. The word television is a hybrid word, created from both Greek and Latin. Tele- is Greek for "far", while -vision is from the Latin visio, meaning "vision" or "sight". It is often abbreviated as TV or the telly.

Electromechanical television

The German student Paul Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the first electromechanical television system in 1885. Nipkow's spinning disk design is credited with being the first television image rasterizer. However, it wasn't until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology made the design practical. Meanwhile, Constantin Perskyi had coined the word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the International World Fair in Paris on August 25, 1900. Perskeyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others. 1900 In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Kosma Zworykin achieved a television system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the electronic Braun tube (cathode ray tube) in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner, "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy." Zworykin later went to work for RCA to build a purely electronic television, the design of which was eventually found to violate patents by Philo Taylor Farnsworth. On March 25, 1925, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird gave a demonstration of televised silhouette images at Selfridge's Department Store in London. But if television is defined as the transmission of live, moving, half-tone (grayscale) images, and not silhouette or still images, Baird achieved this privately on October 2, 1925, and gave the world's first public demonstration of a working television system to members of the Royal Institution and a newspaper reporter on January 26, 1926 at his laboratory in London. Unlike later electronic systems with several hundred lines of resolution, Baird's vertically scanned image, using a scanning disc embedded with a double spiral of lenses, had only 30 lines, just enough to reproduce a recognizable human face. In 1928 Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company / Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore to ship transmission. He also demonstrated an electromechanical colour, infrared (dubbed "Noctovision"), and stereoscopic television, using additional lenses, disks and filters. In parallel he developed a video disk recording system dubbed "Phonovision"; a number of the Phonovision[http://www.tvdawn.com/tvimage.htm] recordings, dating back to 1927, still exist. In 1929 he became involved in the first experimental electromechanical television service in Germany. In 1931 he made the first live transmission, of the Epsom Derby. In 1932 he demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird's electromechanical system reached a peak of 240 lines of resolution on BBC television broadcasts in 1936, before being discontinued in favor of a 405 line all-electronic system. In the U.S., Charles Francis Jenkins was able to demonstrate on June 13, 1925, the transmission of the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion from a naval radio station to his laboratory in Washington, using a lensed disc scanner with 48 lines per picture, 16 pictures per second. AT&T's Bell Telephone Laboratories transmitted half-tone images of transparencies in May 1925. But Bell Labs gave the most dramatic demonstration of television yet on April 7, 1927, when it field tested reflected-light television systems using small-scale (2 by 2.5 inches) and large-scale (24 by 30 inches) viewing screens over a wire link from Washington to New York City, and over-the-air broadcast from Whippany, New Jersey. The subjects, which included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, were illuminated by a flying spot beam and scanned by a 50-aperture disc at 16 pictures per second.

Electronic television

Herbert Hoover Although the discoveries of Nipkow, Rosing, Baird and others were extraordinary, little of their technology is used in modern television. By 1934, all electromechanical television systems were outmoded, although electromechanical broadcasts continued on some stations until 1939. A.A. Campbell-Swinton wrote a letter to Nature on the 18 June 1908 describing his concept of electronic television using the cathode ray tube, which had been invented in 1897 by the German physicist and Nobel prize winner Karl Ferdinand Braun. He proposed using an electron beam in both the camera and the receiver, which could be steered electronically to produce moving pictures. He lectured on the subject in 1911 and displayed circuit diagrams, but no one, including Swinton, knew how to realize the design. Although his system was never built, the cathode ray tube did come to be used to display images in almost all television sets and computer monitors until the invention of the LCD panel. A fully electronic system was first achieved by Philo Taylor Farnsworth on September 7, 1927, although the low-resolution, light-insensitive camera tube limited the image to a plate of glass painted black, with a straight line etched across it, rotated in front of a bright carbon arc lamp. Seven years later, on August 25, 1934, at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of a working, all-electronic television system, with 220 lines per picture, 30 pictures per second. Over a three week period, vaudeville acts, athletic and sports demonstrations, politicians, and hundreds of ordinary citizens were captured on Farnsworth's cameras in the open air and simultaneously shown on his receiving sets. Farnsworth, a Mormon farm boy from Rigby, Idaho, first envisioned his system at age 14. He discussed the idea with his high school chemistry teacher, who could think of no reason why it would not work (Farnsworth would later credit this teacher, Justin Tolman, as providing key insights into his invention). He continued to pursue the idea at Brigham Young Academy (now Brigham Young University). At age 21, he demonstrated a working system at his own laboratory in San Francisco. His breakthrough freed television from reliance on spinning discs and other mechanical parts. All modern picture tube televisions descend directly from his design. Vladimir Kosma Zworykin is also sometimes cited as the father of electronic television because of his invention of the iconoscope in 1923 and his invention of the kinescope in 1929. His design was one of the first to demonstrate a television system with all the features of modern picture tubes. His previous work with Rosing on electromechanical television gave him key insights into how to produce such a system, but his (and RCA's) claim to being its original inventor was largely invalidated by three facts: a) Zworykin's 1923 patent presented an incomplete design, incapable of working in its given form (it was not until 1933 that Zworykin achieved a working implementation), b) the 1923 patent application was not granted until 1938, and not until it had been seriously revised, and c) courts eventually found that RCA was in violation of the television design patented by Philo Taylor Farnsworth, whose lab Zworykin had visited while working on his designs for RCA. The controversy over whether it was first Farnsworth or Zworykin who invented modern television is still hotly debated today. Some of this debate stems from the fact that while Farnsworth appears to have gotten there first as an inventor, RCA brought television sets to market before Farnsworth, and it was RCA employees who first wrote the history of television. Even though Farnsworth eventually won the legal battle over this issue, he was never able to fully capitalize financially on his invention.

Color television

Most television researchers appreciated the value of color image transmission, with an early patent application in Russia in 1889 for a mechanically-scanned color system showing how early the importance of color was realized. John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission on July 3, 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. Color television in the United States had a protracted history due to conflicting technical systems vying for approval by the Federal Communications Commission for commercial use. Mechanically scanned color television was demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full color image. In the electronically scanned era, the first color television demonstration was on February 5, 1940, when RCA privately showed to members of the FCC at the RCA plant in Camden, New Jersey, a television receiver producing images in color by a field sequential color system. CBS began non-broadcast color experiments using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by November 12. The CBS "field sequential" color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. RCA's later "dot sequential" color system had no moving parts, using a series of dichroic mirrors to separate and direct red, green, and blue light from the subject through three separate lenses into three scanning tubes, and electronic switching that allowed the tubes to send their signals in rotation, dot by dot. These signals were sorted by a second switching device in the receiver set and sent to red, green, and blue picture tubes, and combined by a second set of dichroic mirrors into a full color image. The first field test (i.e., broadcast) of color television was by NBC (owned by RCA) on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941. These color systems were not compatible with existing black and white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewership of the color field tests was limited to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 1, 1942 to October 1, 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public. The post-war development of color television was dominated by three systems competing for approval by the FCC as the U.S. color broadcasting standard: CBS's field sequential system, which was incompatible with existing black and white sets without an adaptor; RCA's dot sequential system, which in 1949 became compatible with existing black and white sets; and CTI's system (also incompatible with existing black and white sets), which used three camera lenses, behind which were color filters that produced red, green, and blue images side by side on a single scanning tube, and a receiver set that used lenses in front of the picture tube (which had sectors treated with different phosphorescent compounds to glow in red, green, or blue) to project these three side by side images into one combined picture on the viewing screen. After a series of hearings beginning in September 1949, the FCC found the RCA and CTI systems fraught with technical problems, inaccurate color reproduction, and expensive equipment, and so formally approved the CBS system as the U.S. color broadcasting standard on October 11 1950. An unsuccessful lawsuit by RCA delayed the world's first network color broadcast until June 25 1951, when a musical variety special titled simply Premiere was shown over a network of five east coast CBS affiliates. Viewership was again extremely limited: the program could not be seen on black and white sets, and Variety estimated that only thirty prototype color receivers were available in the New York area. Regular color broadcasts began that same week with the daytime series The World Is Yours and Modern Homemakers. While the CBS color broadcasting schedule gradually expanded to twelve hours per week (but never into prime time), and the color network expanded to eleven affiliates as far west as Chicago, its commercial success was doomed by the lack of color receivers necessary to watch the programs, the refusal of television manufacturers to create adaptor mechanisms for their existing black and white sets, and the unwillingness of advertisers to sponsor broadcasts seen by almost no one. In desperation, CBS bought a television manufacturer, and on September 20, 1951, production began on the first and only CBS color television model. But it was too little, too late. Only 200 sets had been shipped, and only 100 sold, when CBS pulled the plug on its color television system on October 20, 1951, and bought back all the CBS color sets it could to prevent law suits by disappointed customers. Starting before CBS color even got on the air, the U.S. television industry, represented by the National Television System Committee, worked in 1950-1953 to develop a color system that was compatible with existing black and white sets and would pass FCC quality standards, with RCA developing the hardware elements. When CBS testified before Congress in March 1953 that it had no further plans for its own color system, the path was open for the NTSC to submit its petition for FCC approval in July 1953, which was granted in December. The first publicly announced experimental TV broadcast of a program using the NTSC-RCA "compatible color" system was an episode of NBC's Kukla, Fran and Ollie on August 30, 1953. NBC made the first coast-to-coast color broadcast when it covered the Tournament of Roses Parade on January 1 1954, with public demonstrations given across the United States on prototype color receivers. A few days later Admiral brought out the first commercially made color television set using the RCA standards, followed in March by RCA's own model. Television's first prime time network color series was The Marriage, a situation comedy broadcast live by NBC in the summer of 1954. NBC's anthology series Ford Theatre became the first color filmed series that October. NBC was naturally at the forefront of color programming because its parent company RCA manufactured the most successful line of color sets in the 1950s. CBS and ABC, which were not affiliated with set manufacturers, and were not eager to promote their competitor's product, dragged their feet into color, with ABC delaying its first color series (The Flintstones and The Jetsons) until 1962. The Du Mont network, although it did have a television-manufacturing parent company, was in financial decline by 1954 and was dissolved two years later. Thus the relatively small amount of network color programming, combined with the high cost of color television sets, meant that as late as 1964 only 3.1 percent of television households in the U.S. had a color set. NBC provided the catalyst for rapid color expansion by announcing that its prime time schedule for fall 1965 would be almost entirely in color (the exception being I Dream of Jeannie). All three broadcast networks were airing full color prime time schedules by the 1966–67 broadcast season. But the number of color television sets sold in the U.S. did not exceed black and white sales until 1972, which was also the first year that more than fifty percent of television households in the U.S. had a color set. In Mexico, Guillermo González Camarena (1917–1965), invented the early color television transmission system. He received patents for color television systems in 1940 (U.S. Patent 1942 (2296019), 1960 and 1962. The 1942 patent was for a mechanically scanned color filter adapter for an existing monochrome electronic transmission system. In August 31, 1946 he sent his first color transmission from his lab in the offices of The Mexican League of Radio Experiments in Lucerna St. #1, in Mexico City. The video signal was transmitted at a frequency of 115 MHz. and the audio in the 40 metre band. European color television was developed somewhat later and was hindered by a continuing division on technical standards. Having decided to adopt a higher-definition 625-line system for monochrome transmissions, with a lower frame rate but with a higher overall bandwidth, Europeans could not directly adopt the U.S. color standard, which was widely perceived as wanting anyway, because of its tint control problems. There was also less urgency, since there were fewer commercial motivations, European television broadcasters being predominantly state-owned at the time. As a consequence, although work on various color encoding systems started already in the 1950s, with the first SECAM patent being registered in 1956, many years had passed till the first broadcasts actually started in 1967. Unsatisfied with the performance of NTSC and of initial SECAM implementations, the Germans unveiled PAL (phase alternating line) in 1963, staying closer to NTSC but borrowing some ideas from SECAM. The French continued with SECAM, notably involving Russians in the development. The first regular colour broadcasts in Europe were by BBC2 beginning on July 1, 1967, using PAL. Germans did their first broadcast in September (PAL), while the French in October (SECAM). PAL was eventually adopted by West Germany, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, much of Africa, Asia and South America, and most Western European countries except France. In addition to France and Luxembourg, SECAM was adopted by Soviet Union, much of Eastern Europe, much of Africa and of the Middle East. Both systems broadcast on UHF frequencies, the VHF being used for legacy black and white, 405 lines in UK or 819 lines in France, till the beginning of the eighties. It should be noted that some British television programmes, particularly those made by or for ITC Entertainment, were made in colour before the introduction of colour television to the UK, for the purpose of sales to US networks. The first British show to be made in colour was the drama series The Adventures of Sir Lancelot (1956-57), which was initially made in black and white but later shot in colour for sale to the NBC network in the United States. In Japan, NHK introduced color television in the year 1960.

Broadcast television

NHK The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States began on July 2, 1928. The Federal Radio Commission authorized C.F. Jenkins to broadcast from experimental station W3XK in a suburb of Washington, D.C. But for at least the first eighteen months, only silhouette images from motion picture film were broadcast due to the narrow 10kHz bandwidth allotted by the FRC. General Electric's experimental station in Schenectady, New York, on the air sporadically since January 13, 1928, was able to broadcast reflected-light, 48-line images via shortwave as far as Los Angeles, and by September was making four television broadcasts weekly. CBS's New York City station W2XAB began broadcasting the first regular seven days a week television schedule in the United States on July 21, 1931, with a 60-line electromechanical system. The first broadcast included Mayor Jimmy Walker, the Boswell Sisters, Kate Smith, and George Gershwin. The service ended in February 1933. By 1935, electromechanical television broadcasting had ceased in the United States except for a handful of stations run by public universities that continued to 1939. The Federal Communications Commission saw television in the continual flux of development with no consistent technical standards, hence all such stations in the U.S. were granted only experimental and not commercial licenses, hampering television's economic development. Just as importantly, Philo Farnsworth's 1934 demonstration of an all-electronic system pointed the direction of television's future. On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a month-long demonstration of all-electronic television in Los Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL) with a 300-line image from motion picture film. RCA demonstrated in New York City a 343-line electronic television broadcast, with live and film segments, to its licensees on July 7, 1936, and made its first public demonstration to the press on November 6. By April 1939, regularly scheduled 441-line electronic television broadcasts were available in New York City and Los Angeles, and by November on General Electric's station in Schenectady. With the adoption of NTSC television engineering standards in 1941, the FCC saw television ready for commercial licensing, with the first such licenses issued to NBC and CBS owned stations in New York on July 1, 1941, followed by Philco's station in Philadelphia. Electromechanical broadcasts began in Germany in 1929, but were without sound until 1934. Network electronic service started on March 22, 1935, on 180 lines using only telecine transmission of film or an intermediate film system. Live transmissions began on January 15, 1936. The Berlin Summer Olympic Games were televised, using both direct television and intermediate film cameras, to 28 public television rooms in Berlin and Hamburg in August 1936. The Germans had a 441-line system on the air in February 1937, and during World War II brought it to France, where they broadcast off the Eiffel Tower. The first British television broadcast was made by Baird Television's electromechanical system over the BBC radio transmitter in September 1929. Baird provided a limited amount of programming five days a week by 1930. On August 22, 1932, BBC launched its own regular service using Baird's 30-line electromechanical system, continuing until September 11, 1935. On November 2, 1936 the BBC began broadcasting a dual-system service, alternating on a weekly basis between Marconi-EMI's 405-line standard and Baird's improved 240-line standard, from Alexandra Palace in London, making the BBC the world's first regular high-definition television service. The corporation decided that Marconi-EMI's electronic picture gave the superior picture, and the Baird system was dropped in February 1937. The outbreak of the Second World War caused the BBC service to be suspended on September 1, 1939, resuming from Alexandra Palace on June 7, 1946. The Soviet Union began offering 30-line electromechanical test broadcasts in Moscow on October 31, 1931, and a commercially manufactured television set in 1932. The first experimental transmissions of electronic television took place in Moscow on March 9, 1937, using equipment manufactured and installed by RCA. Regular broadcasting began on December 31, 1938. The first regular television transmissions in Canada began in 1952 when the CBC put two stations on the air, one in Montreal, Quebec on September 6, and another in Toronto, Ontario two days later. two days later The first live transcontinental television broadcast took place in San Francisco, California from the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference on September 4, 1951. In 1958, the CBC completed the longest television network in the world, from Sydney, Nova Scotia to Victoria, British Columbia. Reportedly, the first continuous live broadcast of a breaking news story in the world was conducted by the CBC during the Springhill Mining Disaster which began on October 23 of that year. Programming is broadcast on television stations (sometimes called channels). At first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be distributed. Because bandwidth was limited, government regulation was normal. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission allowed stations to broadcast advertisements, but insisted on public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a television licence fee on owners of television reception equipment, to fund the BBC, which had public service as part of its Royal Charter. Development of cable and satellite means of distribution in the 1970s pushed businessmen to target channels towards a certain audience, and enabled the rise of subscription-based television channels, such as HBO and Sky. Practically every country in the world now has developed at least one television channel. Television has grown up all over the world, enabling every country to share aspects of their culture and society with others. By the late 1980s, 98% of all homes in the U.S. had at least one TV set. On average, Americans watch four hours of television per day. An estimated two-thirds of Americans got most of their news about the world from TV, and nearly half got all of their news from TV. These figures are now estimated to be significantly higher.

Technology

Broadcasting

There are many means of distributing television broadcasts, including both analogue and digital versions of:
- Terrestrial television
- Stratovision (From aircraft flying in a loop)
- Satellite television
- Cable television
- MMDS (Wireless cable)

Receiving

Television sets

In television's electromechanical era, commercially made television sets were sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom, United States, and Russia. The earliest commercially made sets sold by Baird in the U.K. and the U.S. in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a neon tube behind a mechanically spinning disk (the Nipkow disk) with a spiral of apertures that produced a red postage-stamp size image, enlarged to twice that size by a magnifying glass. The "televisor" was also available without the radio. The Baird televisor sold in 1930-1933 is considered the first mass-produced set, selling about a thousand units. The first commercially made electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in Britain (1936) and America (1938). The cheapest of the pre-War World II factory-made American sets, a 1938 image-only model with a 3-inch (8 cm) screen, cost US$125, the equivalent of US$1,732 in 2005. The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 ($6,256). An estimated 19,000 electronic television sets were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,000-8,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S. before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, which resumed in October 1945. Television usage in the United States skyrocketed after World War II with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the gradual expansion of the television networks westward, the drop in set prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television set in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962. In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968. For many years different countries used different technical standards. France initially adopted the German 441-line standard but later upgraded to 819 lines, which gave the highest picture definition of any analogue TV system, approximately four times the resolution of the British 405-line system. Eventually the whole of Europe switched to the 625-line PAL standard, once more following Germany's example. Meanwhile in North America the original NTSC 525-line standard from 1941 was retained. NTSC Television in its original form involves sending images and sound over radio waves in the VHF and UHF bands, which are received by a television set. Over-the-air broadcast television requires an antenna (aerial). This can be an outdoor Yagi antenna. In strong signal areas the antenna can be indoors, attached to or near the receiver, such as an adjustable dipole antenna called "rabbit ears" for the VHF band and a small loop antenna for the UHF band.

Specifications

Modern displays

Starting in the 1990s, modern television sets diverged into three different trends:
- standalone TV sets;
- integrated systems with DVD players and/or VHS VCR capabilities built into the TV set itself (mostly for small size TVs with up to 21" screen, the main idea is to have a complete portable system);
- component systems with separate big-screen video monitor, tuner, audio system which the owner connects the pieces together as a high-end home theater system. This approach appeals to videophiles who prefer components that can be upgraded separately. There are many kinds of video monitors used in modern TV sets. The most common are direct view CRTs for up to 40in (100cm) (in 4:3) and 46in (115cm) (in 16:9) diagonally; most big screen TVs (up to over 100 inch (254 cm)) use projection technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, LCD-based, and DLP(reflective micromirror chip)-based. Modern advances have brought flat panels to TV that use active matrix LCD or plasma display technology. Flat panel LCDs and plasma displays are as little as 4in (10cm) thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a pedestal. They are multifunctional, because they are used like computer monitors too (VGA and DVI or HDMI connections). Some TVs integrate a pair of ports to connect computer cases and peripherals to it or to connect the set to an A/V home network (HAVI) (USB port for cord connection and BlueTooth/WiFi for wireless). Today, some LCD and Plasma sets have SD Card slots, so users can view pictures from a digital camera. On the new Panasonic LCDs and Plasmas (Viera), users have the capability to record onto SD card and then play it back on a hand-held PC or digital camera (anything that allows MPEG4). With SD cards now available with 1G of memory (soon 2GB, and Panasonic is also working on one that contains over 30GB of memory), a user can record over 1,000 minutes at low quality, and around 80 minutes on the highest quality. The playback of the recording is not brilliant, but these are the first generation. They will get better with time.

Signal connections

The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: WiFi
- HDMI - a compact 19 to 29 pin connector that carries digital video and digital audio signals. Essentially an enhanced version of DVI that includes digital audio. This is the most advanced form of connection currently available. DVI
- DVI - a 17 to 29 pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry HDTV but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using HDCP. HDCP
- Component video - three separate RCA jacks (colored red, green and blue) carry three video signals, one brightness (luminance) and two colors (chromas), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" (interlaced) or "Y Pr Pb" (progressive), or YUV. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to S-Video and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; less common in Europe but is starting to become more widely available. Europe
- SCART - a large 21 pin connector that may carry: one video signal composite video; or two video signals S-Video; or for picture quality similar to component video, three signals of separate red, green and blue or RGB; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and sync or RGBS; plus right and left line-level audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an aspect-ratio flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in Europe since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest PAL DVD players and satellite receivers. Japan uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. Japan
- S-Video - small round connector with two separate video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for S-VHS, Hi-8, and early NTSC DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. Audio is not carried on this cable. Hi-8
- Composite video - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow RCA jack. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left line-level audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables.
- Coaxial RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one coaxial cable and modulated on a radio frequency. Most TVs manufactured during the past 15–20 years accept coaxial connection, and the video is typically "tuned" on channel 3 or 4. This is the type of cable usually used for cable television. Most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer modulate RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a modulator.

Aspect ratios

Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by John Logie Baird in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same aspect ratio of 4:3 which was chosen to match the Academy Ratio used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round cathode-ray tubes (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the manufacturing technology of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no aspect ratio limitations at all.) The BBC's television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to circa 1949, when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. In the 1950s, movie studios moved towards widescreen aspect ratios such as Cinerama in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a gimmick widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argued that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of panoramic, others would say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to digital television systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (approximately 1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen movies, which range from 1.78:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called anamorphic widescreen format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is squashed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European PAL-Plus television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" DVDs; the ATSC HDTV system uses straight widescreen format, no image squashing or expanding is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both desktop and laptop computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays, and it remains to be seen whether Work or movie enjoyment will take over. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or subtitles, as opposed to viewing content full-screen.

Aspect ratio incompatibility

The television industry changing aspect ratios is not without teething difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown:
- in "letterbox" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom
- with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "pan and scan", parts selected by an operator)
- with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown:
- in "pillarbox" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right
- with upper and lower portions of the image cut off
- with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. Horizontal expansion has advantages in situations in which several people are watching the same set, as it compensates for watching at an oblique angle.

Sound

Television add-ons

Today there are many add-ons for the television set. A few add-ons include Video Game Consoles, VCRs, Cable Boxes, Satellite Boxes, DVD players, or Digital Video Recorders, the television add-on market is ever growing.

New developments

- Broadcast flag
- CableCARD™
- Digital Light Processing (DLP)
- Digital Rights Management (DRM)
- Digital television (DTV)
- Digital Video Recorders
- Direct Broadcast Satellite TV (DBS)
- DVD
- Flicker-free (100Hz)
- High Definition TV (HDTV)
- High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
- IPTV
- Internet television
- LCD and Plasma display Flat Screen TV
- Pay Per View
- Picture-in-picture (PiP)
- Video on-demand (VOD)
- Ultra High Definition Video (UHDV)
- Web TV

Geographical usage

Content

Advertising

Since their inception in the USA in 1941, TV commercials have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by Nielsen ratings. The exception to this is the publicly-funded British Broadcasting Corporation.

Programming

Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #Original Run or First Run - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #Syndication - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, TV stations or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on FTA television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S. however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur only on that network. Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't intensely local.

Social aspects

Alleged dangers

Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, scientists and parents are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the Swedish government imposed a total ban on advertising to children under twelve in 1991 (see advertising). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 hours of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the educational and maturational process. A February 23 2002 article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other addiction, a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by

Nigerian Television Authority

Inaugurated in 1977, the Nigerian Television Authority is the government owned body in charge of television broadcasting in the country.

Presidential Hotel, Enugu

Nnamdi Azikiwe

Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe, usually referred to as Nnamdi Azikwe, or, informally, as "Zik", (November 16 1904-May 11 1996) was Nigeria's first President. Early in his academic career, Azikwe attended Storer College, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, but later enrolled and graduated from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania in 1930, where he became a member of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity Inc. Azikwe returned to Nigeria to enter politics, and in 1953 became leader of Nigeria's Eastern Region. Very soon after the granting of Nigeria's independence in 1960 he gained the office of Governor-General, and with the proclamation of a republic in 1963 he became the first and only ceremonial president of Nigeria, while Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was the Prime Minister. He and his civilian colleagues were removed from power in the military coup of January 15 1966. During the Biafran (1967-1970) war of secession, Azikiwe became a spokesman for the nascent republic and an adviser to its leader Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu. After the war, he served as Chancellor of Lagos University from 1972 to 1976. He founded the Nigerian People's Party in 1979 and made an unsuccessful bid for the presidency that year and again in 1983. He left politics in 1986. His time in politics spanned most of his adult life and he was referred to by admirers as "the Great Zik of Africa". His motto in politics was "talk I listen, you listen I talk". Azikiwe died in 1996 in Nsukka. Azikiwe, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Nnamdi Azikwe, Nnamdi Azikwe

Rangers Football Club

Rangers Football Club is a football club from Glasgow, Scotland which plays in the Scottish Premier League. It is the first club in the world to win more than 50 league titles. Rangers have won 107 trophies in total, making them one of the world's most sucessful football clubs. Rangers are the first side from northern Britain to reach the last 16 of the Champions League. The club's home is the 50,411 all-seated Ibrox Stadium in south west Glasgow. The first team colours are royal blue shirts, white shorts with black and red socks. Rangers players today are multicultural, although the club has traditionally been identified with the Protestant community of Glasgow. For most of its history Rangers has enjoyed a fierce rivalry with crosstown opponents Celtic who traditionally drew much of their support from Glasgow's Catholic community. Between them, the two clubs dominate Scottish football and are collectively known as the Old Firm. The club's correct name is simply 'Rangers' although it is sometimes incorrectly called 'Glasgow Rangers'. This frequently happens with English commentators seeking to distinguish between them and other similarly named clubs particularly Queens Park Rangers. The club is nicknamed 'The Teddy Bears' (from the rhyming slang for Gers - short for Rangers) and the fans are known to each other as 'Bluenoses' or 'Bears'.

History

The Birth and the early days

In 1872, Moses McNeil, Tom Vallance and Peter Campbell saw a group of men playing football on Glasgow Green's Flesher's Haugh and decided to form a team of their own. Three of McNeil's six brothers (Peter, William and Harry) joined him in this new pastime and the core of the early Rangers sides. The team's first game was in May of 1872 against Callander F.C. on Flesher's Haugh, which resulted in a 0-0 draw. At first they played under the name Argyle. Moses McNeil suggested the name Rangers after seeing the name in a book about English Rugby. Rangers only played two matches in their birth year and their second match was a comprehensive 11-0 win over Clyde. Rangers began to grow into a more formal football club and in 1876, for the first time, a player was called up to play international football as Moses McNeil made his Scotland debut against Wales. In 1888 the now famous old firm fixture was born as Rangers met Celtic for the first time in a friendly match which Celtic won 5-2. By 1890 the Scottish league was formed and Rangers enjoyed a victorious first season as they finished joint-top with Dumbarton and after a play-off match finished 2-2, the title was shared. Rangers had to wait until 1884 to taste their first Scottish Cup success after losing to Vale of Leven in 1877 and 1879 but finally lifted the trophy for the first time after a 3-1 win over Celtic. Rangers even came close to winning the English FA Cup in 1887 when they lost to Aston Villa in the semi-final. Rangers ended the nineteenth century with further Scottish cup wins 1897 and 1898 and a League championship win in 1899 during which they won every one of their 18 league matches. Rangers formally became a business company in 1899 and match secretary William Wilton was appointed as the clubs first manager. The club also appointed its first board of directors under the chairmanship of James Henderson. Rangers were well on their way to becoming one of Scotland's top two clubs.
Wilton and Struth
Rangers continued their success in the early 1900s winning the championship seven times between 1900 and 1918. Having lost the title in 1919 they responded in 1920 with one of the best seasons in their history as manager William Wilton and his right hand man Bill Struth retained the title as they hit 106 goals in 42 league games. However, in May 1920 the clubs first ever manager William Wilton died in a boating accident and subsequently Bill Struth was appointed manager. Struth would go on to be a legend as he steered Rangers to 18 league championships, 10 Scottish Cups and 2 League Cups in his 34 year tenure as manager. He was also the first Rangers manager to win the domestic treble when it was achieved for the first time in Scottish football history in season 1948-1949.
Under Scott Symon
After Bill Struth collected two more domestic doubles in 1950 and 1953 Scott Symon was appointed as Rangers third manager in 1954. Symon continued Struth's success winning six league championships, five Scottish Cups and four League Cups. He also became the second manager to win the domestic treble in season 1963-1964. Symon also took Rangers into the European Cup for the first time in 1956-1957 going out on to French team OGC Nice. They did however reach the semi-finals in 1960 losing eventually to German team Eintracht Frankfurt. By 1961 Rangers became the first British team to reach a European final when they contested the Cup Winners' Cup final against Italians Fiorentina only to lose 4-1. Rangers suffered yet more despair in the final of the same competition in losing to Bayern Munich in 1967.
Davie White
Davie White was installed as Rangers' fourth manager in 1967. However, his tenure was a brief one and he was dismissed after little more than two years in charge, winning nothing.
Euro glory under Waddell
Willie Waddell was appointed as Rangers manager in 1969 and he guided Rangers to their first, and only to date, European triumph when they won the Cup Winners Cup by beating Dynamo Moscow 3-2 at the Camp Nou in Barcelona. Due to a pitch invasion the team were presented with the trophy in the dressing room and following pressure exerted by the Spanish Government of Generalissimo Francisco Franco UEFA banned Rangers from defending the cup (in response to what was considered to be an unfair politically driven decision FC Barcelona were to invite Rangers to participate in their pre-season Joan Gamper Tournament the following year alongside the Basque team Athletic Club de Bilbao). The triumph in the European Cup Winners Cup came just two years after the Ibrox disaster where 66 people died on the east terrace on staircase 13. Within weeks of their European success, Willie Waddell moved to the general manager position and his coach Jock Wallace was appointed as manager.
Jock Wallace
Wallace's managership of Rangers saw the club restored to the ascendancy enjoyed throughout most of its history. His first season as manager - the club's centenary year - culminated in a 3-2 Scottish Cup win over Celtic. A nine-year period of Celtic dominance in the league was ended in 1974-1975 as Rangers captured what was to be the last championship of its kind. The new ten team Scottish Premier League saw Rangers crowned inaugural champions, as part of a triumphant domestic treble. After a barren subsequent season, 1976-1977, Wallace presided over the club's fourth domestic treble in 1977-1978. This burst of success from the mid-1970s saw Rangers once again established as Scotland's most successful club. Wallace, with the help of the nucleus of Willie Waddell's Cup Winners' Cup winning side, by the late 1970s had constructed a team that seemed set to dominate Scottish football for years to come. With a classic lineup - McCloy or Kennedy; Jardine, Greig, Jackson, Forsyth; McLean, McDonald, Russell, Cooper; Smith and Johnstone - in place, Rangers looked to the 1980s with a justifiable degree of optimism. But all that was shattered as Wallace, suddenly and unexpectedly, announced his resignation in 1978. Wallace, the epitomy of the integrity and 'character' he saw as the hallmark of the Rangers tradition, refused to divulge the reason for his departure. Most concluded that a disagreement with the club's board, and with Willie Waddell in particular, over transfer funds for new players, or for Wallace's own salary, provided the explanation for his departure. In his wake, Rangers turned to another of the stalwarts of the great side of the mid-late 1970s, the captain John Greig.
John Greig
Greig's tenure began promisingly. Wallace's treble-winning team of the previous season performed ably in the European Cup, defeating Juventus and PSV Eindhoven (the latter losing a game at home for the first time), before an injury-striken team lost to Cologne in the quarter final. Things began to unravel towards the end of Greig's first domestic season, however, as leadership of the league evaporated. Greig's efforts thereafter to restructure the team inherited from Wallace proved, for the most part, fruitless. The early years of the 1980s were ones of repeated frustration as the club continually failed to mount a challenge not only to Celtic, but to the then resurgent New Firm of Aberdeen and Dundee United. The gloom of under-performance in the league was punctuated only by periodic cup triumphs. The Scottish Cup win of 1981, in particular, saw a triumphant performance by the enigmatic winger, Davie Cooper. The League Cup proved fertile territory for Rangers throughout the fallow years of the early 1980s, but it was the failure to add to the league triumph of 1978 that saw the growing pressure on Greig culminate in his resignation as manager in 1983.
Return of the Jock
Rangers hoped to rekindle success by bringing Jock Wallace back to the club, following his exile in England with Leicester City. Wallace, though, was not the club's first choice: Jim McLean and Alex Ferguson, the then managers of the New Firm clubs, were said to have rebuffed Rangers' advances. Wallace, however, returned with the aim of restoring the glory years of the treble-winning sides of the late 1970s. His initial impact was positive. The team began to play with a rediscovered, no-nonsense passion that some felt Greig had jettisoned in his largely abortive efforts to make the club more competitive in Europe. Wallace's team won the league cup twice in a row in 1983 and 1984, but league form remained frustratingly indifferent. The continuing dominance of the great Aberdeen side of the 80s, coupled with a Dundee United punching substantially above its weight and a Celtic team that offered periodic challenges to the New Firm ascendancy, put Wallace under increasing pressure. By season 1985-1986 Rangers had slipped to fifth place in the league and, with little evidence of improvement since the Greig era, Wallace was sacked as manager.
The Souness era
Graeme Souness was appointed as Rangers' first player-manager in 1986. The club's US-domiciled owner, Lawrence Marlborough, concerned at the lack of progress in the 1980s, began to take a more active interest in Rangers, wresting clear control of the boardroom after years of internecine squabbling. One of his most significant decisions was the appointment of David Holmes as the club's chairman. It was this which foreshadowed a dramatic revival in the club's fortunes. Under Holmes's tenure, Rangers began to think big once again, showing an ambition that had been lacking since the Waddell years. Holmes's most significant act was to recruit Souness - one of world football's top players with Liverpool and Sampdoria. Souness, drawing on his preeminent reputation in the English game and backed by Holmes's approval of unprecedented transfer spending, kick-started a period in which the arrival of top players from England was a regular occurrence. In his first season at the helm, he brought the championship back to Ibrox - the first since 1978. The league cup was also captured with the defeat of Celtic, heralding a period of Old Firm dominance that was to last for the bulk of the next two decades. Rangers were on the brink of returning to domestic greatness. The arrival of businessman David Murray as self-styled 'custodian' of the club saw Rangers' resurgence continue. Murray's was a vision, if anything, that was even bolder than that of Holmes and Marlborough. Murray had acquired Rangers for a knock-down £6m from the increasingly cash-strapped Lawrence group. From the outset, Murray viewed Rangers as a way of cementing his already high profile in the media and in Scottish business circles. In the first season of the Souness-Murray partnership (1989), Rangers won the first of what would eventually become nine championship wins in a row. The Souness years were marked by both achievement and conflict. Under Souness's stewardship, Ranger's pre-eminence in the Scottish game was restored. At a time in which English clubs were excluded from European competition (following the Heysel stadium disaster of 1985), the club also gained arguably a higher profile in the British game than at any time in its history. This was fuelled by the purchase of a succession of English internationals, including Ray Wilkins, Terry Butcher and Chris Woods. It was also fuelled by the most controversial signing in Scottish football history, as the Roman Catholic and former Celtic player Mo Johnston was persuaded to change his mind at the last minute and sign for Rangers rather than their bitter city rivals. Johnston's signing led to outrage among many Rangers fans in Scotland and Ulster. This was because Rangers had, since the 1920s, pursued a sectarian policy of not signing Catholic players.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/worthington_cup/1822820.stm]. Despite his success, Souness was never part of the Scottish footballing establishment. His managership saw countless run-ins with the footballing authorities, and more than one touchline ban. He left Rangers in 1991 to join his former club Liverpool. Coming before the league campaign reached a dramatic culmination with a last-day victory over Aberdeen at Ibrox, Souness's departure met with mixed reactions amongst Rangers supporters. All were disappointed. Many bemoaned what they saw as his betrayal of the club. All, however, were united in viewing the Souness years as amongst the most dramatic in the club's history. The challenge for his successor - his former assistant Walter Smith - was to ensure than Rangers' ninth manager would achieve as much as its eighth.
Nine in a row
Walter Smith went on to clinch the championship in 1991 following Souness's departure after a dramatic last day win over title challengers Aberdeen. Smith, with the financial backing of David Murray, continued to attract top players to the club and in season 1992-1993 steered Rangers to one of the best seasons in their history. Not only did they win the domestic treble but they came to within one match of the European Cup final. Rangers saw off English Premier League champions Leeds United in a 'battle of Britain' qualifier. In the group stage, Rangers won two matches and drew four but, despite remaining undefeated, went out to the French team Olympique de Marseille, subsequently found guilty of bribing opposing players to 'throw' games. Rangers won the double the following season but missed out on a back-to-back domestic treble after losing in the Scottish Cup final to Dundee United. Rangers again won the championship in seasons 1994-1995 and 1995-1996 with the help of signings such as Brian Laudrup and Paul Gascoigne. In season 1996-1997 Rangers went on to win their ninth championship in a row thereby equalling Celtic's achievement of the late 60s and early 70s. Season 1997-1998 proved to be Walter Smith's last season as manager and Rangers were unable to win their tenth league championship in a row. Smith left Rangers and joined English Premiership team Everton. Many players also left Rangers including Brian Laudrup, Ally McCoist and captain Richard Gough.
The Little General
Dick Advocaat, nicknamed the little general, succeeded Walter Smith at the start of season 1998-1999. Advocaat, former manager of PSV, was only Rangers' tenth manager and the first non-Scot to hold the position. His appointment was viewed by some as reflecting a desire to begin to challenge Europe's elite clubs. David Murray, the club's owner and chairman, had long proclaimed that Rangers ought to be judged not just in relation to success in Scotland, but on performance in Europe, and especially in the increasingly high-profile (and financially lucrative) Champions' League. But despite being given resources on a scale never before handed to a Rangers manager, success on a larger stage failed to materialise, and the costly legacy of Advocaat's time at Ibrox was a debt that would cripple the club for years. The scale of these resources made available to Advocaat initially confirmed that the Rangers management was thinking in bold, European terms. Confronted with a rump of players remaining after Smith's departure, Advocaat was furnished with an unprecedented transfer budget over the coming seasons. In total Advocaat spent over £36 million on new players in his debut season. Some - the Dutch internationals Arthur Numan and Giovanni van Bronckhorst - were successful; others - the Russia international Andrei Kanchelskis - proved expensive errors. But while Advocaat's record in transfer dealings remained mixed throughout his time at Ibrox, at first the club appeared to be beginning to deliver in playing terms, both in Scotland and (less predictably) Europe. Advocaat's first season saw another domestic treble secured. Performance in Europe was promising, with Bayer Leverkusen defeated in a solid, if unspectacular, UEFA Cup run. In the following season, Advocaat continued to spend big, bringing the likes of Michael Mols and Claudio Reyna to Ibrox. With football of real verve a regular occurrence as part of Advocaat's commitment to flowing, attacking football, a domestic double was secured in Advocaat's second season. In Europe, too, there were signs of greatly improved performance in the Champions League, as Parma were defeated en route to qualification for the group stages of the competition. Rangers entered Advocaat's third season emboldened by the capture of five of the six domestic trophies available in his first two years. For this period, continued dominance over Celtic looked likely. Rangers again were viewed as a credible force in Europe. The prospect of sustained success in Europe - and at the very least qualification for the second group phase of the Champions League - seemed not unrealistic. This was an optimism that proved not to be warranted. While the club again qualified for the Champions League group stage, performances in the league began rapidly to disintegrate. Further high-profile signings - Tore André Flo for a club record £12 million, and the Dutch internationalist Ronald de Boer on a lavish contract - could not reverse the decline. Morale amongst players and supporters plummeted amidst credible rumours of players unrest and dressing room divides. A worsening financial position exacerbated the gathering gloom. The club failed to win a major competition in the 2000-2001 season. Having continued in similar fashion in season 2001-2002, Advocaat resigned as manager and took up a General Manager position, which he would later leave after only 11 months. Alex McLeish was the surprising appointment as the new Rangers manager in December 2001. Advocaat's tenure at Ibrox had been a paradoxical one. On one hand, the quality of football at times had been peerless. Advocaat spearheaded the building of Murray Park - a £14m training complex at Auchenhowie which was viewed as essential if the club was to compete with its European peers in nurturing home-gown talent and developing players. On the other hand, Advocaat's man-managership was at times lamentable, and many argued that he had squandered a real opportunity to establish Rangers as consistent European competitors. With the club deep in financial difficulty, there was no realistic prospect of boosting its fortunes through further expensive player acquisitions. The challenge of restoring the club to supremacy in Scotland looked to be an unenviable one for Alex McLeish.
Under Big Eck
McLeish's appointment [http://newswww.bbc.net.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/r/rangers/1701609.stm] was met with a lukewarm reaction amongst many Rangers supporters. Some viewed it as symptomatic of the down-sizing of the club's ambitions after the spendthrift years of Advocaat. Others saw in McLeish a manager whose mixed fortunes at Hibernian and Motherwell left him ill-equipped to cope with the demands of managing a high-profile club like Rangers. A few, remembering McLeish's days as centre-half colossus in Alex Ferguson's great Aberdeen side of the early 1980s, questioned whether someone lacking any obvious 'bluenose' credentials could revitalise a club faced, for the first time in decades, with a concerted challenge from a seemingly rejuvenated Celtic. Such concerns were quickly allayed, however, as McLeish's Rangers began to display a spiritedness that had been sorely lacking in Advocaat's final seasons. Cup successes in McLeish's first season, 2001-2002, saw a renewed sense of optimism that Rangers could regain the ascendancy claimed fleetingly by Celtic under the managership of Martin O'Neill. A 3-2 defeat of Celtic in the season's climactic Scottish Cup final [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/scottish_cup/1966673.stm], orchestrated by Barry Ferguson's sublime midfield promptings, reinforced the view that Rangers could once more gain the pre-eminence enjoyed for almost all of the period since Graeme Souness's appointment as manager in 1986. McLeish's first full season as manager, 2002-2003 saw the club fulfil this sense of promise. Another victory over Celtic, this time in the League Cup [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/scot_div_1/2853133.stm], provided the first leg of the club's latest treble. Rangers' fiftieth championship was secured on a dramatic last day of the league season, with victory over Dunfermline denying Celtic the title on goal difference [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/scot_prem/2936822.stm]. Victory over Dundee in the Scottish Cup final saw a triumphant finale to the season [http://newswww.bbc.net.uk/sport1/hi/football/scot_div_1/2946904.stm]. The successes of McLeish's initial period as manager proved difficult to sustain. The club's parlous financial position, in the wake of the profligacy of the Advocaat era, meant a period of relative austerity. Wage bills were slashed as the club embarked on an extensive cost-cutting programme in an attempt to stabilise a mushrooming (and unsustainable) debt. Confronted with a squad of well-paid but ageing players largely assembled by Advocaat, McLeish was compelled to re-build without the luxury of the generous transfer kitty enjoyed by his predecessors over the preceding two decades. McLeish was required to rebuild not through the high-profile and often audacious signings of the Souness, Smith and Advocaat years, but via wheeling-and-dealing and the selective use of 'Bosman' free transfers. The results, initially at least, were unpromising. Season 2003-2004 saw McLeish hamstrung by the departures of a series of players on well-paid contracts - and perhaps most significantly by the loss of his captain Barry Ferguson to Blackburn Rovers. The quick-fix Bosmans proved inadequate compensation and the season was trophy-less. Season 2004 - 2005 saw a further turnaround, again in the most dramatic of circumstances. The limited transfer resources at McLeish's disposal were put to much more effective use, as Dado Pršo, Nacho Novo and Jean-Alain Boumsong were amongst the most notable of the recruits to the club. Boumsong, purchased on a 'free', would later leave the club in January 2005 to English Premiership side Newcastle United for £8m. That, however, paved the way for more signings including Thomas Buffel and the return of former captain Barry Ferguson. Those signings helped Rangers win the Scottish League Cup, with victory over Motherwell [http://newswww.bbc.net.uk/sport2/hi/football/scot_div_1/4359199.stm]. The league, however, appeared to have been lost, as Rangers handed a five-point lead to Celtic, with only four games of the season remaining. Faced with the need to win a final match at Hibernian, and hope that Celtic would fail to win away at Fir Park, Rangers secured a fifty-first championship as Motherwell overcame a 1-0 deficit with two goals in the last two minutes [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/scot_prem/4565709.stm]. Season 2005 - 2006 got off to a bad start, with Rangers only winning 6 league games out of the first 16, and being knocked out of the League Cup by arch-rivals Celtic. Speculation over Alex McLeish's future has been rife and it is said that he has been given until early December to save his job. Although with a draw against Italian giants Inter Milan, McLeish became the first manager to guide a Scottish team past the group stages of the Champion's League. However there was still significant pressure on McLeish from fans because of the club's poor position in the Premier League table. It was widely expected that McLeish would leave the club on

Enugu

Enugu State, Nigeria

Igbo people

Origins and Ancient History

Post-Colonization

Igbo Women's War of 1929

Instability and Biafra succession

Notable people

Notes

See also

University of Nigeria

Television

History

Electromechanical television

Electronic television

Color television

Broadcast television

Technology

Broadcasting

Receiving

Television sets

Specifications

Modern displays

Signal connections

Aspect ratios

Aspect ratio incompatibility

Sound

Television add-ons

New developments

Geographical usage

Content

Advertising

Programming

Social aspects

Alleged dangers

Nigerian Television Authority

Presidential Hotel, Enugu

Nnamdi Azikiwe

Rangers Football Club

History

The Birth and the early days

Wilton and Struth

Under Scott Symon

Davie White

Euro glory under Waddell

Jock Wallace

John Greig

Return of the Jock

The Souness era

Nine in a row

The Little General

Under Big Eck