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Rajatarangini

Rajatarangini

Rajtarangini ("River of Kings"), a book written in Sanskrit by Kalhana, contains an account of the life and history of Kashmir. It is believed that the book was written sometime during 1147-1149 CE. The book generally records the glorious heritage of Kashmir, but 120 verses of Rajtarangini describes the misrule prevailing in Kashmir during the reign of King Kalash, son of king Ananat Deva of Kashmir. Kalhana’s account of Kashmir begins from epic period of the Mahabharata, but the recorded history of Kashmir, as retold by Kalhan begins from the period of the Mauryas. Kalhan’s account also states that the city of Srinagar was founded by the Maurya emperor, Ashoka, and the Buddhism reached the Kashmir valley during his period. From there, the Buddhism spread to several other adjoining regions including Central Asia, Tibet and China.

Sanskrit

Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम्) is a classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It has a position in India and Southeast Asia similar to that of Latin and Greek in Medieval Europe, and is a central part of Hindu tradition. Sanskrit is one of the 22 official languages of India. Sanskrit is taught in schools and households throughout India, as a second language. Some Brahmins even identify it as their mother tongue. According to recent reports, it is being revived as a vernacular in the village of Mattur near Shimoga in Karnataka [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1199965,curpg-1.cms]. Sanskrit is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of hymns and mantras. Its pre-classical form of Vedic Sanskrit, the liturgical language of the Vedic religion, is one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European language family, its most archaic text being the Rigveda. The scope of this article is that of Classical Sanskrit as laid out in the grammar of Panini, roughly around 500 BC. Most Sanskrit texts available today were transmitted orally for several centuries before they were written down in medieval India.

History

500 BC script, Bihar or Nepal, 11th century.]] The word means "refined, consecrated, sanctified". The language referred to as "the refined language" has by definition always been a 'high' language, used for religious and scientific discourse and contrasted with the languages spoken by the people. The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is 's ("Eight-Chapter Grammar") dating to ca. the 5th century BC. It is essentially a prescriptive grammar, i. e. an authority that defines (rather than describes) correct Sanskrit, although it contains descriptive parts, mostly to account for Vedic forms that had already passed out of use in Panini's time. Almost every student of Sanskrit hears the traditional story that Sanskrit was created and then refined over many generations (traditionally more than a thousand years) until it was considered complete and perfect. When the term arose in India, "Sanskrit" was not thought of as a specific language set apart from other languages (the people of the time regarded languages more as dialects), but rather as a particularly refined manner of speaking, bearing a similar relation to common language that "Standard" English bears to dialects spoken in the United Kingdom or United States. Knowledge of Sanskrit was a marker of social class and educational attainment, and was taught through close analysis of Sanskrit grammarians such as Pāṇini. This form of the language evolved out of the earlier "Vedic" form, and scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit as separate languages. However, they are extremely similar in many ways and differ mostly in a few points of phonology, vocabulary, and grammar. But some think that in ancient India there were various dialects of Sanskrit, and Classical Sanskrit is one of these dialects, and Vedic is an earlier stage of another of these dialects; the Vedic dialect had more tendency to change Indo-European [l] into [r]; Vedic changed [d.] and [d.h] into [l.] and [l.h] (with retroflex l) between vowels. Vedic is the language of the Vedas, the earliest sacred texts of India and the base of the Hindu religion. The earliest of the Vedas, the Rigveda, was composed by many authors over hundreds, and probably thousands of years. Recent scholarship traces the composition of the Rigveda to the 3rd or even 4th millennium BCE at a period before the Saraswati River dried up. The Rigveda mentions the Saraswati as the mightiest of all rivers (RV 7.95.2). By 2,500 BCE it had disappeared. The Vedic form of Sanskrit survived until the middle of the first millennium BC. It is around this time that Sanskrit made the transition from a first language to a second language of religion and learning, marking the beginning of the Classical period. A form of Sanskrit called Epic Sanskrit is seen in the Mahabharata and other Hindu epics. This includes more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than Classical Sanskrit proper. There is also a language dubbed "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit" by scholars, which is actually a prakrit ornamented with Sanskritized elements, perhaps for purposes of ostentation (see also termination of spoken Sanskrit). There is a strong relationship between the various forms of Sanskrit and the Middle Indo-Aryan "Prakrits", or vernacular languages (in which, among other things, most early Jain and Buddhist texts are written), and the modern Indo-Aryan languages. The Prakrits are probably descended from Vedic, and there is mutual interchange between later forms of Sanskrit and various Prakrits. There has also been reciprocal influence between Sanskrit and the Dravidian languages. European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth and Johann Ernst Hanxleden, led to the proposal of the Indo-European language family by Sir William Jones, and thus played an important role in the development of Western linguistics. Indeed, linguistics (along with phonology, etc.) first arose among Indian grammarians who were attempting to catalog and codify Sanskrit's rules. Modern linguistics owes a great deal to these grammarians, and to this day, key terms for compound analysis are taken from Sanskrit.

Phonology and writing system

See also Shiva Sutra. Classical Sanskrit has 48 phonemes (Vedic Sanskrit has 49). The sounds are described here in their traditional order: vowels, stops and nasals (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the liquids and sibilants. (Note: The long vowels are held about twice as long as their short counterparts. Also, there exists a third, extra-long length for most vowels, which is used in various cases, but particularly in the vocative.)

Simple vowels

Unlike in English, , , and are treated as vowels. Some grammarians mention ॡ , a longer version of , but this does not actually occur in Sanskrit and seems to have been created by analogy with the other vowels. Technically speaking, never occurs in the language at a purely phonetic level. It, however is seen in the genitive plural of vocalic-r stems (मातृ mātṛ mother; पितृ pitṛ father; gen.pl.मातॄणाम् and पितॄणाम् mātṝṇām and pitṝṇām etc.) and explains irregularities in the conjugation of verbs such as d "to tear", and k "to scatter".

Diphthongs (combinations of simple vowels)

Vowels can be nasalized.

Consonants

There is also the anusvāra (), which often appears as nasalization of the preceding vowel or as a nasal homorganic to the following consonant.

Pitch

Vedic Sanskrit is a pitch accent language. Native grammarians define three tones (svara): udātta = 'raised', anudātta = 'not raised', and svarita = 'sounded'. The udātta syllable corresponds to the original Indo-European stress. The svarita is usually the next syllable after an udātta. Probably when the Rigveda was written down, the pitch of speech rose through the udātta and came back down through the following svarita. A svarita which is not next after an udātta is called an "independent svarita". In transliteration udātta is marked with acute accent (´) and independent svarita with a grave accent (`). Independent svarita occurs only where its udātta was lost because of vowel sandhi. Classical Sanskrit is usually pronounced with a stress accent decided by the syllable length pattern of each word.

Sandhi

Sanskrit has an elaborate set of phonological rules called sandhi and which are expressed in writing (except in so-called pada texts). Sandhi refers to combination of words when they are spoken with each other without a gap. Since the word scheme is based on pronunciation, this is no exception. Sandhi rules define how the entire word or phrase sounds when two words are combined or merged. Almost always, the new word sounds like the two words spoken one after other except for euphonic changes at the point where the first word ends and the second one starts. This change depends on the sound with which the first word ends and the sound with which the second word starts. These sounds also form the basis of classification of sandhis. The effects of Sandhi have been carefully observed and described, leading to codified rules of combination. For example, when saying one word ending in i followed by another starting in u, these will be combined into yu. These sandhi rules are not always obeyed in the Vedas. is a combination of two or more words, or sometimes even a phrase, like 'newborn' is for 'newly born'. The meaning of a is normally clear from the itself, though some of the have a meaning very different from their constituent words. These are normally used to refer to some personality, deity or thing by one of its well known characteristics. are also categorized according to the kind of meaning they have and the constituent word that dominates the meaning. plays a key role in many cases, especially in certain expressions. does not have any distortion in the words, although sometimes prefixes and suffixes are used to impart a certain type of meanings to the words. A sandhi always consists of two meaningful words while all constituent words of a may not be meaningful individually. A sandhi may be difficult to understand for a person who is inexperienced in Sanskrit or has a poor vocabulary. It is same with , but they are much easier to understand as they are mostly used in some fixed formats and meanings. Sandhi and add beauty to the language and are extensively used by poets. When a sandhi can be broken in more than one way or a can be interpreted in more than one way, they can be used as puns. There are many examples of such uses in Sanskrit literature.

Script

Veda manuscript in the Sharada script (17th or 18th century)]] Sanskrit historically has had no single script associated with it. Ashoka used the Brahmi script for his pillar inscriptions (which were not in Sanskrit, but in Prakrit dialects and other languages). Roughly contemporary with the Brahmi, the Kharosthi script was used. Later (ca. 4th to 8th centuries AD) the Gupta script, derived from Brahmi, became prevalent. From ca. the 8th century, the Sharada script evolved out of the Gupta script, and was mostly displaced in its turn by Devanagari from ca. the 12th century, with intermediary stages such as the Siddham script. Other scripts used include Kannada in the South, Grantha in Tamil speaking regions, Bengali, and other North Indian scripts in other regions. From the late Middle Ages, and especially in modern times, the Devanagari (meaning "as used in the city of the Gods") script has become the most widely used and associated with Sanskrit. Occasionally, in regions of India where Devanagari is not the script of the vernacular (as it is with Hindi or Marathi) one will find texts still written in the local script. Writing was introduced relatively late to India, and it did not immediately become important since oral learning was the primary means of transmitting knowledge. Rhys Davids suggests that writing may have been introduced from the Middle East by traders, but Sanskrit, which had been used exclusively in sacred contexts, remained a purely oral language until well into India's classical age. It is interesting to note the importance that Sanskrit orthography and Vedic philosophy of sound play in Hindu symbolism, as the varnamala, or sound-garland/alphabet, of 51 letters is also seen to be represented by the 51 skulls of Kali. In the Upanishads, the transcendent-immanent nature of Brahman is represented by the half-matra, or sphota of sound that is inherent to a beat of sound in the Sanskrit system. Since the 19th century, Sanskrit has also been transliterated using the Latin alphabet. Most commonly used today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), which has been the academic standard since 1912. Other transliteration schemes have evolved due to difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include Harvard-Kyoto that was used earlier, and ITRANS, a lossless transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet (especially Usenet). For scholarly work, Devanagari has generally been preferred for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts; however, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European languages are usually represented using Roman transliteration.

Grammar

Grammatical tradition

Panini (scholar), Shiva Sutra, Astadhyayi, Dhatupatha, Patanjali, Varadaraja, Laghukaumudi.

Verbs

Classification of verbs

Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Vowel gradation is also very common; every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, guṇa, and vṛddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the guṇa-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vṛddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.

Tense systems

The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
- Present (Present, Imperfect, Imperative, Optative)
- Perfect
- Aorist
- Future (Future, Conditional)

Present system

The present system includes the present and imperfect tenses, the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes. For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:
- 2) No modification at all, for example ad from ad 'eat'.
- 3) Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example juhu from hu 'sacrifice'.
- 7) Infixion of na or n before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example rundh or ruṇadh from rudh 'obstruct'.
- 5) Suffixation of nu (guṇa form no), for example sunu from su 'press out'.
- 8) Suffixation of u (guṇa form o), for example tanu from tan 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. tanu derives from tnnu, which is zero-grade for
- tannu, because in Indo-European [m] and [n] could be vowels, which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; kar = "make", "do" was 5th class in Vedic (krnoti = "he makes"), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (karoti = "he makes")
- 9) Suffixation of nā (zero-grade nī or n), for example krīṇa or krīṇī from krī 'buy'. For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:
- 1) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with guṇa strengthening, for example, bháva from bhū 'be'.
- 6) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example tudá from tud 'thrust'.
- 4) Suffixation of ya, for example dī́vya from div 'play'. The tenth class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation.

Perfect system

The perfect system includes only the perfect tense. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system. The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.

Aorist system

The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhūḥ "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhūḥ "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment - a- prefixed to the stem. The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t "he was"). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem.

Future system

The future system is formed with the suffixation of sya or iṣya and guṇa.

Verbs: Conjugation

Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.

Basic conjugational endings

Conjugational endings in Sanskrit convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi. Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect and imperative endings are used with the perfect and imperative respectively.

Present system conjugation

Conjugation of the present system deals with all forms of the verb utilizing the present tense stem (explained under Tense Stems above). This includes the present tense of all moods, as well as the imperfect indicative.

Athematic inflection

The present system differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:
- The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive guṇa in the strong forms.
- The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to ná in the strong form.
- The nu-class (5) has nu in the weak form and nó in the strong form.
- The nā-class (9) has nī in the weak form and nā́ in the strong form. nī disappears before vocalic endings. The present indicative takes primary endings, and the imperfect indicative takes secondary endings. Singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms. The optative takes secondary endings. yā is added to the stem in the active, and ī in the passive. The imperative takes imperative endings. Accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger guṇa strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.

Nominal inflection

Sanskrit is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative. The number of actual declensions is debatable. In this article they are divided into five declensions. Which declension a noun belongs to is determined largely by form.

a-stems

A-stems comprise the largest class of nominals. As a rule nouns belonging to this class, ending in short-A, are either masculine or neuter. Nouns ending in long-A tend to be feminine. A-stem adjectives take the masculine and neuter in short-A, and feminine in long-A.

i- and u-stems

Long Vowel-stems

ṛ-stems

ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like dātṛ 'giver', though also include kinship terms like pitṛ́ 'father', mātṛ́ 'mother', and svásṛ 'sister'. See also Devi inflection, Vrkis inflection.

Personal Pronouns and Determiners

The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by analogy assimilated themselves with one another. Note: Where two forms are given, the second is enclitic and an alternative form. Ablatives in singular and plural may be extended by the syllable -tas; thus mat or mattas, asmat or asmattas. The demonstrative ta, declined below, also functions as the third person pronoun.

Compounds

One other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge (10+ words) as in some modern languages such as German. Nominal compounds occur with various structures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. Some examples of nominal compounds include: 1. (co-ordinative) ::These consist of two or more noun stems, connected in sense with 'and', e.g. matara-pitara 'Mother and Father'. Due to these compounds having more than one noun in them, they must be in the dual or plural. 2. (possessive) ::Bahuvrīhi, or "much-rice", denotes a rich person—one who has much rice. Bahuvrīhi compounds refer (by example) to a compound noun with no head -- a compound noun that refers to a thing which is itself not part of the compound. For example, "low-life" and "block-head" are bahuvrihi compounds, since a low-life is not a kind of life, and a block-head is not a kind of head. (And a much-rice is not a kind of rice.) Compare with more common, headed, compound nouns like "fly-ball" (a kind of ball) or "alley cat" (a kind of cat). Bahurvrīhis can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice", or "much riced". 3. (determinative) ::There are many tatpuruas (one for each of the nominal cases, and a few others besides); in a tatpurua, the first component is in a case relationship with another. For example, a doghouse is a dative compound, a house for a dog. It would be called a "caturtitatpurua" (caturti refers to the fourth case—that is, the dative). Incidentally, "tatpurua" is a tatpurua ("this man"—meaning someone's agent), while "caturtitatpurua" is a karmadhārya, being both dative, and a tatpurua. An easy way to understand it is to look at English examples of tatpuruas: "battlefield", where there is a genitive relationship between "field" and "battle", "a field of battle"; other examples include instrumental relationships ("thunderstruck") and locative relationships ("towndwelling"). 4. (descriptive) ::The relation of the first member to the last is appositional, attributive or adverbial, e. g. uluka-yatu (owl+demon) is a demon in the shape of an owl. 5. (iterative) ::Repetition of a word expresses repetitiveness, e. g. dive-dive 'day by day', 'daily'.

Syntax

Word order is free with tendency toward SOV.

Numerals

The numbers from one to ten are: The numbers one through four are declined. Éka is declined like a pronomial adjective, though the dual form does not occur. Dvá appears only in the dual. Trí and catúr are declined irregularly:

Influences

Modern-day India

Sanskrit's greatest influence, presumably, is that which it exerted on languages that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base. Especially among elite circles in India, Sanskrit is prized as a storehouse of scripture and the language of prayers in Hinduism. Like Latin's influence on European languages, Sanskrit has influenced most Indian languages. While vernacular prayer is common, Sanskrit mantras are recited by millions of Hindus and most temple functions are conducted entirely in Sanskrit, often Vedic in form. Most higher forms of Indian vernacular languages like Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu and Hindi, often called 'shuddha' (pure, higher) are much more heavily Sanskritized. Of modern day Indian languages, while Hindi tends to be, in spoken form, more heavily weighted with Arabic and Persian influence, Bengali and Marathi still retain a largely Sanskrit vocabulary base. The national anthem, Jana Gana Mana is higher form of Bengali, so Sanskritized as to be archaic in modern usages. The national song of India Vande Mataram which is originally a poem - composed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and taken from his book called 'Aanandmath', is in pure Sanskrit. Malayalam, which is spoken in the Kerala state of India, also combines a great deal of Sanskrit vocabulary with Tamil (Dravidian) grammatical structure. Kannada, another South Indian language, also contains Sanskrit vocabulary. But as a medium of spiritual instruction for Hindus in India, Sanskrit is still prized and widespread. Sanskrit words are found in many other present-day non-Indian languages. For instance, the Thai language contains many loan words from Sanskrit. For example, in Thai, the Rāvana - the emperor of Sri Lanka is called 'Thoskonth' which is clearly a derivation of his Sanskrit name 'Dashakanth' (of ten necks). And ranged as far as the Philippines, e.g., Tagalog 'gurò' from 'Guru', or 'teacher', with the Hindu seafarers who traded there.

Attempts at revival

Of late, there have been attempts to revive the speaking of this ancient tongue among people, so that vast literature available in Sanskrit can be made easily available to everyone. The CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) in India has made Sanskrit a third language in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8. An option between Sanskrit and Hindi (or many other local languages) as a second language exists for grades 9 and 10. Many organizations like the Samskrta Bharati are conducting Speak Sanskrit workshops to popularize the language. About four million people are claimed to have acquired the ability to speak Sanskrit. Sanskrit is claimed to be spoken natively by the population in Mattur, a village in central Karnataka. Inhabitants, of all castes, learn Sanskrit starting in childhood and converse in the language. Even the local Muslims speak and converse in Sanskrit. Historically, the village was given by king Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire to Vedic scholars and their families. People in his kingdom spoke Kannada and Tuluva.

Interactions with Sino-Tibetan languages

Sanskrit and related languages have also influenced their Sino-Tibetan-speaking neighbors to the north through the spread of Buddhist texts in translation. Buddhism was spread to China by Mahayanist missionaries mostly through translations of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and classical Sanskrit texts, and many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. (Although Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is not Sanskrit, properly speaking, its vocabulary is substantially the same, both because of genetic relationship, and because of conscious imitation on the part of composers. Buddhist texts composed in Sanskrit proper were primarily found in philosophical schools like the Madhyamaka.)

Western vogue for Sanskrit

At the end of the introduction to The World as Will and Representation, Arthur Schopenhauer claimed that the rediscovery of the ancient Indian tradition would be one of the great events in the history of the West. Goethe borrowed from Kalidasa for the Vorspiel auf dem Theater in Faust. Goethe and Schopenhauer were riding a crest of scholarly discovery, most notably the work done by Sir William Jones. (Goethe likely read Kalidasa's The Recognition of Sakuntala in Jones' translation.) However, the discovery of the world of Sanskrit literature moved beyond German and British scholars and intellectuals — Henry David Thoreau was a sympathetic reader of the Bhagavad Gita — and even beyond the humanities. In the early days of the Periodic Table, scientists referred to as yet undiscovered elements with the use of Sanskrit prefixes (see Mendeleev's predicted elements). The nineteenth century was a golden age of Western Sanskrit scholarship, and many of the giants of the field (Whitney, Macdonnell, Monier-Williams, Grassmann) knew each other personally. Perhaps the most commonly known example of Sanskrit in the West was also the last gasp of its vogue. T.S. Eliot, a student of Indian Philosophy and Lanham's, ended The Waste Land with Sanskrit: "Shantih Shantih Shantih".

Computational linguistics

There have been suggestions to use Sanskrit as a metalanguage for knowledge representation in e.g. machine translation, and other areas of natural language processing because of its highly regular structure ([http://www.gosai.com/science/sanskrit-nasa.html The AI Magazine, Spring, 1985 #39]). This is due to Classical Sanskrit being a regularized, prescriptivist form abstracted from the much more irregular and richer Vedic Sanskrit. This levelling of the grammar of Classical Sanskrit occurred during the Brahmana phase, after the language had fallen out of popular use, arguably qualifying Classical Sanskrit as an early engineered language.

References

- The Sanskrit Language - T. Burrow - ISBN 8120817672
- Sanskrit Grammar - William D. Whitney - ISBN 8185557594
- Sanskrit Pronunciation - Bruce Cameron - ISBN 1557000212
- "Teach Yourself Sanskrit" - Prof. M. Coulson - ISBN 0340859903
- "A Sanskrit Grammar for Students" - A.A. Macdonell - ISBN 8124600945

External links

- [http://sanskrit.farfromreal.com Discover Sanskrit] A concise study of the Sanskrit language
- [http://bhagavata.org/glossary/ Lexicon] of Names, Essential terms and Sanskrit Words to the S'rîmad Bhâgavatam and the Bhagavad Gîtâ
- [http://bhagavata.org/downloads/SanskritDictionary.html Sanskrit-English dictionary] list of 13.000 basic-terms
- [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/ Sanskrit, Tamil and Pahlavi Dictionaries] Monier-Williams dictionary online
- [http://bhagavata.org/downloads/sanskritgrammar.pdf Harivenu Dâsa - An Introductory Course based on S'rîla Jîva Gosvâmî's Grammar] a vaishnava version of Pânini's grammar: (pdf-file)
- [http://www.alkhemy.com/sanskrit/dict/dictall.txt Online Sanskrit Dictionary]
- [http://www.warnemyr.com/skrgram/ An Analytical Cross Referenced Sanskrit Grammar] By Lennart Warnemyr. Phonology, morphology and syntax, written in a semiformal style with full paradigms.
- [http://www.swargarohan.org/Glossary.htm Spiritual Sanskrit-English Dictionary]
- [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=51 Sanskrit Discussion Forum]
- [http://sanskrit.gde.to/ Sanskrit Documents] Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc. and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.
- [http://www.balendu.com Free Sanskrit Word Processor: Madhyam] developed by Balendu Sharma Dadhich
- [http://www.sanskritweb.net Sanskritweb] Freely downloadable Sanskrit fonts and Sanskrit texts
- [http://www.geocities.com/giirvaani/ GiirvaaNi - Sanskrit Classical Literature with translation]
- [http://ds.dial.pipex.com/town/avenue/xha71/pow2.htm The earliest dated illustrated Sanskrit manuscript in the world]
- [http://www.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/cgi-bin/agrep-lindict?query=Sanskr.&category=full&boo=no&ignore=on&substr=on&order=all A list of Chinese words originated from Sanskrit]
- [http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/indologie/tamil/mwd_search.html Monier-Williams Dictionary - Searchable]
- [http://indica-et-buddhica.org/?q=node/8 Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary: DICT & HTML Downloadable Versions]
- [http://indica-et-buddhica.org/dict/lexica Indica-et-Buddhica.org Lexica (searchable Monier-Williams included)]
- [http://www.thekrishnastore.com/Detail.bok?no=2295&bar= Monier-Williams Dictionary - Searchable Digital Facsimile Edition] Freeware CD
- [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0000/ Monier-Williams Dictionary - Printable]
- [http://www.samskrita-bharati.org/ Samskrita Bharati]
- [http://sanskritlinks.blogspot.com Sanskrit Studies, Links and Information]
- [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/bhate.pdf pAnini’s Grammar and Computer Science]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=san Ethnologue's Sanskrit report]
- [http://www.americansanskrit.com/ American Sanskrit Institute]
- [http://www.atmajyoti.org/sw_glossary.asp A brief Sanskrit Glossary] Lists commonly used words in spiritual writings
- [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Tranliterator] Transliterates from romanized to Unicode Sanskrit transliterator.
- [http://www.proz.com/sanskrit-to-english-translation-services Sanskrit Translations]
- [http://www.sanskrit-lamp.org/ A Sanskrit Tutor]
- [http://www.sanskrit-sanscrito.com.ar/ Sanskrit & Sánscrito] Sanskrit language, Yoga, Indian philosophies, blog, names, names of hatha yoga postures, Directory of Free Sanskrit Links, translations and much more (English-Spanish).
- [http://www.atma.ca/] Sanskrit web site, called ATMA (french) Category:Classical languages Category:Languages of India Category:Ancient languages
- ko:산스크리트어 ms:Bahasa Sanskrit ja:サンスクリット th:ภาษาสันสกฤต

Kashmir

is under Chinese occupation]] Kashmir is a region between the northern part of South Asia and the southern part of Central Asia. The term Kashmir historically described the valley just to the south of the westernmost end of the Himalayan mountain range. Politically, however, the term 'Kashmir' describes a much larger area which includes the regions of Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh. The main "Vale of Kashmir" is relatively low and very fertile, while magnificent mountains fed by streams flowing from adjoining valleys are found on the rest of the Kashmiri landscape. It is renowned as one of the most spectacularly beautiful places in the world. Srinagar, the ancient capital, lies alongside Dal Lake and is famous for its canals and houseboats. Srinagar (alt. 1,600 m. or 5,200 ft.) acted as a favoured summer capital for many foreign conquerors who found the heat of the north Indian plains in summer oppressive. Just outside the city are the beautiful Shalimar gardens created by Jehangir, the Mughal emperor, in 1619. The region is currently divided amongst three countries: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion Jammu and Kashmir, the Siachen Glacier is controlled by both India and Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, India has never formally recognized the accession of the areas claimed by Pakistan and China. India claims that these areas, including the area ceded to China by Pakistan in 1963 (the Trans-Karakoram Tract) are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. Both countries view the entire Kashmir region as disputed territory, and do not consider each other's claim to be valid. An option favoured by many Kashmiris is independence, but both India and Pakistan oppose this for various reasons. Because of this Kashmir is considered one of the world's most well-known territorial disputes, and most Western made maps use a dotted-line to indicate the territory's uncertain boundaries. The rest of this article will, for the sake of clarity, refer to the parts of Kashmir administered by India, Pakistan and China as "Indian Kashmir", "Pakistani Kashmir", and "Chinese Kashmir" respectively. By this nomenclature, the word "Kashmir" in "Indian Kashmir" is used in a general sense to refer to what India calls "Jammu and Kashmir". disputed territory

History

For history of Kashmir prior to the 19th century, see History of Kashmir. For information regarding on-going conflict see History of the Kashmir conflict

Modern history

Kashmir passed from the control of the Durrani Empire (see Ahmad Shah Durrani) of Afghanistan and centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals, Persians, and Afghans to the conquering Sikh armies by the mid-19th century. During the latter part of the 19th century, Kashmir was ruled by the Dogras, who are a predominantly Hindu people in the area around Jammu and who were installed as rulers by the Sikhs (see Ranjit Singh). Their kings paid tribute to the Sikhs, and were part of the Sikh Empire that arose following the collapse of the Durrani Empire. Under the Sikhs, as feudatories, the Dogras sought and obtained permission to push further into the North, including regions of Ladakh. Zorawar Singh Dogra led an expedition into Tibet in a failed effort to bring it to submission to the Sikh Empire, as a sub-feudatory of the Dogras. With the sudden collapse of the Sikh Empire before the English forces, the Dogras purchased from the British their independence, and thus also assured themselves of their feudal hold over the subsidiary kingdoms of Kashmir, Ladakh and the Emirates of the north. The Dogra kings who originally ruled only from Jammu, also began to operate in summer from Srinagar, the metropolis of Kashmir. As a result, the Dogra Kingdom developed into a sort of "Dual Monarchy", the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir. Kashmir is a valley whose beauty has been proclaimed by many and stretches out at about 7,200 square kilometers (2,800 square miles) at an elevation of 1,675 meters (5,500 feet). A Mughal ruler who built the famed Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir made the statement, " If heaven be on this earth, it must be here." It has a very ancient history and it was for a long time one of the centers of Hindu philosophical, literary and religious culture, a tradition still maintained by the native population. Kashmiri literature, sculpture, music, dance, painting, and architecture have had a profound influence in Asia. On 8 October 2005, Kashmir was struck by an earthquake with a magnitude between 7.6 and 7.8 on the Moment magnitude scale.

Area and Subdivisions

Indian-administered Kashmir

Moment magnitude scale India controls approximately 45.5% (101,387 km²) of the disputed territory. Indian-administered Kashmir, known as the state of Jammu and Kashmir, includes 3 main regions:
- Kashmir Valley
- Jammu
- Ladakh Indian-controlled Kashmir is divided into 14 administrative districts: Anantnag, Baramulla, Budgam, Doda, Jammu, Kargil, Kathua, Kupwara, Leh, Poonch, Pulwama, Rajauri, Srinagar and Udhampur. Major cities include Srinagar, Jammu and Leh.

Pakistan-administered Kashmir

The Pakistan-controlled portion of Kashmir, is divided up into the following 2 main regions:
- Azad Kashmir: 250 miles in length with width varying from 10 to 40 miles, 13,350 km² (5134 miles²).
- Northern Areas, a much larger area, 72,496 km² (27,991 mi²), incorporated into Pakistan and administered as a de facto dependency.

Chinese-administered Kashmir

Areas under Chinese-control include:
- Aksai Chin: approximately 37,555 km² in size.
- A small part, the Trans-Karakoram Tract, of the Northern Areas that was ceded to China by Pakistan in 1963.

Demographics

1963, Ladakh]] Pakistan-administered Kashmir (containing Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir) contain a 99% Muslim majority. Settlers encouraged by the Government of Pakistan include the Pathan and Punjabi communities. China-administered Kashmir (Aksai Chin) contains an extremely small population of Tibetan origins. Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir (containing Jammu, the Kashmir Valley and Ladakh) contain an approximately 70% Muslim majority (according to Indian sources in 2001). The rest of the population are Buddhist, Hindu and others. The people of Ladakh are of Indo-Tibetan origin, while the southern area of Jammu includes many communities tracing their ancestry to the nearby Indian states of Haryana and Punjab, as well as the city of Delhi. In 1941 the Hindus represented 15 % of the population. In 1991 they only represented 0.1 % of Kashmir's population. [http://ikashmir.net/history/teng.html]. In 1989, the total population of Kashmiri pundits was approximately 425,000. Only 15,000 Kashmiri Pundits still stay in the valley. [http://www.armyinkashmir.org/v2/articles/art_pandit.shtml]

Culture

Delhi Kashmiri lifestyle is essentially, irrespective of the differing religious beliefs, slow paced. Generally peace loving people, the culture has been rich enough to reflect the religious diversity as tribes celebrate festivities that divert them from their otherwise monotonous way of life. Kashmiris are known to enjoy their music in its various local forms and the dresses of both sexes are quite colorful. The Dumhal is a famous dance in Kashmir, performed by menfolk of the Wattal region. The women perform the Rouff another folk dance.

Economy

Delhi in Srinagar]] Historically, Kashmir came into economic limelight when the world famous Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations. Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas and pottery. Kashmir is home to the finest saffron in the world - the Kashmir/Indian saffron. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the middle east. The Kashmir valley, is a fertile area that is the economic backbone for Indian-controlled Kashmir. The area is known for its sericulture as well other agricultural produce like apples, pears and many temperate fruits as well as nuts. Along with pilgrimage, since the dawn of the 20th century, it also became a favourite tourist spot until the increase in tensions in the 1990s. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which as of October 17, 2005 resulted in over seventy thousand deaths.

Tourist attractions

as of October 17, 2005 The scenic setting of Kashmir itself has been a major tourist attraction despite the ever present danger. The mode of travel itself is a picturesque sight with many house boats and boat taxis ferrying passengers and goods alike. There are many mosques serving the largely Muslim population, such as the Hazratbal Mosque, situated on the western banks of Dal Lake. The mosque is home to a holy hair belonging to the prophet Muhammad which was sent to Kashmir by the Moghul emperor Aurangzeb. Thirty kilometers from Srinagar lies Chrar-e-Sharif, which is a holy shrine of the Muslim Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali. Originally constructed in 1395, Khanqah of Shah Hamadan is the first mosque ever built in Srinagar. There are also some Hindu temples. In addition, there is the claimed tomb of Yuzasaf, recently often claimed to be Jesus, in the Rozabal section of Srinagar, visited by many. There is also the purported tomb of Moses on Mount Nebo (Nebo Bal). Recently a number of Jews have started to visit Kashmir to see the land where some lost tribes may have settled in antiquity. Kashmir tourism received a boost when the world's highest and longest operating gondola lift was opened for the public in the Gulmarg region, thereby providing easier access to skiing as well as mountaineering.

External links

- [http://www.kashmirretextured.com/main.html Kashmir Retextured - A photo essay]
- [http://www.southasianist.info/kashmir/index.html Kashmir Virtual library]
- [http://www.kashmirwatch.com Monitoring of news related to Kashmir]
- [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/ Silk Road Seattle] (The Silk Road Seattle website contains many useful resources including a number of full text historical texts)
- [http://www.kashmiris.org kashmiris.org provides News views, Bookmarks and much more on kashmir]
- [http://www.worldisround.com/articles/57312/index.html Images of Azad Kashmir (Free Kashmir)]
- [http://www.ikashmir.org Kashmir News Network]
- [http://www.ikashmir.org/pdf Kashmiri Publications]
- [http://www.geocities.com/m_naumansadiq/constitution/kashmir UN Resolutions on Kashmir]
- [http://www.kashmirwire.com Kashmir News Wire]
- [http://www.jammukashmir.net Kashmir bibliography and specialists]
- [http://www.milchar.com Milchar]
- [http://www.koausa.org/Crown/history.html An outline of the history of Kashmir]
- [http://www.india-defence.com/browse/kashmir/0 Latest news, reports, analysis and intelligence on Kashmir]
- [http://www.ummah.org.uk/kashmir/history.htm History of Kashmir from Pakistani perspective]
- [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/wonder.pdf An overview of Kashmiri achievements]
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/in_depth/south_asia/2002/kashmir_flashpoint/
- [http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/jouvert/v613/sri.htm News Coverage of Kashmir]
- [http://www.kashmir-information.com/LegalDocs/ Legal Documents related to Kashmir including treaties etc..]
- [http://www.whatisindia.com/issues/binpakkm/index.html Jammu & Kashmir on The Indian Analyst] News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources Category:Disputed territories Category:Kashmir Category:Regions of India ja:カシミール

Mahabharata

The Mahabharata (Devanagari: महाभारत, phonetically Mahābhārata - see note), sometimes just called Bharata, is one of the two major ancient Sanskrit epics of India, the other being the Ramayana. It is the second longest literary epic poem in the world (after the Tibetan Epic of King Gesar). Besides being hailed as one of the greatest literary accomplishments of humanity, The Mahabharata is also of immense religious and philosophical importance in India; in particular, the Bhagavad Gita, which is one of its chapters (Bhishmaparva), is a central sacred text of Hinduism. The title may be translated as "History of the Great India" or, more accurately, "the Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty" (bhārata means the progeny of Bharata, the king believed to have founded the Indian kingdom of Bhāratavarsha; "Bharat" has equal status as the official name of India in all Indian governments today and is still commonly used today). The work is part of the Hindu itihaasas, literally "that which happened", along with the Puranas and Ramayana. The full version contains more than 100,000 verses, making it around four times longer than the Bible, and seven times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. It's around 2.5 million words.

Primary purport

Odyssey and his charioteer Krishna. Artwork © courtesy of [http://www.krishna.com The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]] With its vast philosophical depth and sheer magnitude, a consummate embodiment of the ethos of not only grand India but of Hinduism and Vedic tradition, the Mahabharata's scope and grandeur is best summarized by one quotation from the beginning of its first parva (section): "What is found here, may be found elsewhere. What is not found here, will not be found elsewhere." Many scholars in recent history have viewed Ramayana as an ethnically-induced conflict between the indiginious conquered Dravidian peoples and the established Indo-Aryan peoples; hence the text favoring the Aryan's over the Dravidians. Hence, The Mahabharata can be seen as a civil war between the Indo-Aryan kings. In its scope, the Mahabharata is more than simply a story of kings and princes, sages and wisemen, demons and gods; its author, Vyasa, says that one of its aims is elucidating the four goals of life: kama (pleasure), artha (wealth), dharma (duty) and moksha (liberation). The story culminates in moksha, believed by many Hindus to be the ultimate goal of human beings. Karma and dharma play an integral role in the Mahabharata.

Background and history

The epic is told by Vyasa, who is one of the major dynastic characters within the epic. The first section of the Mahabharata states that it was Lord Ganesh (the elephant-headed god of the Hindus) who, at the behest of Vyasa, wrote the epic down on manuscript. Lord Ganesh is said to have agreed, but only on condition that Vyasa never pause in his recitation. Vyasa then put a counter-condition that Ganesh understand whatever he recited, before writing it down. In this way Vyasa could get some respite from continuously speaking by saying a verse which was difficult to understand. This situation also serves as a popular variation on the stories of how Ganesh's right tusk was broken (a traditional part of Ganesh imagery). This version attributes it to the fact that, in the rush of writing, the great elephant-headed divinity's pen failed, and he snapped off his tusk as a replacement in order that the transcription not be interrupted. The Mahabharata is thought to have been derived from what was originally a much shorter work, called Jaya (Sanskrit for Victory). The dating of the events of this story is unclear. Very few people find the events to be reliably placed in Vedic India around 1400 BC. Scholars have studied the astronomical activities described in the Mahabharata (like eclipses) and have claimed to have dated it to around 1478 BC or alternatively 3106 BC. However, it is significant to realize that the debate about dating the 'events' of the Mahabharata is secondary to the importance of the text in Classical Sanskrit literature and culture. Like much of other early Indian literature, it was often transmitted by oral means through the generations. This made it easier for additional episodes and stories to be interpolated within it. It also resulted in regional variations developing. However, the variation has in most cases been in the new additions, and not in the original story.

The Mahabharata, the epic story

Indian literature from attacking Bhishma during the Kurukshetra war. Artwork © courtesy of [http://www.krishna.com The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]] The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kauravas, the elder branch of the family, and the Pandavas, the younger branch. The struggle culminates leading to the Great battle of Kurukshetra, and the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty, and ascent of the Pandava brothers to Heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali (Kali Yuga), through the steady breakdown of truths of which the eighteen-day war of Kurukshetra, the clash of hundreds of thousands of men, elephants and horses, consisted. This is the fourth and final age of mankind, where the great values and noble ideas that humanity represented have crumbled, and man is speedily heading toward the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue in general. (Note that four such yugas - Satya (Truth), Dwāpar (second), Treta (third) and Kāli (dark) - comprise one cycle of 4.32-million years and represent of Brahmā's (God's) day or kalp. After a full kalp, all material and celestial abodes are in a suspended state within Brahmā as Brahmā 'sleeps' in the kalp-pralaya ('night') of 4.32-billion years. For the next kalp, they are created again as they were at the end of the previous kalp. In this way, Brahmā lives for 50 years (each year being 360 kalp and 360 kalp-pralaya). In human terms, Brahmā's age is 155.521972 trillion years. References from the Bhāgwatam 12/4/2 to 12/4/6.) Some of the history's most noble and revered figures end up fighting on the side of the Kauravas, due to allegiances formed prior to the conflict.

Stories

A list of short descriptions of some of the characters and stories:
- Karna, one of the greatest heroes of Mahabharat, known for his loyalty and philanthropy, is one of the central characters of the struggle. Originally son of the Sun and Kunti, eldest of the Pandavas, was born when Kunti tries a magic spell given to her by Sage Dhurvasa. His origins were lost since his mother, then unmarried, abandoned him from birth and he was taken in by a charioteer and his wife instead. During a tournament he had a bitter clash with Arjuna, his brother unknown to him, to ascertain that he was the ace archer and not Arjuna and became sworn enemies; Karna, then known as a charioteer's son, was not allowed to challenge Arjuna which was when the eldest Kaurava Prince Duryodhan makes Karna King by conferring a part of his kingdom. It is as a tribute to this friendship with Duryodhan that he ends up fighting for the Kauravas. Before the great battle, his birth was revealed to him, yet he forfeited his right for the throne choosing instead to fight for his friend Duryodhan and end his feud with Arjuna. Originally nearly invincible, he was first tricked into giving up the divine armour he was born with, then using up his divine lance which never fails to kill, and foreswearing from using another lethal weapon, the Nagastra, more than once, and finally forgets the secret phrase for evoking Brahmastra, the ultimate weapon as he was cursed the day he got it from the sage, Parashurama. His defeat and death more or less ended the war as he was fated to do so. When the Pandavas see Kunti crying over Karna's corpse they understand who he is. Yudhishtira, upset with Kunti having kept his birth a secret all along, curses womanhood that no woman will ever be able to keep a secret again in her life.
- Bhishma, the grandsire who had renounced his kingdom and become celibate for the sake of his father, King Shantanu's love of a boatman's foster daughter. His father was so moved by this deed that he blessed Bhishma to be able to choose his time of death. Bhishma had sworn that he would not die until he knew that Hastinapur was secure and would serve all the kings of Hastinapur the same way he served his father. This oath was the only reason he was the commander of the Kaurava army inspite of his love for the Pandavas. He ended up dying on a bed of arrows laid by his most favorite Arjuna, the Pandava brother whose army had fought against Bhishma's side.
- Bhima is one of the five Pandava brothers whose strength, size, and loyalty is legendary. He was a fierce fighter from childhood and never a coward. He respected Lord Krishna very much and never went against his wishes.
- Madhvacharya is believed to be a reincarnation of him.
- Yudishtira, the eldest Pandava, is known never to have told a single lie in his life, and was known as Dharmaputra, because he was born to Kunti by the grace of Yama, the God of Death, who is also known as Dharmaraja, or the God of Righteousness. Nearing the final days of the war, Drona, a general of fabulous power was wreaking havoc amongst the Pandava ranks. None could defeat him. Duryodhana repeatedly kept accusing his Commander-in-chief, Drona, that he was not fighting at his best because of his love for the Pandavas. Irked by these accusations, Drona, who had then been fighting within the rules of a Dharmayuddha or righteous war, using fair means, started using unfair means - he started using celestial/divine weapons on ordinary soldiers.
In desperation, a plan was hatched to inform Drona that his son Ashwatthama had been killed. Krishna, the author of the plan reasoned that Drona would lose the will to live on hearing this terrible news and would throw down his weapons. Bhima, one of the Pandava brothers, brought his mace down on the head of a huge war elephant called Ashwatthama and it fell dead. Going near the division commanded by Drona, he roared, "I have killed Ashwatthama!"
Drona asked Yudhishtira if this was true, thinking that Yudhishtira would not utter an untruth even for the kingship of the three worlds. Yudhishtira stood trembling in horror of what he was about to do, but coaxed by Lord Krishna that there was no harm in doing such a deed to win the war between good and evil. "Let it be my sin", he said to himself and hardened his heart and said aloud: "Yes, it is true that Ashwatthama has been killed." But, as he was saying it, he felt again the disgrace of it and added in a low and tremulous voice, "Ashwatthama, the elephant" - words which were however drowned in the din and unheard by Drona.
When the words of untruth came out of Yudhishtira's mouth, the wheels of his chariot, which until then always stood and moved four inches above the ground, came down and touched the common road of mankind. Yudishtira is commonly known in India as the paragon of integrity, fallen for his one lapse.
Drona on hearing that his son had been slain sat on the floor of his chariot in yogic meditation. At this moment, Dhrishtadyumna (Brother-in-law of the Pandavas) climbed into the chariot with drawn sword and heedless of the cries of horror and deprecation from all around, fulfilled his destiny as the slayer of Drona by sweeping off the old warrior's head. And the soul of the son of Bharadwaja issued out in a visible blaze of light and mounted heavenwards. - Paraphrased from C Rajagopalachari's translation of the Mahabharata

Structure

The Mahabharata is written in eighteen parvas (chapters or books) which are: # Adiparva - Introduction, birth and upbringing of the princes. (Adi = first). # Sabhaparva - Life at the court, the game of dice, and the exile of the Pandavas. Maya Danava erects the palace and court (sabha), at Indraprastha. # Aranyakaparva (also Vanaparva, Aranyaparva) - The twelve years in exile in the forest (aranya). # Virataparva - The year in exile spent at the court of Virata. # Udyogaparva - Preparations for war. # Bhishmaparva - The first part of the great battle, with Bhishma as commander for the Kauravas. # Dronaparva - The battle continues, with Drona as commander. # Karnaparva - The battle again, with Karna as commander. # Shalyaparva - The last part of the battle, with Shalya as commander. # Sauptikaparva - How Ashvattama and the remaining Kauravas killed the Pandava army in their sleep (Sauptika). # Striparva - Gandhari and the other women lament the dead (stri = woman). # Shantiparva - The crowning of Yudhisthira, and his instructions from Bhishma (shanti = peace). # Anushasanaparva - The final instructions of Bhishma (anushasana = instruction). # Ashvamedhikaparva - The royal ceremony or ashvameda conducted by Yudhisthira. # Ashramavasikaparva - Dhritarashtra, Gandhari and Kunti leave for an ashram, and eventual death in the forest. # Mausalaparva - The infighting between the Yadavas with maces (mausala). # Mahaprasthanikaparva - The first part of the path to death of Yudhisthira and his brothers (mahaprasthana, the great journey = death). # Svargarohanaparva - The Pandavas return to the spiritual world (svarga = heaven). There also exists an appendix of 16,375 verses, the Harivamsaparva, which focuses specifically on the life of Lord Krishna. Among the principal works and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the following. They are often isolated and presented as works complete in and of themselves. # Bhagavad Gita (Krishna instructs and teaches Arjuna. Bhishmaparva.) # Damayanti (or Nala and Damayanti, a love story. Aranyakaparva.) # Krishnavatara (the story of Krishna, the Krishna Leela, which is woven through many chapters of the story) # Rama (an abbreviated version of the Ramayana. Aranyakaparva.) # Rishyasringa (also written as Rshyashrnga, the horned boy and rishi. Aranyakaparva.) # Vishnu sahasranama (the most famous hymn to Vishnu, which describes His 1000 names; Anushasanaparva.) During the 20th century, scholars have used the earliest existing copies of the work in their regional variations, to develop a composite reference work known as the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata. This project was completed in 1966 at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune.

Modern Mahabharata

The Mahabharata claims to contain the essence and sum of all the Vedas and other Hindu scriptures. It does include large amounts of interpolated Hindu mythology, cosmological stories of the gods and goddesses, and philosophical parables aimed at students of Hindu philosophy. The stories are commonly told to children, at religious functions, or around the house. In the late 1980s, the Mahabharata ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0158417/ IMDb entry]) was televised and shown on India's national TV (Doordarshan). Directed by B. R. Chopra, it was immensely popular, so much so that streets were deserted when it was telecast and even Cabinet meetings were re-scheduled so that Ministers could watch it. The Mahabarata is arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus living in the Indian subcontinent, if not abroad.

External links

- Full etext in Devanāgarī and in transliterated Sanskrit:
- http://www.hindunet.org/mahabharata/
- http://bombay.oriental.cam.ac.uk/john/mahabharata/statement.html (requires free registration and license agreement)
- [http://www.swargarohan.org/Mahabharat.htm Mahabharat Na Moti - Mahabharat in Gujarati along with reference of characters]
- [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/MahabharataII.pdf Mahabharata and Sindhu- Sarasvathi tradition, a paper by Subhash kak (pdf)]
- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm Mahabharata by Kisari Mohan Ganguly (published between 1883 and 1896) - the most comprehensive English translation till date ]
- [http://web.utk.edu/~jftzgrld/MBh1Home.html Excellent introduction]
- [http://www.mahabharatathefilm.com More information on Shahrukh Khan's new movie]
- [http://www.investindia.com/newsite/religion/mahabhar.htm Brief Summary of the Mahabharata in English]
- [http://mailerindia.com/maha/vyasa/index.php More detailed, book-by-book summary]
- [http://www.sulekha.com/column.asp?cid=305835 The Date Of The Mahabharata War]
- [http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/lectures_and_discourses/the_mahabharata.htm Vivekananda on the Mahabharata]
- [http://intyoga.freeservers.com/indlit03.htm Aurobindo on the Mahabharata]
- [http://imdb.com/title/tt0097810/ IMDB entry of 1989 The Mahabharata movie directed by Peter Brook] Category:Epics Category:Hindu texts Category:Mahabharata epic Category:Sanskrit texts ms:Mahabharata ja:マハーバーラタ

Maurya empire

), at its largest extent around 230 BCE.]] The Mauryan Empire was India's first great unified empire. It lasted from 321 to 185 BCE, and was ruled by the Mauryan dynasty. At its height it ruled virtually all of northern and central India and parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. Archaeologically, it coincides with the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) period.

Formative period

When Alexander the Great conquered the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent in 326 BCE, he allied with king Ambhi of Taxila (called Taxiles or Omphis in Greek sources), and with his support managed to subdue king Porus of Pauravas, a state of eastern Punjab, defeating him at the Battle of the Hydaspes River. Alexander thereafter established vassal states (satrapies), headed by the previous kings Ambhi and Porus, and founded several garrison towns. A Greek satrap named Philippus controlled a Macedonian occupation force. After his assassination he was replaced by the Thracian Eudamus. Following the refusal of his troops to go further east, Alexander returned to Babylon, and redeployed most of his troops west of the Indus. When Alexander died in Babylon soon after in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, which opened up opportunities for the rise of new kingdoms everywhere, an opportunity seized in India by Chandragupta Maurya.

The rise of a unified state

Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta Maurya's fantastic rise to power is complemented by origins shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand, a number of ancient indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. On the other, his fortune is often accounted to a twist of fate wherein his preceptor, Kautilya, is said to have observed this village boy's executive character and raised him to defeat Dhana Nanda. Supposedly the son of a peacock tamer (hence the name Maurya), he was given a fitting education by the author of the Arthashastra. Regardless of his background, Chandragupta maintains his place in the annals of history as the first of the great Indian Emperors. Indeed, if his military successes are any indication, he may be ranked globally as the greatest ruler of his time. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrocottus". As a young man, he is said to have met Alexander, angered him, and to have made a narrow escape. Following the break-up of Alexander's empire, he raised an army in those territories and defeated the Macedonian garrisons. Chandragupta then proceeded to go east to overthrow the Nanda dynasty of the Magadha region. After subsequent attempts, through the guidance of his teacher and advisor (Kautilya), he ultimately managed to defeat and dethrone Dhana Nanda. Chandragupta then invaded the Punjab, after one of Alexander's satraps, Peithon of Media had tried to raise a coalition against him. He managed to conquer the Punjab capital of Taxila.

The Mauryan empire

Media.]]

Chandragupta

Chandragupta was again in conflict with the Greeks, when Seleucus I, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India which had been lost, during a campaign in 305 BCE. Chandragupta defeated Seleucus and then the two rulers exchanged a peace treaty, Chandragupta received the daughter of the Seleucid king Seleucus I and the territories of Gandara and Arachosia, and Seleucus I received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established, and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, resided at the Mauryan court. Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration under the advisorship of Kautilya, established at the capital of Pataliputra, which, according to Magasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous Persian sites such as Susa and Ecbatana".

Bindusara

Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards central and southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus (Strabo 1–70).

Ashoka

Ashoka and Aramaic), found in Kandahar. Circa 250 BCE, Kabul Museum.]] Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka (273- 232 BCE), is said to have been the greatest of the Mauryan emperors. He converted to the Buddhist faith following remorse for his bloody conquest of the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa. He became a great proselytiser of Buddhism, insisting on non-violence to humans and animals (ahimsa), and general precepts regulating the life of lay people. He is said to have built 84,000 Buddhist stupas throughout India, as well as roads and hospitals. According to the Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, he sent Buddhist emissaries to the Greek lands in Asia and as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time.

Mauryan Administration

Hellenic The Empire was divided into four provinces with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the name of the four provincial capitals are Tosali(in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the kumara (royal prince) who used to govern the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was in turn assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his mantriparishad (council of ministers). Accordingly, historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra. As such, a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to be the largest standing army of its time. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes.

Decline

The reign of Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, ruled territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka, but he was still upholding the Buddhist faith. He was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade by the commander-in-chief of his guard, the Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established the Sunga dynasty. The assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution for Buddhists, and a resurgence of Hinduism. The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. TheGreco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up of Pan-Indian power and conquered Southern Afghanistan and parts of Northwestern India around 180 BC. The Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-indus and make forays into central india for the better part of a century. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right upto the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks and retained lands in the trans-indus and Gujarat.

References

- [http://www.history-forum.com/index.php?topic=9.0 Mauryan Empire] discussion at History Forum "The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece" by Robert Morkot ISBN 0140513353 Category:Buddhism Category:Historical Indian empires Category:Former monarchies Mauryab Category:History of Pakistan ja:マウリヤ朝

Ashoka

Please see Ashoka (disambiguation) for other uses of the word Ashoka Ashoka the Great (IAST , Devanagari अशोक ) was the emperor of the Mauryan empire from 273 BC to 232 BC. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of South Asia and beyond, from present day Afghanistan to Bengal and as far south as Mysore. An early supporter of Buddhism, Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Shakyamuni Buddha, and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism. The name "Ashoka" translates as 'without sorrow' in Sanskrit. Asoka was the first ruler of ancient Bharatavarsha (India), after the famed Mahabharata rulers, to unify such a vast territory under his empire, which in retrospect exceeds the boundaries of the present-day Republic of India. The British author H. G. Wells wrote of Ashoka: "In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves 'Their Highnesses', 'Their Majesties' and 'Their Exalted Majesties' and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day."

Historical Sources

Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashoka Avadana ('Story of Ashoka') and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Asoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Piyadasi- meaning 'good looking', or 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya. The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, and the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Later scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources- the Ashokan edicts- make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of dhamma (Sanskrit: dharma). Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly-religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of dharma as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashoka's age (such as the Jains, Buddhists, orthodox Brahmanists, and Ajivikas). Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest. Modern scholars and adherants of the traditional Buddhist perspective both tend to agree that Ashoka's rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths.

Early life

Ashoka was the son of the Mauryan emperor Bindusara by a relatively lower ranked Queen known as Dharma. Ashoka had several elder siblings and just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka. Because of his exemplary intellect and warrior skills, he is said to have been the favorite of his grandfather Chandragupta Maurya. According to legend, Ashoka recovered his grandfather's sword after Chandragupta Maurya cast it away before embarking on life as a Jain ascetic.

Rise to power

Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several regiments of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by Bimbasara to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Prince Susima, the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of Taxila in the north-west province of Sindh, of which Prince Susima was the governor. Taxila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like Indo-Greek population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a fight. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist). militia Ashoka's success made his step-brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor, and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into Kalinga and stayed incognito there. There he met a fisherwoman named Kaurwaki, with whom he fell in love; recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen. Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in Ujjain. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka back after an exile of two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the Buddha, and it is also where he met Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent Vidisha. After recovering, he married her. It was quite unacceptable to Bindusara that one of his sons should marry a Buddhist, so he did not allow Ashoka to stay in Pataliputra, but instead sent him back to Ujjain and made him the governor of Ujjain. The following year passed quite peacefully for him and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meantime, Emperor Bindusara died. As the news of the unborn heir to the throne spread, Prince Susima planned the execution of the unborn child; however, the assassin who came to kill Devi and her child killed his mother instead. As the folklore goes, in a fit of rage, Prince Ashoka attacked Pataliputra (modern day Patna), and beheaded all his brothers, including Susima, and threw their bodies in a well in Pataliputra. At that stage of his life, many called him Chanda Ashoka meaning murderer and heartless Ashoka. Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, expanding it from the present-day boundaries of Bangladesh and the state of Assam in India in the east to the territory of present-day Iran and Afghanistan in the west; from the Pamir Knots in the north to the almost peninsular part of southern India. At that stage of his life, he was called Chakravartin which literally translates to "he for whom the wheel of law turns" (broadly meaning the emperor). right

Conquest of Kalinga

While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga, on the east coast of India in the present-day state of Orissa. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy; with its monarchical-cum-parliamentary democracy, it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed the concept of Rajdharma, meaning the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and Kshatriya dharma. The pretext for the start of the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 BC) is uncertain. One of Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit. The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tactics of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed: Ashoka's later edicts say that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army; thousands of men and women were deported.

Conversion to Buddhism

As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous quotation, "What have I done?" The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism and he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient Rome and Egypt. From that point Ashoka, who had been described as "the cruel Ashoka" (Chandashoka), started to be described as "the pious Ashoka" (Dharmashoka). He made Vibhajjavada Buddhism his state religion around 260 BC. He propagated the Vibhajjvada school of Buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BC. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist polity. polity.]] Prominent in this cause were his son Venerable Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He built thousands of stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa 1 was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of nonviolence or ahimsa. Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. Wildlife became protected by the king's law against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one day each year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and caste. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. He is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals and renovating major roads throughout India. After this transformation of self, Ashoka came to be known as Dhammashoka (Pāli), meaning Ashoka, the follower of Dharma. Ashoka defined the main principles of dharma (dhamma in Pāli) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sects and opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmans and other religious teachers and priests, liberality towards friends, humane treatment of servants, and generosity towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object. generosity) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum.]] Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none could match his strength. He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter and his successor Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty as well as Diodotus I and his son Diodotus II of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his inscriptions and edicts are well studied, one finds that he was familiar with the Hellenic world but never in awe of it. The Edicts of Ashoka, which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and Ptolemy III of Egypt. But the fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BC. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of

Rajatarangini

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