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Thaddeus Of Edessa

Thaddeus of Edessa

Thaddeus was one of the Seventy Apostles of Christ, not to be confused with Thaddeus of the Twelve Apostles. Thaddeus of the Seventy Disciples (=Judas Jacobi?, or Judas Simon?) was born a Jew in Edessa. According to Eusebius, it was he who instructed King Abgar in the Christian Faith and baptised him. After Pentecost, Thaddeus of the Seventy preached the Gospel in Mesopotamia, and was a martyr there, in the year AD 44. Category:Followers of Jesus

Seventy Apostles

The Seventy of the Gospel of Luke 10:1 – 20, though not literally named apostles, were followers that Jesus appointed and sent away (the Greek verb form apostello, not the noun form apostolos). They were to eat any food offered, heal the sick and spread the word; that God's reign is coming, that whoever hears them hears Jesus, whoever rejects them rejects Jesus and whoever rejects Jesus rejects the One who sent him. In addition they were granted great powers over the enemy and their names written in heaven. The episode is termed the "Synaxis of the Seventy Apostles" in Eastern Orthodoxy. This is the only mention of the group. The number is "seventy" in reliable manuscripts in the Alexandrian and Caesarean text traditions but "seventy-two" in reliable Alexandrian and Western (Roman) texts. In editing the Vulgate, Jerome selected the reading of seventy-two. The passage in Luke 10 reads: :1 After this the Lord appointed seventy (-two) others whom he sent ahead of him in pairs to every town and place he intended to visit. :9 Whatever town you enter and they welcome you, eat what is set before you, cure the sick in it and say to them, 'The kingdom of God is at hand for you.' :16-17 "Whoever listens to you listens to me. Whoever rejects you rejects me. And whoever rejects me rejects the one who sent me." The seventy (-two) returned rejoicing, and said, "Lord, even the demons are subject to us because of your name." :19-20 "Behold, I have given you the power to tread upon serpents and scorpions and upon the full force of the enemy and nothing will harm you. Nevertheless, do not rejoice because the spirits are subject to you, but rejoice because your names are written in heaven." (translation in the United States Convention of Roman Catholic Bishops' New American Bible [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/luke/luke10.htm])

Sources and traditions

The Gospel of Luke is alone among the synoptic gospels in containing two episodes in which Jesus sends out his followers on a mission. This first occasion (Luke 10:1-6) is closely based on the mission in Mark 6:6b-13 which, however, recounts the sending out of the Twelve Apostles, though with similar details. The parallels suggest a common origin in the posited Q document. What has been said to the seventy (two) in Luke 10:4 is referred in passing to the Twelve in Luke 22:35: :"He said to them, "When I sent you forth without a money bag or a sack or sandals, were you in need of anything?" "No, nothing," they replied. The Orthodox Church tradition of supplying names to the Seventy or the Seventy-Two whose "names are written in heaven" is associated with a late 3rd century bishop Dorotheus of Tyre, unknown except in this context, to whom has been ascribed an account of the Seventy Apostles, of which the surviving version is 8th century. The names of these disciples are given in several lists: Chronicon Paschale, and the Pseudo-Dorotheus printed in Jacques Paul Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, XCII, 521-524; 543-545; 1061-1065. The Roman Catholic church finds that "these lists are unfortunately worthless" (Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908, "Apostle"). Eusebius positively asserted that no such roll existed in his time, and mentioned among the disciples only Barnabas, Sosthenes, Cephas, Matthias, Thaddeus and James "the Lord's brother" (Historia Ecclesiae I.xii). In the Orthodox Church, the Seventy Apostles are commemorated together, on January 4. However, their individual commemorations are scattered throughout the year as well (see Eastern Orthodox Church calendar). Many of their names are recognizable for their other achievements. The names included in various lists differ slightly. In the lists Luke is also one of these seventy himself. The following list gives a widely accepted canon.

List of the Seventy Apostles

Their attributes, as appended to the names in this list, are also traditional. # James the Just, the brother of Jesus, author of the Epistle of James, and first Bishop of Jerusalem # Mark the Evangelist, author of the Gospel of Mark and Bishop of Alexandria # Luke the Evangelist, author of the Gospel of Luke, and Bishop of Salonika # Cleopas the brother of Joseph the Betrothed and second Bishop of Jerusalem # Symeon the son of Cleopas and Bishop of Jerusalem # Barnabas, Bishop of Milan # Justus, Bishop of Eleutheropolis # Thaddeus # Ananias, Bishop of Damascus # Stephen the Archdeacon and first martyr # Philip the Evangelist, of the Seven Deacons, Bishop of Tralia in Asia Minor # Prochorus, of the Seven, Bishop of Nicomedia in Bithynia # Nicanor the Deacon, of the Seven # Timon, of the Seven # Parmenas the Deacon, of the Seven # Timothy, # Titus # Philemon, Bishop of Gaza # Onesimus # Epaphras, Bishop of Andriaca # Archippus # Silas, Bishop of Corinth # Silvanus # Crescens # Crispus, Bishop of Chalcedon in Galilee # Epenetus, Bishop of Carthage # Andronicus, Bishop of Pannonia # Stachys, Bishop of Byzantium # Amplias, Bishop of Odissa # Urban, Bishop of Macedonia # Narcissus, Bishop of Athens # Apelles, Bishop of Heraklion # Aristobulus, Bishop of Britannia # Herodion, Bishop of Patfas # Agabus the Prophet # Rufus, Bishop of Thebes # Asyncritus, Bishop of Hyrcania # Phlegon, Bishop of Marathon # Hermes, Bishop of Philippopolis # Parrobus, Bishop of Pottole # Hermas, Bishop of Dalmatia # Pope Linus, Bishop of Rome # Gaius, Bishop of Ephesus # Philologus, Bishop of Sinope # Lucius of Cyrene, Bishop of Laodicea in Syria # Jason, Bishop of Tarsis # Sosipater, Bishop of Iconium # Olympas # Tertius, transcriber of the Epistle to the Romans and Bishop of Iconium # Erastus, Bishop of Paneas # Quartus, Bishop of Berytus # Euodias, Bishop of Antioch # Onesiphorus, Bishop of Cyrene # Clement, Bishop of Sardice # Sosthenes, Bishop of Colophon # Apollos, Bishop of Caesarea # Tychicus, Bishop of Colophon # Epaphroditus # Carpus, Bishop of Berrhoe in Thrace # Quadratus # Mark called John, Bishop of Byblos # Zenas the Lawyer, Bishop of Giospolis # Aristarchus, Bishop of Apamea in Syria # Pudens # Trophimus # Mark, Bishop of Apollonia # Artemas, Bishop of Lystra # Aquila # Fortunatus # Achaicus

Original Apostles who Apostasized

Some of the original seventy sent by Jesus later apostasized. Thus, some of the names on the above list were not actually in the original seventy, but are considered part of the group anyway as "replacements", similarly to Matthias's replacement of Judas Iscariot in the Twelve Apostles. The following are those who fell away from mainline Christianity:
- Nicolas of Samaria, one of the Seven Deacons
- Phygellus of Ephesus
- Hermogenes of Magara
- Demas

Other Apostles

Also, some lists name a few different apostles than the ones listed above. Solomon, Nestorian bishop of Basra in the 13th century, in The Book of the Bee (chapter xlix) offers the following list: "The names of the seventy. James, the son of Joseph; Simon the son of Cleopas; Cleopas his father; Joses; Simon; Judah; Barnabas; Manaeus (?); Ananias, who baptised Paul; Cephas, who preached at Antioch; Joseph the senator; Nicodemus the archon; Nathaniel the chief scribe; Justus, that is Joseph, who is called Barshabbâ; Silas; Judah; John, surnamed Mark; Mnason, who received Paul; Manaël, the foster-brother of Herod; Simon called Niger; Jason, who is (mentioned) in the Acts (of the Apostles); Rufus; Alexander; Simon the Cyrenian, their father; Lucius the Cyrenian; another Judah, who is mentioned in the Acts [of the Apostles]; Judah, who is called Simon; Eurion (Orion) the splay-footed; Thôrus (?); Thorîsus (?); Zabdon; Zakron. Most commonly named are:
- Another Stephen
- Rodion
- Cephas, Bishop of Iconium
- Caesar, Bishop of Dyrrhachium
- Another Mark, Bishop of Apollonias
- Another Tychicus of Chalcedon, Bishop of Chalcedon in Bythinia These are usually included at the expense of the aforementioned Timothy, Titus, Archippus, Crescens, Olympas, Epaphroditus, Quadratus, Aquila, Fortunatus, and/or Achaicus.

External links

- [http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~fisher/cgi-bin/gnt?id=0310 Luke 10 in Greek]
- [http://bibledbdata.org/onlinebibles/greek_translit/42_010.htm Luke 10 in Greek transliterated]
- [http://www.orthodox.net/saints/70apostles.html The Seventy]
- (Budge, Ernest A. Wallace, editor) 1886. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/bb/bbtp.htm The Book of the Bee] by Solomon, Nestorian bishop of Basra, 13th century; ch. xlix "The names of the Apostles in order" Category:Ancient Roman Christianity
- Category:Saints

Christ

Christ is the English representation of the Greek word Χριστός (transliterated as Khristós), which means anointed. The Christian religion takes its name from Christ, as a title given to Jesus of Nazareth, always capitalized as a singularly descriptive title meaning literally The Anointed One. In English translations of the New Testament, the Greek Ιησούς Χριστός, and related phrases, are almost invariably translated Jesus Christ or Christ Jesus, leading to the common, though inaccurate, perception that 'Christ' was the last name of Jesus of Nazareth. The part of Christian theology focusing on the identity, life, teachings and works of Jesus, is known as Christology.

Full etymology

The spelling Christ in English dates from the 17th century, when, in the spirit of the enlightenment, spellings of certain words were changed to fit their Greek or Latin origins. Prior to this, in Old and Middle English, the word was spelt Crist, the i being pronounced either as a long e, preserved in the names of churches such as St Katherine Cree, or as a short i, preserved in the modern pronunciation of Christmas. The term appears in English and most European languages owing to the Greek usage of it in the New Testament as a description for Jesus. In the New Testament, it was used to translate Hebrew as Mashiach (Messiah) meaning "anointed". This term implied a match to the criteria of being anointed that Jewish tradition had given to their predicted future saviour. The Greek term is cognate with Chrism, meaning perfumed oil; in fact Christ in classical Greek usage could mean covered in oil, and is thus a literal and accurate translation of Messiah (anointed).

"The Anointed" in the Old Testament

In the Hebrew faith tradition, anointing (with oil) was a key element of religious ceremony by which specific people were explicitly marked or set aside for a specific role: priests, kings, and prophets. In some cases other materials were anointed with oil as well, to prepare them for religious ceremony. The importance of anointing is sometimes stressed by mentioning the need for it alongside reference to the person in question: e.g., "The priest that is anointed shall carry of the blood into the tabernacle of the testimony" (Lev [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=03&ch=004&l=16 4:16]). The Jews came to expect a savior who would embody the elements of priest, king, and prophet, and whom they therefore termed "the Messias", which served as a title. The association with being anointed and being a savior makes these words in some senses equivalent. They expressed their hopes for this savior particularly in their prayers known as the Psalms, which often make reference to God and "his anointed", many of which references Christians interpret as prophetic.

History in the New Testament

In the New Testament it is indicated that the savior, long awaited, did come: however, there is no record of his being officially anointed with oil as Messiah, priest, or king in the gospels. Instead Luke says he "is inducted by His heavenly Father into His Messianic office" (Ott, Ludwig; see Lk [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=49&ch=003&l=22 3:22]). However, He is anointed by a woman, reported in Mark 14: 3-9 as happening just before his death, and in a different context in Luke 7. As Jesus demonstrates, over time, to his disciples that he is the savior, they come to call him by that name, which again was a title, i.e. normal usage being "the Christ". After the Resurrection "Christ" became a proper name used to refer to Jesus.

Distinctions between "Jesus", "Christ", and "God"

The term "Christ" is often used synonymously with "Jesus". A difference in usage is sometimes for variety of speech, and sometimes a subtlety intended to emphasize the totality of His person and function in Salvation. For example, Ott refers to "Jesus" when emphasizing an event in the New Testament, while he refers to "Christ" in discussing the nature of God. There is a temporal distinction between "Jesus" and "Christ", not to mention "God". God, in the Christian belief system, exists outside of the time continuum and is not restricted by the confines of time (e.g., limitations, aging, development, evolution, etc.). "Jesus", on the other hand, is the temporal manifestation of the "Logos" -- the divine "Word" of God, and, in Christian Trinitarian parlance, the second person of the Holy Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). "Jesus" was born, lived, suffered, and died. However, for the Christian believer, the story of "Jesus" does not end there. With the Resurrection, there is the fulness of recognition within the Christian community of the interconnectedness of the Logos and the person of "Jesus" -- the human person now intensely glorified and beyond the confines of the temporal sphere of events and effects. "Christ" is an appelation in Greek (Χριστός), corresponding to the Hebrew word "Messiah" -- the Savior or Anointed One. This term pertains more to the role to be performed by the "chosen one of God" (another possible translation of the term "Christ"). The problem with this word for the person of Jesus is that the term means different things to different people. Most especially, the term "Messiah" refers most often in Jewish beliefs of the Roman era to the hoped-for leader who would not only be a spiritual leader but a political one as well. Hence, we have grounds for why this term might cause consternation and skepticism -- if not downright hostility -- not only for Romans, but also for the Jewish leadership of the Temple at the time of Jesus.

Related uses of anointing

Anointing is used in the New Testament to heal the sick, to bless for ministry, to give thanks to Jesus, and to prepare for burial. According to Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, as Christ was the anointed one, so is apostolic succession, manifest in those priests who carry on the ministry of Christ, premised upon an anointing. Oil is used in a number of the sacraments of these traditions. Practices vary slightly from East to West. Every Christian in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches is anointed with oil at least once, if they receive the sacraments according to each organization's plan. Protestant organizations' rites, however, do not always include anointing with oil.

Gnostic Christ

The gnostics generally believed not in a Jesus who was both a Divine Person and a human person, but in a spiritual Christ who indwelt Jesus and left him at different times, and who did not suffer death, because that was impossible for a deity. Through the spiritual path of gnosticism, followers of these schools believed that they could experience the same knowledge, or gnosis. Their theology was or is dualistic and premised upon demigods, salvation for the elect, and the actions of God who sends periodic saviors. This was considered heresy by the Early Church as per the first Ecumenical Council, which occurred at Nicaea in 325 ad, although condemnation of the belief existed well before.

Expansions and appropriations of "Christ"

"Christ" has taken on such power and significance as a theological, religious and/or devotional term that it has been appropriated and/or expanded by various theologians and religious writers so as to take it beyond its merely Christian context. The development of Judeo/Christian religious concepts in a world religious context may be startling to the orthodox, but is part of the full picture and contemporary meaning of the term "Christ". Paramahansa Yogananda - writes about a "Christ Consciousness" interchangeably with "Krishna Consciousness" Matthew Fox - speaks of "the Cosmic Christ" etc. One belief is the idea or concept that 'Jesus became Christ;' i.e. his 'flesh was transformed to spirit.' By taking a spiritual and good path through life, Jesus was reunited with his true holy nature (redemption) and preserved forever in God. However in this view, this psychic force is often called 'the Christ,' or sometimes 'Christ consciousness,' etc; drawing a separation between God (whose nature some maintain we cannot fathom or comprehend) and the Holy Spirit, which has experience (through Jesus) and therefore compatibility with our mortal and frail humanity. This separation of spiritual concepts is embodied in the Christian Trinity. In many branches of Christianity, some limitations on extra-cultural interactivity result in dogmatic interpretations of the meaning of "the Christ" to refer only to "Christendom" (i.e. confirmed "Christians") as opposed to all of spiritual humanity, that may have equal devotion to 'the Christ,' yet may refer to it by another name: i.e. God, Krishna, etc. In Eastern religious traditions, for example, "God" remains mysterious and unknowable and therefore only implied; described instead by personifications (deities) which are manifestations of particular aspects of God's power. In mortal form, the Christian Jesus is akin to these personifications, with the caveat that he alone is the deity; all of God's powers that are relevant or understandable to man, are manifest through Jesus. Thus, where Christ is a synonym for the Holy Spirit, the Trinity of Father (God) Son (Jesus) and Holy Spirit (Christ) are unified, though each remain distinct.

Slang usage

The interjection "Christ!" is often used as a sign of surprise or anger, without a direct religious reference - that is, as a swear word. Many religious people find this usage blasphemous, as they feel it cheapens a holy term and violates the Commandment against taking God's name in vain. "Christ" is also the name of a British humour fanzine.[http://www.spellingmistakescostlives.com/christ/]

References

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm A. J. Maas, Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ, Catholic Encyclopedia]
- Ludwig Ott, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, 1957.
- [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/6111/pneumatikos/gnostic.htm Paul A. Hughes, The Gnostic Christ: Gnosticism vs. Christianity]
- [http://www.salagram.net/jesus-christ-kristos-page.htm The Etymological Derivation Of The Name "Christ", NZs Hare Krishna Spiritual Network]
- Joshua McDowell and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions, Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983.
- Tom Harpur, "The Pagan Christ. Recovering the Lost Light." Thomas Allen Publishers, Toronto, (2004) Category:Jesus ja:キリスト

Twelve Apostles

:For the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus, see Apostles The Twelve Apostles are a collection of natural limestone stacks standing just off shore in the Port Campbell National Park, on the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, Australia. Originally the site was called the Sow and Piglets. The name was changed to the more majestic "The Twelve Apostles" even though there were only nine stacks.

Erosion of the Apostles

The stacks have been formed by erosion, and are varying heights and thicknesses. A number have fallen over entirely as their bases are being continually eroded by the force of the waves. There are not actually twelve stacks. Their close proximity to one another has made the site a popular tourist attraction. A 50-metre tall Apostle collapsed on July 3, 2005, and will soon be washed away by the ocean, leaving eight more. The previous well known feature in Port Campbell National Park to succumb to erosion was the 'London Bridge.' Two visitors were trapped when a natural arch collapsed - the people were rescued by helicopter a few hours later. The island of rock has since been called 'London Arch.'

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4647857.stm BBC article about the collapse] Twelve Apostles, The Twelve Apostles, The

Edessa, Mesopotamia

Edessa is the historical name of a town in northern Mesopotamia, refounded on an ancient site by Seleucus I Nicator. For the modern history of the city, see Şanlıurfa.

History

The name under which Edessa figures in cuneiform inscriptions is unknown; the later native name was Osroe, after its purported founder (who was probably only legend), this being the Armenian form for Chosroes; it became in Syriac Ourhoï, in Armenian Ourhaï in Arabic Er Roha, commonly Orfa or Sanli Urfa, its present name. Due to similarity of names, folk mythology in Islam connects Edessa with Ur as the abode of Abraham. Seleucus I Nicator, when he refounded the town as a military colony, mixing Macedonians and Greeks with its eastern population, 303 BC, called it Edessa, in memory of Edessa the ancient capital of Macedon (later also known as Vodena). Under Antiochus IV Epiphanes the town was called Antiochia on Callirhoe by colonists from Antioch who had settled there. In the second half of the second century BCE, as the Seleucid monarchy disintegrated in the wars with Parthia (145 –129), Edessa became the capital of the Abgar dynasty, who founded the Kingdom of Osroene. This kingdom was established by Nabataean or Arabic tribes from North Arabia, and lasted nearly four centuries (c.132 BC to 214), under twenty-eight rulers, who sometimes called themselves "king" on their coinage. Edessa was at first more or less under the protectorate of the Parthians, then of Tigranes of Armenia, then from the time of Pompey under the Romans. Following its capture and sack by Trajan, the Romans even occupied Edessa from 116 to 118, although its sympathies towards the Parthians led to Lucius Verus pillaging the city later in the second century. From 212 to 214 the kingdom was a Roman province. Caracalla was assassinated in Edessa in 217. The literary language of the tribes which had founded this kingdom, was Aramaic, whence came the Syriac. Traces of Hellenistic culture were soon overwhelmed in Edessa, whose dynasty employs Syriac legends on their coinage, save the Roman client-king Abgar IX (179-214), and there is a corresponding lack of Greek public inscriptions (Bauer 1971, ch. i). Rebuilt by Emperor Justin, and called after him Justinopolis (Evagrius, Hist. Eccl., IV, viii), Edessa was taken in 609 by the Persians, soon retaken by Heraclius, but lost to the Arabs in 638. The Byzantines often tried to retake Edessa, especially under Romanus Lacapenus, who obtained from the inhabitants the "Holy Mandylion", or ancient portrait of Christ, and solemnly transferred it to Constantinople, August 16, 944. This was the final great achievement of Romanus' reign. For an account of this venerable and famous image, which was certainly at Edessa in 544, and of which there is an ancient copy in the Vatican Library, brought to the West by the Venetians in 1207, see Weisliebersdorf, Christus und Apostelbilder (Freiburg, 1902), and Dobschütz, Christusbilder (Leipzig, 1899). In 1031 Edessa was given up to the Byzantines by its Arab governor. It was retaken by the Arabs, and then successively held by the Greeks, the Seljuk Turks (1087), the Crusaders (1099), who established there the County of Edessa and kept the city until 1144, when it was again captured by the Turk Zengui, and most of its inhabitants were slaughtered together with the Latin archbishop (see Siege of Edessa). These events are known to us chiefly through the Armenian historian Matthew, who had been born at Edessa. Since the twelfth century, the city has successively belonged to the Sultans of Aleppo, the Mongols, the Mameluks, and from 1517 to 1918 to the Ottoman Empire.

Christianity

The exact date of the introduction of Christianity into Edessa is not known. It is certain, however, that the Christian community was at first made up from the Jewish population of the city. According to a legend first reported by Eusebius in the 4th century, King Abgar V Ukāmā was converted by Addai, who was one of the seventy-two disciples, sent to him by "Judas, who is also called Thomas". According to Gutschmid 1887, the Abgar who embraced the Christian faith was Abgar IX (c. 206), and Christian writers have not challenged the substitution. Under him Christianity became the official religion of the kingdom. As for Addai, he was neither one of the seventy-two disciples as the legend asserts, nor was he the Apostle Thaddeus, as Eusebius says (Hist. Eccl., IV, xiii), but a missionary from Palestine who evangelized Mesopotamia about the middle of the second century, and became the first bishop of Edessa. He was succeeded by Aggai, then by Palout (Palut) who was ordained about 200 by Serapion of Antioch. Thence came to us in the second century the famous Peshitta, or Syriac translation of the Old Testament; also Tatian's Diatessaron, which was compiled about 172 and in common use until St. Rabbulas, Bishop of Edessa (412-435), forbade its use. Among the illustrious disciples of the School of Edessa special mention is due to Bardesanes (154 - 222), a schoolfellow of Abgar IX, the originator of Christian religious poetry, whose teaching was continued by his son Harmonius and his disciples. A Christian council was held at Edessa as early as 197 (Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia ecclesiastica, V, 23). In 201 the city was devastated by a great flood, and the Christian church was destroyed (Chronicon Edessenum, ad. an. 201). In 232 the relics of the Apostle St. Thomas were brought from India, on which occasion his Syriac Acts were written. Under Roman domination many martyrs suffered at Edessa: Sts. Scharbîl and Barsamya, under Decius; Sts. Gûrja, Schâmôna, Habib, and others under Diocletian. In the meanwhile Christian priests from Edessa had evangelized Eastern Mesopotamia and Persia, and established the first Churches in the kingdom of the Sassanids. Atillâtiâ, Bishop of Edessa, assisted at the Council of Nicaea (325). The Peregrinatio Silviae (or Etheriae) (ed. Gamurrini, Rome, 1887, 62 sqq.) gives an account of the many sanctuaries at Edessa about 388. When Nisibis was ceded to the Persians in 363, Ephrem the Syrian left his native town for Edessa, where he founded the celebrated School of the Persians. This school, largely attended by the Christian youth of Persia, and closely watched by St. Rabbula, the friend of St. Cyril of Alexandria, on account of its Nestorian tendencies, reached its highest development under Bishop Ibas, famous through the controversy of the Three Chapters, was temporarily closed in 457, and finally in 488, by command of Emperor Zeno and Bishop Cyrus, when the teachers and students of the School of Edessa repaired to Nisibis and became the founders and chief writers of the Nestorian Church in Persia (Labourt, Le christianisme dans l'empire perse, Paris, 1904, 130-141). Monophysitism prospered at Edessa, even after the Arab conquest. Under Byzantine rule, as metropolis of Osroene, it had eleven suffragan sees (Echos d'Orient, 1907, 145). Lequien (Oriens christ., II, 953 sqq.) mentions thirty-five Bishops of Edessa; yet his list is incomplete. The Eastern Orthodox episcopate seems to have disappeared after the eleventh century. Of its Jacobite bishops twenty-nine are mentioned by Lequien (II, 1429 sqq.), many others in the Revue de l'Orient chrétien (VI, 195), some in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft (1899), 261 sqq. Moreover, Nestorian bishops are said to have resided at Edessa as early as the sixth century.

Cultural

Famous individuals connected with Edessa include: Jacob Baradaeus, the real chief of the Syrian Monophysites known after him as Jacobites; Stephen Bar Sudaïli, monk and pantheist, to whom was owing, in Palestine, the last crisis of Origenism in the sixth century; Jacob, Bishop of Edessa, a fertile writer (d. 708); Theophilus the Maronite, an astronomer, who translated into Syriac verse Homer's Iliad and Odyssey; the anonymous author of the Chronicon Edessenum (Chronicle of Edessa), compiled in 540; the writer of the story of "The Man of God", in the fifth century, which gave rise to the legend of St. Alexius. The oldest known dated Syriac manuscripts (AD 411 and 462), containing Greek patristic texts, come from Edessa.

External link

- [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/goudenhoorn/61andrew.html Andre Palmer, in e-journal Golden horn: Journal of Byzantium] essay on Egeria's escorted visit, April 384, and the bishop's tall tales This entry uses text from the Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909.

References

- Walter Bauer 1971., Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, 1934, (in English 1971) ([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/bauer01.htm#FN1 On-line text])
- A. von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen über die Geschichte des Könligliches Osroëne, in series Mémoires de l'Académie impériale des Sciences de S. Petersbourg, series 7, vol. 35.1 (St. Petersburg, 1887)

Eusebius of Caesarea

Eusebius of Caesarea (~275 – May 30, 339) (often called Eusebius Pamphili, "Eusebius [the friend] of Pamphilus") was a bishop of Caesarea in Palestine and is often referred to as the father of church history because of his work in recording the history of the early Christian church. An earlier history by Hegesippus that he referred to has not survived.

Biography

His exact date and place of birth are unknown, and little is known of his youth. He became acquainted with the presbyter Dorotheus in Antioch and probably received exegetical instruction from him. In 296 he was in Palestine and saw Constantine who visited the country with Diocletian. He was in Caesarea when Agapius was bishop and became friendly with Pamphilus of Caesarea, with whom he seems to have studied the text of the Bible, with the aid of Origen's Hexapla, and commentaries collected by Pamphilus, in an attempt to prepare a correct version. In 307 Pamphilus was imprisoned, but Eusebius continued their project. The resulting defence of Origen, in which they had collaborated, was finished by Eusebius after the death of Pamphilus and sent to the martyrs in the mines of Phaeno in Egypt. Eusebius then seems to have gone to Tyre and later to Egypt, where he first suffered persecution. Eusebius is next heard of as bishop of Caesarea Palaestina. He succeeded Agapius, whose time of office is not known, but Eusebius must have become bishop soon after 313. Nothing is known about the early years of his tenure. When the Council of Nicaea met in 325, Eusebius was prominent in its transactions. He was not naturally a spiritual leader or theologian, but as a very learned man and a famous author who enjoyed the special favour of the emperor, he came to the fore among the 300 members of the council. The confession which he proposed became the basis of the Nicene Creed. Eusebius was involved in the further development of the Arian controversies. For instance, in the dispute with Eustathius of Antioch, who opposed the growing influence of Origen and his practice of an allegorical exegesis of scripture, seeing in his theology the roots of Arianism, Eusebius, an admirer of Origen, was reproached by Eustathius for deviating from the Nicene faith, and was charged in turn with Sabellianism. Eustathius was accused, condemned and deposed at a synod in Antioch. The people of Antioch rebelled against this action, while the anti-Eustathians proposed Eusebius as the new bishop, but he declined. After Eustathius had been removed, the Eusebians proceeded against Athanasius of Alexandria, a much more dangerous opponent. In 334 Athanasius was summoned before a synod in Caesarea; he did not attend. In the following year he was again summoned before a synod in Tyre at which Eusebius presided. Athanasius, foreseeing the result, went to Constantinople to bring his cause before the emperor. Constantine called the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius. Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end of 335. At the same synod, another opponent was successfully attacked: Marcellus of Ancyra had long opposed the Eusebians, and had protested against the reinstitution of Arius. He was accused of Sabellianism and deposed in 336. Constantine died the next year and Eusebius did not long survive him. Eusebius died (probably at Caesarea), in 340 at the latest and probably on May 30, 339.

Works

Of the extensive literary activity of Eusebius, a relatively large portion has been preserved. Although posterity suspected him of Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispensable by his method of authorship; his comprehensive and careful excerpts from original sources saved his successors the painstaking labor of original research. Hence much has been preserved, quoted by Eusebius, which otherwise would have been destroyed. The literary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole the course of his life. At first he occupied himself with works on Biblical criticism, under the influence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of the School of Antioch. Afterward the persecutions under Diocletian and Galerius directed his attention to the martyrs of his own time and the past. And this led him to the history of the whole Church and finally to the history of the world, which to him was only a preparation for ecclesiastical history. Then followed the time of the Arian controversies, and dogmatic questions came into the foreground. Christianity at last found recognition by the State; and this brought new problems—apologies of a different sort had to be prepared. Lastly, Eusebius, the court theologian, wrote eulogies in praise of Constantine. To all this activity must be added numerous writings of a miscellaneous nature, addresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works which include both commentaries and treatises on Biblical archeology and extend over the whole of his life.

Works on Biblical text criticism

Pamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the text criticism of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament and especially of the New Testament. An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to Jerome, was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the pericopes that belong together.

The Chronicle

The two greatest historical works of Eusebius are his Chronicle and his Church History. The former (Greek, Pantodape historia, "Universal History") is divided into two parts. The first part (Greek, Chronographia, "Annals") purports to give an epitome of universal history from the sources, arranged according to nations. The second part (Greek, Chronikoi kanones, "Chronological Canons") attempts to furnish a synchronism of the historical material in parallel columns, the equivalent of a parallel timeline. The work as a whole has been lost in the original, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work with untiring diligence, especially George Syncellus. The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation. The loss of the Greek originals has given an Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius's "Chronicle", of which only a few fragments exist in the Greek, has been preserved entire in Armenian. The "Chronicle" as preserved extends to the year 325. It was written before the "Church History."

The Church History

In his Church History or Ecclesiastical History (Historia Ecclesiastica), Eusebius attempted according to his own declaration (I.i.1) to present the history of the Church from the apostles to his own time, with special regard to the following points: :(1) the successions of bishops in the principal sees; :(2) the history of Christian teachers; :(3) the history of heresies; :(4) the history of the Jews; :(5) the relations to the heathen; :(6) the martyrdoms. He grouped his material according to the reigns of the emperors, presenting it as he found it in his sources. The contents are as follows:
- Book i: detailed introduction, on Jesus Christ
- Book ii: The history of the apostolic time to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus
- Book iii: The following time to Trajan
- Books iv and v: the second century
- Book vi: The time from Severus to Decius
- Book vii: extends to the outbreak of the persecution under Diocletian
- Book viii: more of this persecution
- Book ix: history to Constantine's victory over Maxentius in the West and over Maximinus in the East
- Book x: The reestablishment of the churches and the rebellion and conquest of Licinius. In its present form the work was brought to a conclusion before the death of Crispus (July, 326), and, since book x is dedicated to Paulinus of Tyre who died before 325, at the end of 323 or in 324. This work required the most comprehensive preparatory studies, and it must have occupied him for years. His collection of martyrdoms of the older period may have been one of these preparatory studies. Eusebius blames the calamities which befell the Jewish nation on the Jews' role in the death of Jesus. This quote has been used to attack both Jews and Christians. See Christianity and anti-Semitism. :"that from that time seditions and wars and mischievous plots followed each other in quick succession, and never ceased in the city and in all Judea until finally the siege of Vespasian overwhelmed them. Thus the divine vengeance overtook the Jews for the crimes which they dared to commit against Christ." (Hist. Eccles. II.6: The Misfortunes which overwhelmed the Jews after their Presumption against Christ) [http://web.cbn.org/bibleresources/theology/eusebius/churchhistory/eusebius-b2-7.asp]

The Life of Constantine

Eusebius' Life of Constantine (Vita Constantini) is a eulogy and therefore its style and selection of facts are affected by its purpose, rendering it inadequate as a continuation of the Church History. As the historian Socrates Scholasticus said, at the opening of his history that was designed as a continuation of Eusebius, "Also in writing the life of Constantine, this same author has but slightly treated of matters regarding Arius, being more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor, than on an accurate statement of facts." The work was unfinished at Eusebius' death.

Minor historical works

Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier period and a biography of Pamphilus. The martyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has been preserved almost completely in parts. It contained: :(1) an epistle of the congregation of Smyrna concerning the martyrdom of Polycarp; :(2) the martyrdom of Pionius; :(3) the martyrdoms of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonike; :(4) the martyrdoms in the congregations of Vienne and Lyon; :(5) the martyrdom of Apollonius. Of the life of Pamphilus only a fragment survives. A work on the martyrs of Palestine in the time of Diocletian was composed after 311; numerous fragments are scattered in legendaries which still have to be collected. The life of Constantine was compiled after the death of the emperor and the election of his sons as Augusti (337). It is more a rhetorical eulogy on the emperor than a history, but is of great value on account of numerous documents incorporated in it.

Apologetic and dogmatic works

To the class of apologetic and dogmatic works belong: :(1) the Apology for Origen, the first five books of which, according to the definite statement of Photius, were written by Pamphilus in prison, with the assistance of Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. We possess only a Latin translation of the first book, made by Rufinus; :(2) a treatise against Hierocles (a Roman governor and Neoplatonic philosopher), in which Eusebius combated the former's glorification of Apollonius of Tyana in a work entitled "A Truth-loving Discourse" (Greek, Philalethes logos); :(3) Praeparatio evangelica ('Preparation for the Gospel'), commonly known by its Latin title, which attempts to prove the excellence of Christianity over every pagan religion and philosophy. The Praeparatio consists of fifteen books which have been completely preserved. Eusebius considered it an introduction to Christianity for pagans. But its value for many later readers is more because Eusebius studded this work with so many fascinating and lively fragments from historians and philosophers which are nowhere else preserved. Here alone is preserved a summary of the writings of the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the Ugaritic tables, here alone is the account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth book of Euhemerus' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods, and here almost alone is preserved writings of the neo-Platonist philosopher Atticus along with so much else. :(4) Demonstratio evangelica ('Proof of the Gospel') is closely connected to the Praeparatio and comprised originally twenty books of which ten have been completely preserved as well as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus Christ. The work was probably finished before 311; :(5) another work which originated in the time of the persecution, entitled "Prophetic Extracts" (Eklogai prophetikai). It discusses in four books the Messianic texts of Scripture. The work is merely the surviving portion (books 6-9) of the General elementary introduction to the Christian faith, now lost. :(6) the treatise "On Divine Manifestation" (Peri theophaneias), dating from a much later time. It treats of the incarnation of the Divine Logos, and its contents are in many cases identical with the Demonstratio evangelica. Only fragments are preserved; :(7) the polemical treatise "Against Marcellus," dating from about 337; :(8) a supplement to the last-named work, entitled "On the Theology of the Church," in which he defended the Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party of Athanasius. A number of writings, belonging in this category, have been entirely lost.

Exegetical and miscellaneous works

Of the exegetical works of Eusebius nothing has been preserved in its original form. The so-called commentaries are based upon late manuscripts copied from fragments of catenae. A more comprehensive work of an exegetical nature, preserved only in fragments, is entitled "On the Differences of the Gospels" and was written for the purpose of harmonizing the contradictions in the reports of the differentEvangelists. It was also for exegetical purposes that Eusebius wrote his treatises on Biblical archeology: :(1) a work on the Greek equivalents of Hebrew Gentilic nouns; :(2) a description of old Judea with an account of the lots of the ten tribes; :(3) a plan of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon. These three treatises have been lost. A work entitled "On the Names of Places in the Holy Scriptures," an alphabetical list of place names, is still in existence. Further mention is to be made of addresses and sermons some of which have been preserved, e.g., a sermon on the consecration of the church in Tyre, and an address on the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of Constantine (336). Of the letters of Eusebius only a few fragments are extant.

Estimate of Eusebius

His doctrine

From a dogmatic point of view, Eusebius stands entirely upon the shoulders of Origen. Like Origen, he started from the fundamental thought of the absolute sovereignty (monarchia) of God. God is the cause of all beings. But he is not merely a cause; in him everything good is included, from him all life originates, and he is the source of all virtue. He is the highest God to whom Christ is subject as the second God. God sent Christ into the world that it may partake of the blessings included in the essence of God. Christ is the only really good creature, he possesses the image of God and is a ray of the eternal light; but the figure of the ray is so limited by Eusebius that he expressly emphasizes the self-existence of Jesus. Eusebius was intent upon emphasizing the difference of the persona of the Trinity and maintaining the subordination of Jesus to God (he never calls him theos) because in all contrary attempts he suspected polytheism or Sabellianism. Jesus is a creature of God whose generation, for Eusebius, took place before time. Jesus is in his activity the organ of God, the creator of life, the principle of every revelation of God, who in his absoluteness is enthroned above all the world. This divine Logos assumed a human body without being altered thereby in any way in his being. The relation of the Holy Spirit within the Trinity Eusebius explained similarly to that of the Son to the Father. No point of this doctrine is original with Eusebius, all is traceable to his teacher Origen. The lack of originality in his thinking shows itself in the fact that he never presented his thoughts in a system.

His limitations

The limitations of Eusebius could be said to flow from his position as the first court appointed Christian theologean in the service of the Constantine Roman Empire. Although Church historians were able to copy him, Eusebius, was not himself a great historian.1 His treatment of heresy, for example, is inadequate, and he knew very little about the Western church. His historical works are really apologetics. Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical History, Vol. 8, chapter 2, reminds us, "We shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity." These and other issues have invited controversy. As Professor Michael J. Hollerich writes in Church History, Vol. 59, 1990, "Ever since Jacob Burckhardt[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Burckhardt] dismissed him as "the first thoroughly dishonest historian of antiquity," Eusebius has been an inviting target for students of the Constantinian era. At one time or another they have characterized him as a political propagandist, a good courtier, the shrewd and worldly adviser of the Emperor Constantine, the great publicist of the first Christian emperor, the first in a long succession of ecclesiastical politicians, the herald of Byzantinism, a political theologian, a political metaphysician, and a caesaropapist. It is obvious that these are not, in the main, neutral descriptions. Much traditional scholarship, sometimes with barely suppressed disdain, has regarded Eusebius as one who risked his orthodoxy and perhaps his character because of his zeal for the Constantinian establishment." In his Praeparatio evangelica (xii, 31), Eusebius has a section on the use of fictions (pseudos) as a "medicine", which may be "lawful and fitting" to use [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/eusebius/pe_data.htm].

External links

- An English translation of his Historia Ecclesiastica and Vita Constantini is available in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
- The Praeparatio Evangelica, Demonstratio Evangelica, Theophania, Contra Hieroclem, and other works are available at http://www.tertullian.org/fathers.
- [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/eusebius/pe_data.htm Data for discussing the meaning of pseudos and Eusebius in PE XII, 31]
- 1 "Eusebius Of Caesarea." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 4 Dec. 2005 . Reference cited for statement that Eusebius was not a great historian.
- http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/NTcanon.html#6 A discussion of the questionable scholarship of the early Christian historians. ----- Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion, subjected to edits for style. Category:270s births Category:339 deaths Category:Ancient Roman Christianity Category:Roman era historians Category:Patristic historical writings ja:エウセビオス

Abgarus of Edessa

Abgar V or Abgarus V of Edessa (4 BC - AD 7 and AD 13 - 50) is a historical ruler of the kingdom of Osroene, holding his capital at Edessa. (Compare the Syrian region that was earlier called Aram-Naharaim in the Old Testament.) In Christian mythology the story of king Abgar of Edessa was an early tale of a wonder-working icon, set in the heart of the region where iconoclast tradition disapproved strongly of images in general and miraculous ones in particular, but which this icon-legitimizing legend connected directly with Jesus. The legend tells that Abgar, king of Edessa, afflicted with an incurable sickness, has heard the fame of the power and miracles of Jesus and writes to him, acknowledging his divinity, craving his help and offering him asylum in his own residence; the tradition states that Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, promising, however, that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples, endowed with his power, namely Thaddeus (called Addaï), or one of the seventy-two Disciples, called Thaddeus of Edessa. The 4th century church historian Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea records a tradition, in his Historia Ecclesiae, I, xii or xiii, ca AD 325, concerning a correspondence on this occasion, exchanged between Abgar of Edessa and Jesus. Eusebius was convinced that the original letters, written in Syriac, were kept in the archives of Edessa. Eusebius also states that in due course Judas, son of Thaddaeus, was sent in 29 AD. Eusebius copies the two letters into the text of his History. The correspondence consisted of Abgar's letter and the answer dictated by Jesus. As the legend later expanded, a portrait of Jesus painted from life was introduced. This portrait, painted by the court archivist Hannan during his visit to Jesus, is first mentioned in the Syriac text called the "Doctrine of Addai" (Doctrina Addai-- Addaei, Addaeus = Thaddaeus or Thaddeus), from the second half of the 4th century. Here it is said that the reply of Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event took place in 32 AD. This Teaching of Addai is also the earliest account of an image of Jesus painted from life, enshrined by the ailing King Abgar V in one of his palaces. Greek forms of the legend are found in the Acta Thaddaei, the "Acts of Thaddaeus". The story of the Abgar, including the portrait made by the court painter Hannan, is repeated with some additions in Moses of Chorene's mid-5th century History of the Armenians, remarking that the portrait was preserved in Edessa. The story was later further elaborated and altered by the church historian Evagrius, bishop of Edessa (c. 536-600), who eliminates a human painter entirely by declaring for the first time that the image of Jesus was "divinely wrought," and "not made by human hands." We can thus trace the development of the legend from no image in Eusebius to an image painted by Hannan in "Addai" and Moses of Chorene, to a miraculously-appearing image not made by human hands in Evagrius. This latter concept of an "image not made by hands" formed the foundation on which the Eastern Orthodox doctrine of icons was later created in the 8th century, which held that Jesus made the first icon of himself by pressing a wet towel to his face, miraculously imprinting the cloth with his features, thus creating the prototype for all icons of Jesus and an implied divine approval for their creation. John of Damascus, the leading architect of the church dogma favoring icons, specifically mentions that Jesus "is said to have taken a piece of cloth and pressed it to his face, impressing on it the image of his face, which it keeps to this day" (On the Divine Images I). The Abgar legend enjoyed great popularity in the East, and also in the West, during the Middle Ages: Jesus' letter was copied on parchment, inscribed in marble and metal, and used as a talisman or an amulet. Of this pseudepigraphical correspondence there survive not only a Syriac text, but an Armenian translation as well, two independent Greek versions, shorter than the Syriac, and several inscriptions on stone. A curious legendary growth has sprung up from this imaginary occurrence, with scholars disputing whether Abgar suffered from gout or from leprosy, whether the correspondence was on parchment or papyrus, and so forth. Most testimony of the 5th century, for instance Augustine and Jerome, is to the effect that Jesus wrote nothing. The correspondence was rejected as apocryphal by Pope Gelasius I and a Roman synod (c. 495). Biblical scholars now generally believe that the letters were fabricated, probably in the 3rd century AD, and "planted" where Eusebius eventually found them. Another theory is that the story was fabricated by Abgar IX of Osroene, during whose reign the kingdom became Christianized, as a way of legitimizing this religious transformation. Text of the letter varies. The less available variant, transcribed from the Doctrina Addaei, and printed in the Catholic Encyclopedia 1908: :"Abgar Ouchama to Jesus, the Good Physician Who has appeared in the country of Jerusalem, greeting: :"I have heard of Thee, and of Thy healing; that Thou dost not use medicines or roots, but by Thy word openest (the eyes) of the blind, makest the lame to walk, cleansest the lepers, makest the deaf to hear; how by Thy word (also) Thou healest (sick) spirits and those who are tormented with lunatic demons, and how, again, Thou raisest the dead to life. And, learning the wonders that Thou doest, it was borne in upon me that (of two things, one): either Thou hast come down from heaven, or else Thou art the Son of God, who bringest all these things to pass. Wherefore I write to Thee, and pray that thou wilt come to me, who adore Thee, and heal all the ill that I suffer, according to the faith I have in Thee. I also learn that the Jews murmur against Thee, and persecute Thee, that they seek to crucify Thee, and to destroy Thee. I possess but one small city, but it is beautiful, and large enough for us two to live in peace." The Doctrina then continues: :When Jesus had received the letter, in the house of the high priest of the Jews, He said to Hannan^†, the secretary, "Go thou, and say to thy master, who hath sent thee to Me: 'Happy art thou who hast believed in Me, not having seen Me, for it is written of Me that those who shall see Me shall not believe in Me, and that those who shall not see Me shall believe in Me. As to that which thou hast written, that I should come to thee, (behold) all that for which I was sent here below is finished, and I ascend again to My Father who sent Me, and when I shall have ascended to Him I will send thee one of My disciples, who shall heal all thy sufferings, and shall give (thee) health again, and shall convert all who are with thee unto life eternal. And thy city shall be blessed forever, and the enemy shall never overcome it.'" (†According to Eusebius, it was not Hannan who wrote the answer but Jesus himself.)

Liturgical use of the letter of Abgar

The quotations paraphrasing the Gospels are actually from the famous concordance of Tatian, the Diatessarion, itself compiled in the 2nd century. The legend could not be older than the 3rd century. In addition, however, to the importance which it attained in the apocryphal cycle, the correspondence of King Abgar also gained for some time a place in liturgy. The decree, De libris non recipiendis ("Books not to be received"), traditionally attributed to Pope Gelasius I, places the letter among the apocrypha. That in itself may, possibly, be an allusion to its having been interpolated among the officially sanctioned lessons of the liturgy of some churches. The Syrian liturgies commemorate the correspondence of Abgar during Lent. The Celtic liturgy appears to have attached importance to the legend; the Liber Hymnorum, a manuscript preserved at Trinity College, Dublin (E. 4, 2), gives two collects on the lines of the letter to Abgar. Nor is it impossible that this letter, followed by various prayers, may have formed a minor liturgical office in some Catholic churches.

True images

The account given by Thaddeus/Adda contains a detail which may be briefly referred to. Hannan, who wrote at Jesus' dictation, was archivist at Edessa and painter to King Abgar. He had been charged to paint a portrait of Jesus Christ and brought back to Edessa an icon which came an object of general veneration, but which, after a while, was said to have been painted by Jesus himself. Like the letter, the iconic portrait was destined be the nucleus of a legendary growth; the "Holy Face of Edessa" was chiefly famous in the Byzantine world, where the legend of the Edessa portrait forms part of the subject of the developing iconography of Christ, and also of the pictures of miraculous origin called acheiropoietoe ("made without hands") both in the Eastern Orthodox Church and, in the West where the tradition has produced Veronicas and the Shroud of Turin.

References

External links

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01042c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia -- Legend of Abgar]
- [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-08/anf08-103.htm Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. VIII:] Acts of the Holy Apostle Thaddeus, One of the Twelve
- [http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/new-testament-apocrypha/1/1.php Epistle of Jesus Christ to Abgarus King of Edessa] from Eusebius Category:Christian legend and folklore Category:1st century BC births Category:50 deaths

Christian

:This article is about the religious people known as Christians; for the 1980s British music group, see The Christians.
For other uses of the term Christian, see Christian (disambiguation). As a noun, Christian is an appellation and moniker deriving from the appellation "Christ", which many people associate exclusively with Jesus of Nazareth. The first known usage of this term can be found in the New Testament of the Bible, in Acts 11:26. The term was first used to derogate those known or perceived to be disciples of Christ. As an adjective, the term may describe an object associated with Christianity. For many this also means to be a member or adherent of one of the organized religious denominations of Christianity. The term Christian means "belonging to Christ" and is derived from the Greek noun Χριστός Khristós which means "anointed one," which is itself a translation of the Hebrew word Moshiach (Hebrew: משיח, also written "Messiah"), (and in Arabic it is pronounced Maseeh مسيح). According to the New Testament, those who followed Jesus as his disciples were first called Christians by those who did not share their faith, in the city of Antioch. Xian or Xtian is another word used to describe Christians and is similar to using Xmas in place of Christmas; the X or Xt used as a contraction for "Christ" ("X" resembles the Greek letter Χ (Chi), the first letter of "Christ" in Greek (Χριστός [Christos]). The term "Christian" is used by various groups with diverse beliefs to describe themselves. Some groups, such as Born Again Christians and others, use a very strict definition of "Christian". They believe to be Christian one must agree and follow the doctrines set forth in the Bible alone. Many Christians are grouped into ecclesial communities called denominations which are separated by certain aspects of their respective beliefs and theologies. The liturgical denominations, including Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy, Roman and Eastern Catholicism, Anglicanism, and Lutheranism, along with many constituent components of the reformed traditions of Presbyterianism, Methodism, Moravianism, et al., teach that the title Christian is honorificly bestowed upon those who have received the sacrament of Baptism, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Most of these groups advocate infant baptism, or paedobaptist (beside that of adult converts). Others who refer to themselves as Christian only require that one believes that Jesus is the Son of God, that he died, and that he was resurrected from the dead, to claim the term Christian. Yet other Christian denominations require a formal commitment to become a member such as baptism in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, such as with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Baptism for the LDS church is done once an individual has achieved an age of accountability, held to be the age of eight years, or when an individual joins the church as a convert. Other denominations (The Church of Christ, International Churches of Christ, and the Independent Christian Churches) teach that the definition of a Christian is someone who has been baptized as a repenting adult “in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.”– (Matthew 28:19). For them, adult baptism is the transition from non-Christian to Christian. These varying definitions arise from different biblical interpretations and differences regarding the authority of scripture in context with tradition. A small but significant minority of ecclesiastical groups are often referred to as Christian by non-Christians, whose creeds consider Jesus to be theologically significant but not God. Movements along these lines include Jehovah's Witnesses.

History

Early times

Church is taken by some to refer to a single, universal community, although others contend that the doctrine of the universal church was not established until later. The doctrine of the universal, visible church was made explicit in the Apostles' Creed, while the less common Protestant notion of the universal, invisible church is not laid out explicitly until the Reformation. The universal church traditions generally espouse that the Church includes all who are baptized into her common faith, including the doctrines of the trinity, forgiveness of sins through the sacrificial action of Christ, and the resurrection of the body. These teachings are expressed in liturgy with the celebration of sacraments, visible signs of grace. They are passed down as the deposit of faith. Some minority traditions of Christianity have maintained that the word translated "church" in scripture most often properly refers to local bodies or assemblies. "Church" is a derivitive of the Late Greek word "κυριακον", meaning Lord's house, which in English became "church". The Koine word for church is εκκλησία (ecclesia). Before Christian appropriation of the term, it was used to describe purposeful gatherings, including the assemblies of many Greek city states. Christians of this stripe maintain that a centralizing impulse in the church, present from the early days of the church through the rise of Constantine, represented a departure from true Christianity. They therefore reject the authority of the Nicene Creed or the Apostles' Creed.

The First Millennium

Christian spirituality blossomed in the Roman Empire between A.D. 100 and 300 in spite of official efforts to suppress it. Sometime around A.D. 200, one leader, Tertullian, is quoted as saying, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed [of the Church]” to account for this phenomenon. In A.D. 313, the "Edict of Milan" ended official persecution, and under the Emperor Constantine, Christians acquired powerful political influence, the results of which are controversial to this day. Christians developed hierarchical structures to lead the visible Church over the course of many centuries. The leaders of their clergy From the early formation of the Church until the Great Schism in 1054 AD, virtually all Christians subsisted within one Church as one visible organization, led locally by bishops, and regionally by patriarchs. However, minor divisions occurred over differences in doctrine as early as the Council of Chalcedon, and continued through the progression of ecumenical councils.

Medieval times

In Medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church was at its peak of Apostolic flourishment and spirituality. Not only was the Church and its organizations extremely devoted to Christianity, piously spreading the word of God through missionaries and established monastaries in many countries but through its dominant spiritual influence that eventually rivalled the political power of most Monarchs for support of the population. The majority of people of this age devoted their lives to God and it showed by the donations of land, money, and possesions to the church. In time, this made the Pope an important figure in the life of the continent. This wealth often expressed itself in the building of beautiful cathedrals which showed their great devotion and adoration to God. The Church's monasteries were seats of learning and study which evolved into modern universities. They also provided the first hospitals for the care of the sick.

Modern times

The history of the Christian faith in modern times must be studied movement by movement, such is its diversity. In the West, the Protestant Reformation profoundly conditioned the relationship between church and state, thus bringing to Christianity the idea of self-interpretation and the denouncement of visible unity. Intellectual pressure from the Enlightenment led to a religious reaction in the North American colonies — called the Great Awakening — to which Protestant North American Christians owe much of their pattern of practice. Widespread Christian missions, founded by all segments of Christianity in response to the command of Jesus in Matthew 28:19-20, have created today's situation in which Christians are to be found in almost every part of the world. Some Christians devote themselves to active participation in prophetic communication and miraculous healing, as represented in the early church and the pre-Christ prophets. They are categorized as Charismatic or Pentecostal, but can be found in all denominations. Other movements within contemporary Christendom include the emergent church, fundamentalism, return to orthodoxy, messianic Judaism, liberalism, and the home church movement. Certain Christians attempt to obey only God and reject other authorities such as the church or state, believing this to be the true teaching of Jesus. They promote nonviolence and are known as Christian anarchists. Famous author Leo Tolstoy was a notable Christian anarchist, and wrote The Kingdom of God is Within You [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html] in 1894 to explain his beliefs. The life of a Christian is still characterized by faith in the figure of Jesus as represented in the New Testament. Sacraments aside, the concept of grace is still uniquely Christian: the idea, or as some call it a mystery, that spiritual wholeness comes only as a result of a gift.

External links

- [http://www.christianopendirectory.com Christian Open Directory]
- [http://www.gotquestions.org/what-is-a-Christian.html What is a Christian?] (This refers only to the evangelical view of Christianity and may be interpreted by some as being anti-catholic.)
- [http://a4.nu/christian/index.htm Christian Resources - The real teachings of Jesus]
- [http://apostolic-anc.org/cgi-bin/getPageV3.php?id=2 More information about being a Christian]
- [http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/christwrit/varauthors.htm Christian authors]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03712a.htm Christianity], as defined by the Roman Catholic Church
- [http://www.topchretien.com Christianity in French World] Category:Christianity ja:クリスチャン simple:Christian

Pentecost

The Day of Pentecost is the Christian festival that commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles, fifty days after the Resurrection of Jesus at Easter, and ten days after the Ascension. 'The Pentecost' hence refers to the day wherin the descent of the Holy Spirit —a transformative and profound experience, as described in the Book of Acts 2:1:—occurs: :1) And when the day of Pentecost was fully come, they were all with one accord in one place. 2) And suddenly there came a sound from heaven as of a rushing mighty wind, and it filled all the house where they were sitting. 3) And there appeared unto them cloven tongues like as of fire, and it sat upon each of them. 4) And they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance.[http://onlineparallelbible.com/acts/2.htm] The Day of Pentecost is also known in English, especially in Britain, as Whitsun (Whitsunday), from the Old English, as Hwita Sunnandæg, ("White Sunday,") —in reference to the white robes worn by those baptized on the previous Easter. Easter The name "Pentecost" comes from the Greek word Pentékosté, meaning "fiftieth" (day), and originally referred to the Jewish Shavuot —celebrating the fiftieth day after Passover (the second day of Passover is the first day of counting the Omer). The Hebrew festival was originally connected with celebrating the first-fruits of the spring grain harvest, but the Christian festival lost those associations to the new association with the descent of the Holy Spirit, even though both events are spiritually related. (The Christians who received the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost constituted the 'first fruits' of the redemption paid for at the Cross by the Lord Jesus). Pentecostal Christian churches, which are so named because they emphasise the Holy Spirit in each individual, celebrate Pentecost as the anniversary of the disciples' being filled with the Spirit, as described in the New Testament in Acts 2:17. Not only Pentecostal Christian churches celebrate the day of Pentecost. In the Roman Catholic Church and its Eastern Rites, the feast of Pentecost Sunday is celebrated with the rank of a solemnity (the highest liturgical rank for any commemoration). Most Christians recognise the event of Pentecost as 'the birth of the Church' (the moment when its foundation was completed). Pentecost is also called:
- the Feast of Weeks (Deuteronomy 16: 10)
- the Feast of Harvest (Exodus 23: 16)
- the day of first-fruits (Numbers 28:26) In the Hellenistic period, the feast was for renewal of the covenant God made with Noah (Gen. 9:8-17)
The Baptism of the three-thousand
According to the Book of Acts 2:1, the experience of the Pentecost was shared by all in the large crowd, caused confusion, and inspired fear. :6) Now when this was noised abroad, the multitude came together, and were confounded, because that every man heard them speak in his own language. [...] 8) And how hear we every man in our own tongue, wherein we were born? [...] 12) And they were all amazed, and were in doubt, saying one to another, What meaneth this? [...] [http://onlineparallelbible.com/acts/2.htm] The Apostle Peter then stood on a rock above the crowd and ministered to them, explaining that these events had been predicted by Jesus, and that Jesus's coming had been prophecied by David. Peter then explained the personal meaning of the experience as a hopeful one, which confirmed both the promised salvation of Jesus and the propecies of David. :26) Therefore did my heart rejoice, and my tongue was glad; moreover also my flesh shall rest in hope: 27) Because thou wilt not leave my soul in hell, neither wilt thou suffer thine Holy One to see corruption. 28) Thou hast made known to me the ways of life; thou shalt make me full of joy with thy countenance. [...] 33) Therefore being by the right hand of God exalted, and having received of the Father the promise of the Holy Ghost, he hath shed forth this, which ye now see and hear. [...]
- Simon Peter also reminded the multitude (in Acts 2:17-21) that this experience had been predicted by the prophet Joel:
- "And it shall come to pass afterward [or in the 'latter days'] that I will pour out my Spirit on all flesh; your sons and your daughters will prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams and your young men shall see visions." (Joel 2:28) :38) Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost. [...] 41) Then they that gladly received his word were baptized: and the same day there were added unto them about three thousand souls.[http://onlineparallelbible.com/acts/2.htm]

Traditions and holidays

The name "Whit" does not come from use of white robes/garments worn at baptism. This tradition of wearing white started after Pentecost was called Whit Sunday. The word "whit" comes from the word "wisdom", one of the gifts of the Spirit at Pentecost. Hence the varying names for Pentecost in other countries, individually signifying various gifts, attributes and signs of the Holy Spirit. ( F Noy -Dorchester)
- In Italy it was customary to scatter rose petals from the ceiling of the churches to recall the miracle of the fiery tongues; hence in Sicily and elsewhere in Italy Whitsunday is called Pascha rosatum. The Italian name Pascha rossa comes from the red colours of the vestments used on Whitsunday.
- In France it was customary to blow trumpets during Divine service, to recall the sound of the mighty wind which accompanied the Descent of the Holy Spirit.
- In England the gentry amused themselves with horse races. The Whitsun Ales or merrymakings are almost wholly obsolete in England. At these ales the Whitsun plays were performed.
- At Vespers of Pentecost in the Oriental Churches, the extraordinary service of genuflexion, accompanied by long poetical prayers and psalms, takes place. On Pentecost the Russians carry flowers and green branches in their hands. It ought also to be noted that the week prior to this holiday is known as "green week", during which all manner of plants and herbs are gathered. The Eastern Orthodox church considers this whole week to be an ecclesiastic feast. The following Monday is a holiday in much of Europe. The day is known as Whit Monday in England, Wales, and Ireland, and is also celebrated in Iceland, Norway, Denmark, The Netherlands, Belgium, parts of Switzerland, Germany and Hungary. Since 1967, however, Whit Monday has not been a public holiday in the United Kingdom; the holiday has been moved to the fixed date of the last Monday in May, which sometimes but by no means always coincides with Whit Monday. Whit Monday also ceased to be a statutory holiday in France in 2005, where the abolishment led to strong protests. Also in Sweden Whit Monday is no longer a holiday and June 6 (Swedish National Day) has become a day off. Whitsunday remains one of the Scottish term days, at which debts are paid and leases traditionally expire, but this Scottish Whitsunday is now always considered to fall on May 15.

Etymology

The Pentecost is also known as Whitsun (Whitsunday) in the UK because of the white robes traditionally worn this day by those newly baptized on the previous Easter. The word was already familiar in Old English, as Hwita Sunnandæg. The week beginning on Whitsunday (especially the first three days) is called Whitsuntide (formerly also spelled Whitsontide) or Whit Week.

Mesopotamia

, ca. 24th century BC]] Mesopotamia (Greek: Μεσοποταμία, translated from Old Persian Miyanrudan "between rivers"; Aramaic name being Beth-Nahrain "House of Two Rivers") is a region of Southwest Asia. Strictly speaking, it is the alluvial plain lying between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, composing parts of Iraq, Turkey and Syria. More commonly, the term includes these river plains in totality as well as the surrounding lowland territories bounded by the Syrian Desert to the west, the Arabian Desert to the south, the Persian Gulf to the southeast, the Zagros Mountains to the east and the Caucasus mountains to the north. Mesopotamia is famous for the site of some of the oldest civilizations in the world. Writings from Mesopotamia (Uruk, modern Warka) are among the earliest known in the world, giving Mesopotamia a reputation of being the "Cradle of Civilization". The age of Sumerian writing is about on a par with Egyptian hieroglyphs, and some yet older inscriptions are known, probably ranking as proto-writing (Old European script, Naqada [http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm].

City states and Imperial glory

Mesopotamia was settled, and conquered, by numerous ancient civilizations:
- Mesopotamia was home to some of the oldest major ancient civilizations, including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians and Assyrians.
- In 5000 BC, the Sumerians arrived in Mesopotamia. The Semites arrived in 2900 BC and by 2000 BC they had mixed peacefully with the Sumerians and had assumed political dominance.
- The Mitanni were an eastern Indo-European people (belonging to the linguistic "satem" group) who settled in northern Mesopotamia circa 1600 BC South-East of Turkey and by circa 1450 BC established a medium-size empire east, north and west, and temporarily made tributary vassals out of kings in the west, even as far as Kafti (minoic Crete) and making them a major threat for the Pharaoh.
- By 1300 BC they had been reduced to their homeland and the status of vassal of the Hatti (the Hittites), a western Indo-European people (belonging to the linguistic "kentum" group) who dominated most of Asia Minor from their capital of Hattutshash (modern Turkey) and threatened Egypt even more.
- Meanwhile the Kassites established a strong realm, Sangar, in southern Mesopotamia, with Babel as its capital, not touched by Mitanni or Hittites. But the Elamites threatened or invaded them.
- Chaldaean New Babylonia circa 600 BC.

Later history

Elamites
- The region ceased to be a major power house since its inclusion in the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids, apparently as two satrapies, Babylonia in the south and Athura (from Assyria) in the north.
- After the conquest of all Persia by the Hellenizing Macedonian king Alexander the Great, the satrapies were part of the major diadochy, the Seleucid Empire, almost until its elimination by Greater Armenia in 83 BC.
- Most of Mesopotamia then became part of the Parthian Empire of the Arsakides. However part, in the northwest, became Roman. Under the Tetrarchy, this was divided into two provinces, called Osrhoene (around Edessa; roughly the modern-day border between Turkey and Syria) and Mesopotamia (a bit more northeast).
- During the time of the Persian Empire of Sassanids, their much larger share of Mesopotamia was called Dil-i Iranshahr meaning "Iran's Heart" and the metropol Ctesiphon (facing ancient Seleukia across the Tigris), the capital of Persia, was situated in Mesopotamia.
- Since the early caliphs annexed all Persia and advanced even further, Mesopotamia was reunited, but governed as two provinces: northern Mesopotamia (with Mosul) and southern Iraq (with Baghdad, the later caliphal capital). Add education

List of links

Baghdad These civilizations arose from earlier settlements and cultures which were among the first to make use of agriculture.
- Neolithic settlements e.g., Jarmo, Tell Abu Hureyra
- Hassuna period
- Halaf period (or Halafian)
- Samarra period (or Samarran), e.g., Choga Mami
- Ubaid period, e.g., Eridu
- Uruk period, named after the city Uruk.
- Sumerian Early Dynastic period Early cities in this region include:
- lower Mesopotamia / Sumer
- Uruk
- Isin
- Lagash
- Akkad
- Agade
- Babylon
- Kish
- Nippur
- upper Mesopotamia / Assyria
- Assur
- Nineveh
- Mari
- Aleppo

Thaddeus of Edessa

Seventy Apostles

Sources and traditions

List of the Seventy Apostles

Original Apostles who Apostasized

Other Apostles

External links

Christ

Full etymology

"The Anointed" in the Old Testament

History in the New Testament

Distinctions between "Jesus", "Christ", and "God"

Related uses of anointing

Gnostic Christ

Expansions and appropriations of "Christ"

Slang usage

References

Twelve Apostles

Erosion of the Apostles

See also

External links

Edessa, Mesopotamia

History

Christianity

Cultural

See also

External link

References

Further reading

Eusebius of Caesarea

Biography

Works

Works on Biblical text criticism

The Chronicle

The Church History

The Life of Constantine

Minor historical works

Apologetic and dogmatic works

Exegetical and miscellaneous works

Estimate of Eusebius

His doctrine

His limitations

External links

Abgarus of Edessa

Liturgical use of the letter of Abgar

True images

See also

References

External links

Christian

History

Early times

The First Millennium

Medieval times

Modern times

See also

External links

Pentecost

The Baptism of the three-thousand

Traditions and holidays

Etymology

See also

Mesopotamia

City states and Imperial glory

Later history

List of links

Further reading

44

Events

Births

Deaths