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Mites

Mites

Tetranychidae - Spider mites
Eriophyidae - Gall mites
Sarcoptidae - Sarcoptic Mange mites The mites and ticks, order Acarina or Acari, belong to the Arachnid and are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups, although some way behind the insects. They have exploited an incredible array of habitats and because of their small size (some are microscopic) most go totally unnoticed. Many live freely in the soil or water, but there is also a vast array of species that live as parasites on plants or animals. Some of the plant pests include the so-called Spider mites (family Tetranychidae) and the Gall mites (family Eriophyidae). Among the species that attack animals there are members of the Sarcoptic Mange mites (family Sarcoptidae), which burrow under the skin. Perhaps the most well known, though, is the house dust mite (family Pyroglyphidae). Insects may also have parasitic mites. Examples are Varroa destructor which attaches to the body of the honeybee and Acarapis woodi, which lives in the tracheae of honeybees. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called Acarology.

Tick

Ixodidae - Hard ticks
Argasidae - Soft ticks Tick is the common name for the small wingless arachnids that, along with mites, constitute the order Acarina. Ticks are external parasites, living by hematophagy on the blood of mammals, birds, and occasionally reptiles and amphibians. Ticks are an important vector of a number of human and animal diseases.

Characteristics

amphibian The major families of tick include the Ixodidae or hard ticks, which have thick outer shells made of chitin, and Argasidae or soft ticks, which have a membraneous outer surface. Soft ticks typically live in crevices and emerge briefly to feed, while hard ticks will attach themselves to the skin of a host for long periods of time. Most reside in the Northwestern US. Tick bites look like mosquito bites, but can also sometimes bruise or resemble a bullseye. According to Kirby C. Stafford III, Ph.D., of the Connecticut Department of Public Health, "Concentrations of DEET that might prevent tick attachment may not deter a tick from walking across the skin to unexposed and untreated areas." DEET seems to be more effective against deterring crawling ticks when applied to clothing such as the shoe tops, socks, and lower portion of pants. Permethrin kills ticks on contact with treated clothes[http://www.dph.state.ct.us/BCH/infectiousdise/tickborne/tick.htm].

Ticks as disease vectors

Hard ticks can transmit human diseases such as relapsing fever, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularemia, equine encephalitis and several forms of ehrlichiosis. Additionally, they are responsible for transmitting livestock diseases, including babesiosis and anaplasmosis. Diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria can be transmitted by soft ticks. Generally, tick-borne diseases correspond to a specific tick-host combination, and are limited in their geographical extent.

Location

tick-borne disease Ticks are often found in tall grass, where they will rest themselves at the tip of a blade so as to attach themselves to a passing animal or human. It is a common misconception that the tick can jump from the plant onto the host. Physical contact is the only method of transportation for ticks. They will generally drop off of the animal when full, but this may take several days. Ticks contain a structure in their mouth area that allows them to anchor themselves firmly in place while sucking blood. Pulling a tick out forcefully may squeeze contents of the tick back into the bite and often leaves the mouthpiece behind, which may result in infection. Methods for removing a tick without it leaving its mouthpiece inside the skin include anesthetizing the tick with a substance such as ether. According to the Rhode Island Department of Health, roughly 70% of people who develop Lyme disease catch it from ticks in their own yard[http://www.health.state.ri.us/disease/communicable/lyme/yard.php]. Some ways to reduce the risk of this happening include:
- Eliminating salt licks, birdbaths, and other features that attract wildlife;
- Keeping the grass short and free of clippings, leaves, and other debris that shelter ticks;
- Building a fence to keep out deer, since deer can carry hundreds of ticks;
- Creating a 3-foot wide, 3-inch deep gravel border between the yard and any adjacent wooded areas. Walter Muma notes that the design of many suburban areas makes them prone to tick infestation[http://www.trackertrail.com/lymedisease/natureclass02.html]: :If your lawn is separated from the forest by only a little brush, then the border between the forest and your property is a prime area for ticks, suspended on grass and shrubs, as noted above. (Modern developers have taken great pride in providing a natural environment and saving as much of the forest in their new properties as possible. By scalloping plots out of forest, they have maximized the very border niche preferred by ticks and mice and thereby have deposited new homeowners in an optimal environment for [Lyme Disease]!!) . . . ticks do not wander very far and may never see much more than a few yards of the world unless carried elsewhere by a bird, dog, deer, or human. . . In general, however, lawns are a hostile environment for ticks, as the ticks are more likely to dry out without shade and ground leaf clutter to protect them.

Facts

birdbath
- Dermacentor variabilis, the American dog tick, is perhaps the most well-known of the North American hard ticks.
- Ixodes dammini, the deer tick, is common to the eastern part of North America and is known for spreading Lyme disease.
- I. pacificus lives in the western part of the continent and is responsible for spreading Lyme disease and the more deadly Rocky Mountain spotted fever. It tends to prefer livestock as its adult host.
- In some parts of Europe, tick-borne meningoencephalitis is a common viral infection. viral
- Australian tick fauna consists of approximately 75 species, the majority of which fall into the Ixodidae, hard tick, family. The most medically important tick is the Paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus. It is found in a 20-kilometre band that follows the eastern coastline of Australia. As this is where much of the human population resides in New South Wales, encounters with these parasites are relatively common. Although most cases of tick bite are uneventful, some can result in life threatening illnesses including paralysis, tick typhus and severe allergic reactions.[http://medent.usyd.edu.au/fact/ticks.htm]

Life cycle

Deer (black-legged) tick

New South Wales The deer (or black-legged) tick, and the related western black-legged tick, are the primary known transmitters of Lyme disease in the United States. Both are hard-bodied ticks with a two-year life cycle. Like all species of ticks, deer ticks and their relatives require a blood meal to progress to each successive stage in their life cycles. The life cycle of the deer tick comprises three growth stages: the larva, nymph and adult. In both the northeastern and mid-western U.S., where Lyme disease has become prevalent, it takes about two years for the tick to hatch from the egg, go through all three stages, reproduce, and then die. A detailed description of this life cycle and the seasonal timing of peak activity, as they occur in these regions, is provided below.

Larva

Eggs laid by an adult female deer tick in the spring hatch into larvae later in the summer. These larvae reach their peak activity in August. No bigger than a newsprinted period, a larva will wait on the ground until a small mammal or bird brushes up against it. The larva then attaches itself to its host, begins feeding, and engorges with blood over several days. If the host is already infected with the Lyme disease spirochete from previous tick bites, the larva will likely become infected as well. In this way, infected hosts in the wild (primarily white-footed mice, which exist in large numbers in Lyme-endemic areas of the northeast and upper mid-west) serve as spirochete reservoirs, infecting ticks that feed upon them. Other mammals and ground-feeding birds may also serve as reservoirs. spirochete Because deer tick larvae are not born infected, it is believed that they cannot transmit Lyme disease to their human hosts. Instead, "reservoir" hosts, as mentioned above, can infect the larvae. Having already fed, an infected larva will not seek another host, human or otherwise, until after it reaches the next stage in its life cycle. It is not completely known whether larvae, in themselves, pose a threat to humans or their pets.

Nymph

Most larvae, after feeding, drop off their hosts and molt, or transform, into nymphs in the fall. The nymphs can remain active throughout the winter and early spring. In May, nymphal activity begins. Host-seeking nymphs wait on vegetation near the ground for a small mammal or bird to approach. The nymph will then latch on to its host and feed for 4 or 5 days, engorging with blood and swelling to many times its original size. If previously infected during its larval stage, the nymph may transmit the Lyme disease spirochete to its host. If not previously infected, the nymph may become infected if its host carries the Lyme disease spirochete from previous infectious tick bites. In highly endemic areas of the northeast, at least 25% of nymphs have been found to harbor the Lyme disease spirochete. Too often, humans are the hosts that come into contact with infected nymphs during their peak spring and summer activity. Although the nymphs' preferred hosts are small mammals and birds, humans and their pets are suitable substitutes. Because nymphs are about the size of a poppy seed, they often go unnoticed until fully engorged, and are therefore responsible for the majority of human Lyme disease cases.

Adult

Lyme disease Once engorged, the nymph drops off its host into the leaf litter and molts into an adult. These adults actively seek new hosts throughout the fall, waiting up to 3 feet above the ground on stalks of grass or leaf tips to latch onto deer (its preferred host) or other larger mammals (including humans, dogs, cats, horses, and other domestic animals). Peak activity for adult deer ticks occurs in late October and early November. Of adults sampled in highly endemic areas of the northeast, at least 50% have been found to carry the Lyme disease spirochete. As winter closes in, adult ticks unsuccessful in finding hosts take cover under leaf litter or other surface vegetation, becoming inactive when covered by ice and snow. Generally, winters in the northeast and upper mid-west are cold enough to keep adult ticks at bay until late February or early March but not when temperatures begin to rise. At this time, they resume the quest for hosts in a last-ditch effort to obtain a blood meal allowing them to mate and reproduce. This second activity peak typically occurs in March and early April. Adult female ticks that attach to deer, whether in the fall or spring, feed for approximately one week. Males feed only intermittently. Mating may take place on or off the host, and is required for the female's successful completion of the blood meal. The females then drop off the host, become gravid, lay their eggs underneath leaf litter in early spring, and die. Each female lays approximately 3,000 eggs. The eggs hatch later in the summer, beginning the two-year cycle anew.

References

- [http://www.health.state.ri.us/disease/communicable/lyme/yard.php Lyme Disease: Keeping Your Yard Tick-Free], Rhode Island Department of Health.
- Muma, Walter: [http://www.trackertrail.com/lymedisease/natureclass02.html Lyme Disease: Nature Class - March 1997].
- Stafford, Kirby C. III: [http://www.dph.state.ct.us/BCH/infectiousdise/tickborne/tick.htm Tick Bite Prevention], Connecticut Department of Public Health, Feb. 1999. Category:Cat health Category:Dog health Category:Arachnids Category:Parasites

Invertebrate

Invertebrate is a term coined by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck to describe any animal without a spinal column. It therefore includes all animals except vertebrates (fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals). Lamarck divided these animals into two groups, the Insecta and the Vermes, but nowadays, they are classified into over 30 phyla, from simple organisms such as sponges and flatworms to complex animals such as arthropods and mollusks. Since invertebrates include all animals except a certain group, invertebrates form a paraphyletic group, but, despite not forming a "natural group" (that is, monophyletic), "invertebrate" is still a widely used term. It is not uncommon for books entitled "Invertebrate Zoology" to be found. This reflects the bias in society and also in zoology towards larger, more complex animals that are more closely related to humans. Thus, there are relatively many scientists studying (and relatively much funding available for the study of) birds, mammals, reptiles, and so on, but far fewer scientists studying invertebrates, even though invertebrates include 97% of all animal species. For a full list of animals considered to be invertebrates, see animal. All the listed phyla are invertebrates along with two of the three subphyla in Phylum Chordata: Urochordata and Cephalochordata. These two, plus all the other known invertebrates, have only one cluster of Hox genes, while the vertebrates have duplicated their original cluster more than once.

External links

- [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/invertz.html Invertebrate Zoology]
- [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/onlinedictinvertzoology/ Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology]
- [http://www.goliathus.cz/en/museum-homepage-0.html Online museum] of many invertebrates, provided by [http://www.goliathus.cz/ goliathus.cz]. Category:Animals ms:Invertebrata ja:無脊椎動物

Insect

Subclass: Apterygota :Orders :
- Archaeognatha (Bristletails) :
- Thysanura (Silverfish) :
- Monura - extinct Subclass: Pterygota :
- Infraclass: "Paleoptera" (paraphyletic) ::Orders ::
- Ephemeroptera (mayflies) ::
- Protodonata - extinct ::
- Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) ::
- Diaphanopteroidea - extinct ::
- Palaeodictyoptera - extinct ::
- Megasecoptera - extinct ::
- Archodonata - extinct :
- Infraclass: Neoptera ::Orders ::
- Blattodea (cockroaches) ::
- Isoptera (termites) ::
- Mantodea (mantids) ::
- Dermaptera (earwigs) ::
- Plecoptera (stoneflies) ::
- Protorthoptera - extinct ::
- Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) ::
- Phasmatodea (walking sticks) ::
- Caloneroptera - extinct ::
- Titanoptera - extinct ::
- Embioptera (webspinners) ::
- Zoraptera ::
- Grylloblattodea ::
- Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) :
- Superorder: Exopterygota ::Orders ::
- Psocoptera (booklice, barklice) ::
- Thysanoptera (thrips) ::
- Phthiraptera (lice) ::
- Hemiptera (true bugs) :
- Superorder: Endopterygota ::Orders ::
- Raphidioptera (snakeflies) ::
- Megaloptera (alderflies, etc.) ::
- Neuroptera (net-veined insects) ::
- Coleoptera (beetles) ::
- Strepsiptera (twisted-winged parasites) ::
- Mecoptera (scorpionflies, etc.) ::
- Siphonaptera (fleas) ::
- Diptera (true flies) ::
- Trichoptera (caddisflies) ::
- Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) ::
- Hymenoptera (ants, bees, etc.) ::
- Protodiptera extinct ::Incertae sedis ::
- Glosselytrodea extinct ::
- Miomoptera - extinct Insects are invertebrate animals of the Class Insecta, the largest and (on land) most widely distributed taxon within the Phylum Arthropoda. Insects comprise the most diverse group of animals on the earth, with over 800,000 species described—more than all other animal groups combined: "Indeed, in no one of her works has Nature more fully displayed her exhaustless ingenuity," Pliny exclaimed. Insects may be found in nearly all environments on the planet, although only a small number of species have adapted to life in the oceans where crustaceans tend to predominate. There are approximately 5,000 dragonfly species, 2,000 praying mantis, 20,000 grasshopper, 170,000 butterfly and moth, 120,000 fly, 82,000 true bug, 350,000 beetle, and 110,000 bee and ant species. Estimates of the total number of current species, including those not yet known to science, range from two to thirty million, with most authorities favoring a figure midway between these extremes. The study of insects is called entomology.

Relationship to other arthropods

A few smaller groups with similar body plans, such as springtails (Collembola), are united with the insects in the Subphylum Hexapoda. The true insects (that is, species classified in the Class Insecta) are distinguished from all other arthropods in part by having ectognathous, or exposed, mouthparts and eleven (11) abdominal segments. Most species, but by no means all, have wings as adults. Terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes, millipedes, scorpions and spiders, are sometimes confused with insects due to the fact that both have similar body plans, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton.

Morphology and development

Insects range in size from less than a millimeter to over 18 centimeters (some walkingsticks) in length. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by an exoskeleton, a hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The body is divided into a head, a thorax, and an abdomen. The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, and a mouth. The thorax has six legs (one pair per segment) and wings (if present in the species). The abdomen has excretory and reproductive structures. Insects have a complete digestive system. That is, their digestive system consists basically of a tube that runs from mouth to anus, contrasting with the incomplete digestive systems found in many simpler invertebrates. The excretory system consists of Malpighian tubules for the removal of nitrogenous wastes and the hindgut for osmoregulation. At the end of the hindgut, insects are able to reabsorb water along with potassium and sodium ions. Therefore, insects don't usually excrete water with their feces, a fact which allows them to store water in the body. This process of reabsorption enables them to withstand hot, dry environments. osmoregulation Most insects have two pairs of wings located on the second and third thoracic segments. Insects are the only invertebrate group to have developed flight, and this has played an important part in their success. The winged insects, and their secondarily wingless relatives, make up the subclass Pterygota. Insect flight is not very well understood, relying heavily on turbulent atmospheric effects. In more primitive insects it tends to rely heavily on direct flight muscles, which act upon the wing structure. More advanced flyers, which make up the Neoptera, generally have wings that can be folded over their back, keeping them out of the way when not in use. In these insects, the wings are powered mainly by indirect flight muscles that move the wings by stressing the thorax wall. These muscles are able to contract when stretched without nervous impulses, allowing the wings to beat much faster than would be otherwise possible. Insects use tracheal respiration in order to transport oxygen through their bodies. Openings on the surface of the body called spiracles lead to the tubular tracheal system. Air reaches internal tissues via this system of branching trachea. The circulatory system of insects, like that of other arthropods, is open: the heart pumps the hemolymph through arteries to open spaces surrounding the internal organs; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph seeps back into the heart. Insects hatch from eggs, and undergo a series of moults as they develop and grow in size. This manner of growth is necessitated by the exoskeleton. Moulting is a process by which the individual escapes the confines of the exoskeleton in order to increase in size, then grows a new outer covering. In most types of insects, the young, called nymphs, are basically similar in form to the adults (an example is the grasshopper), though wings are not developed until the adult stage. This is called incomplete metamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis distinguishes the Endopterygota, which includes many of the most successful insect groups. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a larva, which is generally worm-like in form. The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa, a stage sealed within a cocoon or chrysalis in some species. In the pupal stage, the insect undergoes considerable change in form to emerge as an adult, or imago. Butterflies are an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. imago.]]

Behavior

Many insects possess very refined organs of perception. In some cases, their senses can be more capable than humans. For example, bees can see in the ultraviolet spectrum, and male moths have a specialized sense of smell that enables them to detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers. Social insects, such as the ant and the bee, are the most familiar species of eusocial animal. They live together in large well-organized colonies that are so tightly integrated and genetically similar the colonies are sometimes considered superorganisms.

Roles in the environment and human society

Many insects are considered pests by humans, because they transmit diseases (mosquitos, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods (locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, often using insecticides, but more and more relying on methods of biocontrol. Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the environment and to humans. Some pollinate flowering plants (for example wasps, bees, butterflies, ants). Pollination is a trade between plants which need to reproduce, and pollinators which receive rewards of nectar and pollen. A serious environmental problem today is the decline of populations of pollinator insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for pollination management in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field, orchard or greenhouse at bloom time. Insects also produce useful substances such as honey, wax, lacquer or silk. Honeybees, (pictured above) have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for beekeepers. The silkworm has greatly affected human history as silk-driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world. Fly larvae (maggots) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene, as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Insect larvae of various kinds are also commonly used as fishing bait. In some parts of the world, insects are used for human food ("Entomophagy"), while being a taboo in other places. There are proponents of developing this use to provide a major source of protein in human nutrition. Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects already are present in many foods, especially grains. Most people do not realize that food laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit the quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have protein sources that require less work like farm birds or cattle. Many insects, especially beetles, are scavengers, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, recycling the biological materials into forms found useful by other organisms. The ancient Egyptian religion adored beetles and represented them as scarabeums. Although mostly unnoticed by most humans, arguably the most useful of all insects are insectivores, those that feed on other insects. Many insects, such as grasshoppers can potentially reproduce so fast that they could literally bury the earth in a single season. However there are hundreds of other insect species that feed on grasshopper eggs, and some that feed on grasshopper adults. This role in ecology is usually assumed to be primarily one of birds, but insects, though less glamorous, are much more significant. For any pest insect one can name, there is a species of wasp that is either a parasitoid or predator upon that pest, and plays a significant role in controlling it. Human attempts to control pests by insecticides can backfire, because important but unrecognized insects already helping to control pest populations are also killed by the poison, leading eventually to population explosions of the pest species.

Fossils and evolution

predator The relationships of insects are unclear. Although traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes, evidence has emerged favoring a relationship with the crustaceans. Apart from some tantalizing Devonian fragments, insects first appear suddenly in the fossil record during the very start of the Late Carboniferous period, Early Bashkirian age, about 350 million years ago. As they are already specialized, and represented by more than half a dozen different orders, their anscestry must be sought earlier the Carboniferous, if not the Devonian. Little is known about the origin of insect flight, since the earliest winged insects appear to be capable fliers. Wings themselves are now thought to be highly modified gills, and some insects (e.g. the Palaeodictyoptera) had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs. Late Carboniferous and Early Permian insect orders include both several current very long-lived groups (mayflies, (Ephemeroptera), dragonflies (Odonata), cockroaches (Blattodea), and Orthoptera (grasshoppers and their relatives)) and a number of Paleozoic forms. During this time, some giant dragonfly-like forms - e.g. Meganeura and Meganeuropsis (Order Protodonata) and Mazothairos (Order Palaeodictyoptera) - reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm, making them far larger than any living insect. The Permian, around 270 million years, saw the development of most extant orders; while many of the early groups became extinct during the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in the history of the earth. The remarkably successful Hymenopterans appeared in the Cretaceous but achieved their diversity more recently, in the Cenozoic. A number of highly successful insect groups — especially the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera (butterflies), as well as many types of Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles) — evolved in conjunction with flowering plants, a powerful illustration of co-evolution. Many modern insect genera developed during the Cenozoic; from this period on we find insects preserved in amber, often in perfect condition and easily compared with modern species. The study of fossilized insects is called paleoentomology.

References

- — a classic textbook in North America
- — an up to date review of the evolutionary history of the insects

Quotes

- "Something in the insect seems to be alien to the habits, morals, and psychology of this world, as if it had come from some other planet: more monstrous, more energetic, more insensate, more atrocious, more infernal than our own." ::—Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949)

External links

- [http://cmave.usda.ufl.edu/~rmankin/soundlibrary.html Bug Bytes] A reference library of digitized insect sounds.
- [http://www.sonoma.edu/users/r/rank/Bio355/BIOL355inslinks.html Entomological Links] A long list of links about insects
- [http://www.insects.org/index.html INSECTS .org] A shameless promotion of insect appreciation.
- [http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as Food] by Gene DeFoliart. Information about insects as a food resource.
- [http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/index.htm Kendall Bioresearch] Bug Index, Featured Bugs, Classification, ID, Fossils, Body-parts, Micro Views, Life Cycles, Pesticide Safety.
- [http://www.ub.es/dpep/meganeura/meganeura.htm Meganeura] Website about insect evolution and fossil record.
- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Insecta&contgroup=Hexapoda Tree of Life Project] – Insecta
- [http://ufbir.ifas.ufl.edu/ UF Book of Insect Records], documenting "insect champions" in different categories Category:Arthropods Category:Entomology
- ko:곤충 ms:Serangga ja:昆虫類 simple:Insect th:แมลง

Spider mite

The Red Spider Mite is a predatory mite found in dry environments, generally considered a pest. It has about 60 different common names, including Two-spotted Mite. The red spider mite belongs to the arachnid family and is closely related to spiders. The most notable spider mite is the red spider mite, which can be seen in greenhouses and temperate zones spinning a fine web under leaves. The red spider mite poses a threat to host plants, especially tomato plants by laying eggs on it and sucking sap from the leaves cell by cell, which could spread viruses. Spider mites are less than 1 millimeter in size and vary in colors. The red spider mite is the easiest to spot. During the summer the red spider mite has a greenish brown appearance with two darker spots, but as winter approaches it gains a strong red color.

External links

- [http://www.memx.com/movie_gallery.htm MEMS Movie Gallery], Spider mite used for demonstrating MEMS technology Category:Arachnids Natural predator phytoseillus persimilis (Anthias Henriot) (Chilean spider mite), commonly used as a method for its biological control. Spider mite is called spider mite, not as it is closely related to spiders as stated, but due to the fact that it spins a silken web in which it lays its eggs. (Acarinidae not arachnidae)

Sarcoptic Mange

Mange is an irritation of the skin, primarily resulting in hair loss and sometimes including itching and inflammation, all of which are caused by microscopic mites. Mange is most commonly found in dogs and other canines, but it can occur in other domestic and wild animals, and occasionally in humans. The mites embed themselves in the hair follicles or skin, depending on the type, making both detection and treatment difficult. The condition can be treated with parasiticidal shampoo, topical or oral medication, or injections, but it takes time and patience for repeated applications, and almost always requires veterinary care. Two types of mites produce canine mange, and each has similar but somewhat different symptoms.

Demodectic mange

Also called demodicosis, demodectic mange is caused by an overpopulation of Demodex canis, a mite that occurs naturally in the hair follicles of most dogs. In most dogs, these mites never cause problems. However, in certain situations, such as an impaired immune system, intense stress, or malnutrition, the mites can reproduce too rapidly, causing anything from mild irritation and hair loss on a tiny patch of skin to severe inflammation, infection, and--in rare cases--a life-threatening condition. Small patches of demodicosis often correct themselves over time, although treatment is usually recommended. Minor cases of demodectic mange usually do not cause much itching but might cause pustules on the dog's skin, redness, scaling, hair loss, or any combination of these. It most commonly appears first on the face, around the eyes, or at the corners of the mouth, and on the forelimbs. In the more severe form, which usually develops in dogs who have previously suffered minor cases, hair loss can occur in patches all over the body and might be accompanied by crusting, pain, enlarged lymph nodes, and skin infections. This variety of mange is not generally contagious; these mites thrive only on very specific hosts (dogs) and transmission usually occurs only from the mother to nursing puppies during the first few days after birth. Some breeds appear to have an increased risk of mild cases as young dogs, including the Afghan Hound, American Staffordshire Terrier, Boston Terrier, Boxer, Chihuahua, Shar Pei, Collies, Dalmatian, Doberman Pinscher, English Bulldog, German Shepherd Dog, Great Dane, Old English Sheepdog, American Pit Bull Terrier, and Pug. There is strong evidence that a predeliction for juvenile demodectic mange is inherited.

Sarcoptic mange

Also known as canine scabies, sarcoptic mange is a highly contagious infestation of Sarcoptes scabei canis, a burrowing mite. The canine sarcoptic mite can also infest humans and cats, although usually not severely, as its natural host is dogs. These mites dig into and through the skin, causing intense itching and crusting that can quickly become infected. Hair loss and crusting frequently appears first on elbows and ears. Skin damage can occur from the dog's intense scratching and biting. Affected dogs need to be isolated from other dogs and their bedding, and places they have occupied must be thoroughly cleaned. Shaving is sometimes warranted. For more information, see Scabies.

Diagnosis

Veterinarians usually attempt diagnosis with a skin scraping, which is then examined under a microscope for mites. Because they are burrowing creatures, mites are not always present on or near the surface of the skin when the scraping takes place. As a result, diagnosis is often based on symptoms rather than actual confirmation of the presence of mites. This also means that mange is occasionally misdiagnosed as other medical conditions, and vice versa.

References

- UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine Book of Dogs, Ed.: Mordecai Siegal
- The Complete Dog Owner's Manual, Amy Marder, V.M.D
- ASPCA Complete Guide to Pet Care, David L. Carroll Category:Dog health ----

House dust mite

The house dust mite (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus in Europe and Dermatophagoides farinae in North America), sometimes abbreviated by allergists to HDM, is a cosmopolitan guest in human habitation. They are considered to be one of the most common causes of asthma worldwide.

Description

Both male and female adult house dust mites are globular in shape, creamy white and have a striated cuticle. The female measures approximately 420 micrometres in length and 320 micrometres in width. The male is approximately 420 micrometres long and 245 micrometres wide. A member of the phylum Arthropoda, house dust mites have eight legs. The average life cycle for a male house dust mite is approximately 19-30 days while a mated female house dust mite can live for up to two months, laying eggs for the last 30 days of her life.

Habitat

The dust mite thrives in the modern environment of fully-carpeted, double-glazed, draft-proof homes, and is comfortable at 25 degrees Celsius and 75% relative humidity. The mites are particularly common in carpets and bedding. The mite generally lives on shed human skin cells, which are pre-digested by the fungus Aspergillus repens. An average person sheds about 1.5 grams of skin a day (approximately 0.3-0.45 kg per year), which is enough to feed roughly a million dust mites. Further, dust mites in bedding derive moisture from human breathing, perspiration, and saliva.

Asthma

The house dust mite is one of the most significant allergens, implicated in allergic asthma, rhinitis, conjunctivitis and dermatitis. The protein responsible for the allergic reaction is DerP1, a protease digestive enzyme found in mite feces. Measures to control house dust mites:
- Vacuuming carpeted areas regularly, preferably with a HEPA filter-equipped vacuum cleaner
- Regular damp dusting of surfaces
- Replacement of carpets with vinyl flooring
- Covering of mattresses and pillows with impervious materials
- Daytime internment of children's plush toys in a freezer
- Use of chemicals to kill mites (acaricides)
- Use of fungicides to kill Aspergillus
- Use an FDA approved air filtration & cleaning system (especially with high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA+ filtration)
- Reduce ambient humidty below 70% to inhibit growth of Aspergillus Though these methods can help to reduce the level of house dust mites, attempts to eradicate homes completely have yet to be successful. Immunotherapy, in the form of injections of the allergen into patients, has been successful for some in much the same way that "allergy shots" have been helpful for sufferers of hayfever.

External links and references

- [http://lancaster.unl.edu/enviro/pest/factsheets/013-97.htm University of Nebraska] "There are two species of house dust mites, belonging to the genus Dermatophagoides, that are found in North America. These mites are so tiny that they are virtually invisible without magnification. They pass through six developmental stages, and the adult form may also molt once. Adult female mites lay cream-colored elliptical eggs coated with a sticky fluid that helps them adhere to the substrate. Under optimal conditions, the cycle from egg to adult mite takes about one month."
- [http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2157.html Ohio State University] "House dust mites, due to their very small size (250 to 300 micrometres in length) and translucent bodies, are not visible to the unaided eye. For accurate identification, one needs at least 10X magnification. The adult mite's cuticle (covering) has simple striations that can be seen from both the dorsal (top) view and from the ventral (bottom) view. The ventral view of the house dust mite reveals long setae (hairs) extending from the outer margins of the body and shorter setae on the rest of the body. Through the microscope, one will see many oval-shaped mites scuttling around and over one another. There are eight hairy legs, no eyes, no antennae, a mouthpart group in front of the body (resembles head) and a tough, translucent shell, giving a fearsome appearance."
- [http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/urban/house_dust_mite.htm University of Florida] "The term "house dust mites" has been applied to a large number of mites found in association with dust in dwellings. The American house dust mite, Dermatophagoides farinae Hughes, and the European house dust mite, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (Trouessart), are discussed here. The first permanent structures for houses date back to 6,000 to 5,000 B.C., but it was not until the late 1600s that scientist became interested in the dust of houses. The pyroglyphids are parasites associated with birds and/or mammals. Kern (1921) found house dust to give positive cutaneous reactions in sensitive patients. Cook (1922) and Coa (1922) also found that dust extracts gave positive skin reactions in over 30 per cent of the individuals tested. Voorhorst et al. (1964) and Oshima (1964) first published their accounts that mites were recognized to contribute to the house dust allergy problem." Category:Arachnids

Varroa destructor

Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera, the bumblebee Bombus pennsylvanicus, the scarab beetle Palpada vinetorum and the flower-fly Phanaeus vindex. It was until recently mislabeled as Varroa jacobsoni. It can only replicate in a honeybee hive. It attaches at the body of the bee and weakens the bee by sucking haemolymph. In this process the mite may also spread RNA viral agents and bacteria to the bee. A significant mite infestation will lead to the death of a honeybee colony, usually in the winter. The varroa mite has been the parasite with the most pronounced economic impact on the beekeeping industry.

Origin

Varroa destructor was until recently thought to be a closely related mite species called Varroa jacobsoni . Both species parasitize the Asian honey bee, Apis cerana. The mite species originally described as V. jacobsoni by Oudemans in 1904 is part of the same species complex, but not the same species that made the jump to Apis mellifera. That jump probably first took place in the Philippines in the early 1960’s. Only after Apis mellifera were imported to the Philippines, it came into close contact with Apis cerana. Varroa as a parasite of Apis cerana, also became a parasite of Apis mellifera. Up until 2000, scientists did not positively identify Varroa destructor as a separate species. In 2005, we know that the only varroa mites that can reproduce in colonies of Apis mellifera (Western honeybee) are the Korea and Japan/Thailand genotypes of Varroa destructor. Varroa jacobsoni is a fairly benign parasite of Apis cerana. This late identification in 2000 by Anderson and Trueman led to some confusion and mislabeling in the scientific literature. Western honeybee

Anatomy

- Reddish-brown in color
- 1.00-1.77 mm long and 1.50-1.99 mm wide
- Flat, button shape
- Eight legs

Life cycle

The female mite enters a honeybee brood cell. As soon as the cell is capped, the mite lays eggs. The young mites hatch in about the same time as the young bee develops and leave the cell with the host. The [http://www.apis.admin.ch/inde.php Swiss Bee Research Centre] scientifically investigated the life cycle of the varroa in the capped cell and described it in a paper [http://www.apis.admin.ch/en/krankheiten/docs/varroa/fortpflanzung_e.pdf (Look under the cap)]. host The model for the population dynamics is that there is exponential growth when bee brood is available and exponential decline when no brood is available.

Reproduction

Mites reproduce on a 10-day cycle. In 12 weeks the number of mites in a Western honeybee hive can roughly multiply by 12. Russian honey bees are one third to one half less susceptible to mite reproduction. Source: [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/8_8_98/fob1.htm Russian Queens Bee-little Mites' Impact] by J. Raloff, Science News, Aug. 8, 1998

Worldwide Range Expansion

- 1984 Switzerland
- 1987 USA
- 1989 Canada
- 1992 England
- 2000 New Zealand

Control methods in beehive

Synthetic chemicals
- pyrethroid insecticide (Apistan)as strips
- organophosphate insecticide (Coumaphos(Check-mite)) as strips Natural occurring chemicals
- sugar esters (Sucrocide) in spray application
- oxalic acid trickling method or applied as vapor (Dany's BienenWohl or [http://www.biovet.ch/shop/global/product_info.php?info=p2_VARROX%AE-Vaporiser.html VARROX-Vaporiser])
- formic acid as vapor or pads
- Foodgrade mineral oil as vapor and in direct application on paper or cords.
- [http://www.apis.admin.ch/en/krankheiten/oele.php Essential oil] especially lemon, mint, and [http://www.apis.admin.ch/en/krankheiten/thymol.php thyme oil] Physical
- Screened bottom board with sticky board is a purely physical method. It separates mites that fall through the screen and the sticky board prevents them from crawling back up.
- Dusting with powdered sugar (Dowda Method)
- freezing or heating of capped drone brood method Behavioral
- swarming or queen arrest method. When the honeybee brood cycle is interrupted the mites cannot multiply either.

References

# D. Anderson & J. W. H. Trueman (2000). "Varroa jacobsoni (Acari: Varroidae) is more than one species." Experimental & Applied Acarology, 24, 165-189. #[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/acarology/saas/saasp/pdf10/saasp05b.pdf Notes on Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) parasitic on honeybees in New Zealand] ZHI-QIANG ZHANG, Systematic & Applied Acarology Special Publications (2000) 5, 9-14 #
- [http://www.ent.uga.edu/bees/Disorders/guest.htm Varroa destructor: Revolution in the Making] Keith S. Delaplane, University of Georgia; Bee World; 2001; 82(4): 157-159
- [http://www.csl.gov.uk/science/organ/environ/bee/factsheets/managing_varroa.pdf Managing varroa] Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1996
- [http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/apiculture/factsheets/221_varroa.htm Tracheal and Varroa Mite Controls] Apiculture Factsheet #221, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Government of British Columbia; April 2004
- [http://www.honeycouncil.ca/users/folder.asp?FolderID=1157| Essential Oils for Varroa Control] Botanicals For Mite Control, Canadian Honey Council, 3/16/2003 Category:Entomology Category:Beekeeping Category:Parasites

Honeybee

Conservation status: DomesticatedCategory:Domesticated animals A. mellifera — western honeybee
A. florea
A. dorsata
A. cerana — eastern honeybee Honeybees are a subset of bees which fall into the Order Hymenoptera and Suborder Apocrita. Of the approximately 20,000 known species of bees, there are eleven species within the genus Apis, all of which produce and store honey to some degree. Four species have historically been cultured for or robbed of honey by humans: Apis mellifera (Western honeybee), Apis florea (Dwarf honeybee/little bee), Apis cerana and Apis dorsata. They have been domesticated at least since the time of the building of the Egyptian pyramids.
- Apis florea and Apis cerana are small honeybees of southern and southeastern Asia which are cultured for honey in a similar fashion to Apis mellifera. Their stings are often not capable of penetrating human skin, so the hive and swarms can be handled without protection.
- Apis dorsata, the giant honeybee, is native to south and southeastern Asia, and usually makes its colonies on high tree limbs, or on cliffs, and sometimes on buildings. It is wild and can be very fierce. It is robbed of its honey periodically by human honey gatherers, a practice known as honey hunting. Its colonies are easily capable of stinging a human being to death when provoked.

Other honey collecting insects

Other non-Apis species of honeybees have been cultured or robbed for honey:
- Melipona beecheii, known as the stingless bee, is native to south-eastern Mexico and northern Central America. This bee has long been cultivated by the Maya peoples. The bee and its culture are dying out due to deforestation, pesticides, and the labor intensivity of its honey production. This bee is in some danger of becoming extinct.
- Ten species of genera Trigona and Austroplebeia in Australia produce and store honey. Australian Aborigines have used this as a source of food. More recently, these bees (called "native bees") in Australia have been cultivated on a small, "cottage industry" scale. The most important species for this industry are Trigona carbonaria and Trigona hockingsi.

Origin and distribution of the genus Apis

cottage industry Theora enabled player, such as VideoLAN.]] VideoLAN Honeybees probably originated in Tropical Africa and spread from South Africa to Northern Europe and East into India and China. The first bees appear in the fossil record in deposits dating about 40 million years ago during the Eocene period. At about 30 million years before present they appear to have developed social behavior and structurally are virtually identical with modern bees. Apis mellifera, the most commonly domesticated species, is native to Europe, Asia and Africa. It is also called the Western honeybee. There are many sub-species that have adapted to the environment of their geographic and climatic area. Behavior, color and anatomy can be quite different from one sub-species or race to another. In 1622, first european colonists brought the sub-species Apis mellifera mellifera to the Americas. Many of the crops that depend on honeybees for pollination have also been imported since colonial times. Escaped swarms (known as wild bees, but actually feral) spread rapidly as far as the Great Plains, usually preceding the colonists. The Native Americans called the honeybee "the white man's fly." Honeybees did not naturally cross the Rocky mountains; they were carried by ship to California in the early 1850s.

Beekeeping

The honeybee is a colonial insect that is often maintained, fed, and transported by beekeepers. Honeybees collect nectar and store it as honey in their hives. Nectar and honey provides the energy for the bees flight muscles and for heating the hive during the winter period. Honeybees also collect pollen which supplies protein for bee brood to grow. Centuries of selective breeding by humans has created honeybees that produce far more honey than the colony needs. Beekeepers, also known as "apiarists", harvest the honey. Beekeepers often provide a place for the colony to live and to store honey in. There are seven basic types of beehive: skeps, Langstroth hives, top-bar hives, box hives, log gums, D.E. hives and miller hives. Most U.S. states require bekeepers to use moveable frames to allow bee inspectors to check the brood for disease. This allows the Langstroth, top-bar and D.E. hives, but other types of hives require special permitting, such as for museum use. The type of beehive used significantly impacts colony health, and wax and honey production. Modern hives also enable beekeepers to transport bees, moving from field to field as the crop needs pollinating and allowing the beekeper to charge for the pollination services they provide. In cold climates, some beekeepers have kept colonies alive (with varying success) by moving them indoors for winter. While this can protect the colonies from extremes of temperature and make winter care and feeding more convenient for the beekeeper, it can increase the risk of dysentery (see the Nosema section of diseases of the honeybee) and can create an excessive buildup of carbon dioxide from the respiration of the bees. Recently, inside wintering has been refined by Canadian beekeepers who build large barns just for wintering bees. Automated ventilation systems assist in the control of carbon dioxide build-up. carbon dioxide; see the Queen article for an explanation of the color)]]

Honeybee life cycle

Like other eusocial bees, a colony generally contains one breeding female, or "queen"; a few thousand males, or "drones"; and a large population of sterile female workers. The female workers mature from nurse bees to become foragers. The foragers die usually when their wings are worn out after approximately 500 miles of flight. Honeybee wings beat at a rate of 12,000 beats/minute. The population of a healthy hive in mid-summer can average between 40,000 and 80,000 bees. The workers cooperate to find food and are widely believed to use a pattern of "dancing" (known as the bee dance or waggle dance) to communicate with each other.

Products of the honeybee

Pollination

Main article: Pollination management Pollination management The honeybee's primary commercial value is as a pollinator of crops. Orchards and fields have grown larger; at the same time wild pollinators have dwindled. In several areas of the world the pollination shortage is compensated by migratory beekeeping, with beekeepers supplying the hives during the crop bloom and moving them after bloom is complete. In many higher latitude locations it is difficult or impossible to winter over enough bees, or at least to have them ready for early blooming plants, so much of the migration is seasonal, with many hives wintering in warmer climates and moving to follow the bloom to higher latitudes. As an example, in California, the pollination of almonds occurs in February, early in the growing season, before local hives have built up their populations. Almond orchards require two hives per acre (2,000 m² per hive) for maximum yield and so the pollination is highly dependent upon the importation of hives from warmer climates.
Honey
Main article: Honey Honey is the substance made when the nectar and sweet deposits from plants are gathered, modified and stored in the honeycomb by honey bees.
Beeswax
Main article: Beeswax Worker bees of a certain age will secrete beeswax from a series of glands on their abdomen. They use the wax to form the walls and caps of the comb. When honey is harvested, the wax can be gathered to be used in various wax products like candles and seals.
Pollen
Main article:Pollen Bees collect pollen in the pollen basket and carry it back to the hive. In the hive, pollen is used as a protein source necessary during brood-rearing. In certain environments, excess pollen can be collected from the hive. It is often eaten as a health supplement.
Propolis
Main article: Propolis Propolis (or bee glue) is created from resins and tree saps. Honeybees use propolis to seal cracks in the hive. Propolis is also sold for its reported health benefits. Holistic therapists often utilize propolis for the relief of arthritis and in conjunction with acupunture. Propolis is also believed to promote heart health and reduce the chances of cataracts.
Hazards to honeybee survival

- North American and European honeybee populations were severely depleted by varroa mite infestations in the early 1990s. Chemical treatments saved most commercial operations and improved cultural practices and bee breeds are starting to reduce the dependency on miticides (acaracides) by beekeepers. Feral bee populations were greatly reduced during this period but now are slowly recovering, mostly in areas of mild climate, owing to natural selection for varroa resistance and repopulation by resistant breeds.
- Crop dusting insecticides and pesticides also deplete bees.
- Africanized bees have spread across the southern United States where they pose a small danger to humans, although they may make beekeeping (particularly hobby beekeeping) difficult and potentially dangerous.
- As an invasive species, feral bees have become a significant environmental problem in places where they are not native, including Australia. Imported bees compete with and displace native bees and birds.
- Various bee pests and diseases are becoming resistant to medications (e.g. American Foul Brood, Tracheal Mites and Varroa Mites).
Honeybee Communication
See also: Bee learning and communication Bee learning and communication Honey bees are an excellent animal to study with regards to behavior because they are abundant and familiar to most people. An animal that is disregarded every day has very specific behaviors that go unnoticed by the normal person. Karl von Frisch studied the behavior of honey bees with regards to communication and was awarded the Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine in 1973. Von Frisch noticed that honey bees communicate with the language of dance. Honey bees are able to direct other bees to food sources through the round dance and the waggle dance. The round dance tells the other foragers that food is within 50 meters of the hive, but it does not provide much information regarding direction. The waggle dance, which may be vertical or horizontal, provides more detail about both the distance and the direction of the located food source. It is also hypothesized that the bees rely on their olfactory sense to help locate the food source once the foragers are given directions from the dances. Another signal for communication is the shaking signal, also known as the jerking dance, vibration dance, or vibration signal. It is a modulatory communication signal because it appears to manipulate the overall arousal or activity of behaviors. The shaking signal is most common in worker communication, but it is also evident in reproductive swarming. A worker bee vibrates its body dorsoventrally while holding another honey bee with its front legs. Jacobus Biesmeijer examined the incidence of shaking signals in a forager’s life and the conditions that led to its performance to investigate why the shaking signal is used in communication for food sources. Biesmeijer found that the experienced foragers executed 92.1% of the observed shaking signals. He also observed that 64% of the shaking signals were executed by experienced foragers after they had discovered a food source. About 71% of the shaking signal sessions occurred after the first five foraging success within one day. Then other communication signals, such as the waggle dance, were performed more often after the first five successes. Biesmeijer proved that most shakers are foragers and that the shaking signal is most often executed by foraging bees over pre-foraging bees. Beismeijer concluded that the shaking signal presents the overall message of transfer work for various activities or activity levels. Sometimes the signal serves to increase activity, when bees shake inactive bees. At other times, the signal serves as an inhibitory mechanism such as the shaking signal at the end of the day. However, the shaking signal is preferentially directed towards inactive bees. All three types of communication between honey bees are effective in their jobs with regards to foraging and task managing.
Sources

- Biesmeijer, Jacobus. "The Occurrence and Context of the Shaking Signal in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera) Exploiting Natural Food Sources". Ethology. 2003.
- Kak, Subhash C. "The Honey Bee Dance Language Controversy". The Mankind Quarterly. 2001.
- Schneider, S. S., P. K. Visscher, Camazine, S. "Vibration Signal Behavior of Waggle-dancers in Swarms of the Honey Bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Ethology. 1998.
Trivia

- Honeybees are one of the very few invertebrates in which sleep-like behavior, similar in many respects to mammalian sleep, is known to exist
- Honey, as well as propolis, have antibiotic properties
- Honeybees are one of the very few invertebrates that produce a sort of "milk" for their young, royal jelly , which is the only food the larvae will eat early in development
- Like other social insects, they have an advanced immune system
- They have specially modified hairs on their body that develop a static electricity charge which attract pollen grains to their bodies
- They have a well developed time sense (circadian rhythm)
- They navigate by using a combination of memory, visual landmarks, colors, the position of the sun, smell, polarized light and magnetic anomalies
- Their aging is controlled by a hormone which regulates the production of a protein called vitellogenin
- The honeybee was a prominent political symbol in the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte, representing the Bonapartist bureaucratic and political system.
Designated state insect

- Arkansas (1973)
- North Carolina (1973)
- New Jersey (1974) - state bug
- Georgia (1975)
- Maine (1975)
- Nebraska (1975)
- Kansas (1976)
- Louisiana (1977)
- Vermont (1977)
- Wisconsin (1977)
- South Dakota (1978)
- Mississippi (1980)
- Utah (1983)
- Missouri (1985)
- Tennessee (1990) - official agricultural insect
- Oklahoma (1992)
- West Virginia (2002)
See also

External links

- [http://cirrusimage.com/bees_honey.htm Reference: Six large format photographs Apis mellifera]
- [http://kutikshoney.com Typical commercial, migratory beekeeping in the US]
- Beekeeping explained by FAO http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0083e/X0083E06.htm
- Types of hives by FAO http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/006/y5110e/y5110e0b.htm
- [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000475FC-9CB6-1C5E-B882809EC588ED9F Brainy Bees Think Abstractly] Category:Bees Category:Livestock Category:Apocrita Category:Beekeeping Category:Hymenoptera Category:Pollination ko:꿀벌 ja:ミツバチ

Trachea

Trachea (IPA /'treikiə/) is a common biological term for an airway through which respiratory gas transport takes place in organisms. In terrestrial vertebrates, such as birds and humans, the trachea lets air move from the throat to the lungs. In terrestrial invertebrates, such as onychophorans and beetles, tracheae conduct air from outside the organism directly to all of its internal tissues. __TOC__

Vertebrate Trachea

The trachea, or windpipe, is a tube extending from the larynx to the bronchi in mammals, and from the pharynx to the syrinx in birds, carrying air to the lungs. It is lined with ciliated cells which push particles out and cartilage rings which reinforce the trachea and prevent it from collapsing on itself during the breathing process. These numerous cartilaginous half-rings, located one above the other along the trachea have open ends adjacent to the oesophagus. The rings are connected by muscular and fibrous tissue, and they are lined inside with a ciliated mucous membrane. In ill or injured persons, the natural airway formed by the trachea may be damaged or closed off. Intubation is the medical procedure of inserting an artificial tube into the trachea to permit breathing. See also choking. Diseases of the trachea include: #Tracheobronchitis #Tracheomalacia #Tracheal fracture #Airway obstruction #Malignancy

Invertebrate Trachea

Many terrestrial arthropods have evolved a closed respiratory system composed of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles to transport metabolic gasses to and from tissue. The distribution of spiracles can vary greatly among the many orders of insects, but in general each segment of the body may have a pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it. The tracheae are invaginations of the cuticular exoskeleton that branch (anastomose) throughout the body with diameters from only a few micrometers up to to 0.8mm. The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate tissue cells and serve as sites of diffusion for water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Gas may be conducted through the respiratory system by means of active ventilation or passive diffusion. Insects do not carry oxygen in their blood, as do vertebrates; this may limit their size. A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helixes. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body.

References

-
-
- Category:Respiratory system Category:Thorax ja:気管

Acarology

Acarology is the study of mites and ticks, the animals in the order Acarina. The name comes from the Greek akari, a type of mite, and -ology ("study of"). It is a subfield of zoology. A zoologist specializing in acarology is called an acarologist. Scientific journals of acarology include Acarologia,Experimental and Applied Acarology and International Journal of Acarology. acarology category: subfields of zoology

Harvest mite

Harvest mites (Trombicula alfreddugesi; also known as chiggers, red bugs, Trombiculid mites, or Scrub-itch mites) are mites in the family Trombiculidae that live in berry patches, tall grass and weeds, woodland edges, pine straw, leaves, and treebark. These relatives of spiders are nearly microscopic measuring 0.4mm (1/100 of an inch) and have a chrome-orange hue. Harvest mite larvae are small, red nymphs which have not yet become an adult mite. They are usually microscopic. The larvae often live in forests and grasslands, but some may also live in water. The larvae mites feed on the skin cells, but not blood, of humans and animals. The six-legged parasitic larva feed on a large variety of creatures including humans, rabbits, toads, box turtles, quail, and even some insects. After crawling onto their host, they inject digestive enzymes into the skin that break down skin cells. They do not actually "bite," but instead form a hole in the skin and chew up tiny parts of the inner skin, thus causing severe irritation and swelling. The severe itching is accompanied with red pimple-like bumps (papules) or hives and skin rash or lesion on a sun-exposed area. For humans, itching usually occurs after the larvae detach from the skin. After feeding on their hosts, the larvae drop to the ground and become nymphs. After they drop off their hosts, the larvae mature into adults, which have 8 legs and do not harm humans. During this stage, they are not parasitic and feed on plant materials. The females lay 3-8 eggs in a litter, usually on a leaf or under the roots of a plant, and die by autumn.

Myth versus Fact

Contrary to popular belief, the larvae do not burrow deep into the skin and live there, and neither do coverings such as fingernail polish kill the chigger per se.

Chiggers as disease vectors

Though the harvest mite chigger usually does not carry diseases in North American temperate climates, the mites are considered a dangerous pest in East Asia and the South Pacific because they often carry scrub typhus, which is known alternatively as the Japanese river disease, scrub disease, or tsutsugamushi. The mites usually are infected by the disease by their infected rodent hosts. The disease is transmitted to the next generation of offspring by breeding mites. Symptoms of scrub typhus in humans include fever, headache, muscle pain, cough, and gastrointestinal symptoms.

Treatment and Prevention

If you have been "bitten" by chiggers, do not scratch the affected regions. Scratching could scrape off chigger larvae, but it may also cause more irritation by breaking the skin and leaving it vulnerable to infection. The most effective way of removing chiggers is by taking a hot shower and washing the affected areas with mildly hot water and soap, also Epsom salt bath. Do not rub and scratch the skin aggressively, but instead gently but firmly rub the irritated skin. A covering to reduce air exposure over the itchy area, such as calamine lotion, petroleum jelly, or baby oil, may help relieve the pain, but they do not cure the bites. To avoid being attacked by chiggers, always wear tight weave, protective clothing and long pants. Spray insect repellent on your skin for further protection. Staying on trails, roads, or paths can help prevent you from meeting chiggers, ticks, spiders, snakes, and other nuisances and dangers. Insect repellents generally contain one of the following active ingredients are recommended: DEET, Catnip oil extract - Nepetalactone, Citronella or eucalyptus oil extract.

References

- The World Book Encyclopedia, 2000 ed.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2005 ed. Accessed with paid subscription.
- Tideland Treasure: The Naturalist's Guide to the Beaches and Salt Marshes of Hilton Head Island and the Southeastern Coast, Revised Edition, by Todd Ballantine.

External links

- [http://www.agnr.umd.edu/users/hgic/diagn/pest/chigger.html Description of chiggers]
- [http://www.pestproducts.com/chiggers.htm Chiggers at Pestproducts.com]
- [http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2100.html Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet, Entomology, Chiggers, HYG-2100-98]
- [http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/iiin/chigger.html Iowa State University Department of Entomology Insect Information Note]
- [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001333.htm NIH Medline Plus] Category:Arachnids

Acaricide

Miticides are pesticides that kill mites. Antibiotic miticides, carbamate miticides, formamidine miticides, mite growth regulators, and organophosphate miticides are all in this category. Category:Pesticides

Diseases of the honeybee

Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honeybee include:

Varroa mites

honeybee Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. Varroa mites can be seen with the naked eye as a small red or brown spot on the bee's thorax. Varroa is a carrier for a virus that is particularly damaging to the bees. Bees that are infected with this virus during their development will often have a visible "K-wing" deformity. Varroa has led to the virtual elimination of feral bee colonies in many areas and is a major problem for kept bees in apiaries. Some feral populations are now recovering — it appears that they have been naturally selected for varroa resistance. Langstroth hives are believed by some (particularly top bar hive keepers) to be favorable to varroa development. Varroa was first discovered in Southeast Asia in about 1904, but has now spread virtually worldwide. Varroa was discovered in the United States in 1987, in New Zealand in 2000. Varroa is generally not a problem for a hive that is growing strongly. When the hive population growth reduced in preparation for winter or due to poor late summer forage the mite population growth can overtake that of the bees and can then destroy the hive. Often a colony will simply abscond (leave as in a swarm, but leaving no population behind) under such conditions.

Preventive Measures and Treatment

Varroa mites can be treated with commercially-available miticides. Miticides must be applied strictly according to the label in order to minimize the risk of contamination of honey that might be consumed by humans. Proper use of miticides will also help to slow the development of resistance among the mites. Varroa mites can also be controlled through non-chemical means. Most of these controls are intended to reduce the mite population to a manageable level, not to eliminate the mites completely.
- Many beekeepers use a screened bottom board on their hives. When mites occasionally fall off a bee, they must climb back up to parasitize a new bee. If the beehive has a screened floor with mesh the right size, the mite will fall through and can not return to the beehive. The screened bottom board is also being credited with increased circulation of air which reduces condensation in a hive during the winter. (Studies at Cornell University done over several years found that screened bottoms have no measureable effect at all. [http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/ne2.pdf Northeast Beekeeper] Vol 1 #1 Jan 2004)
- Powdered sugar (Dowda Method), talc or other "safe" powders with a grain size between 5 and 15 micrometres can be sprinkled on the bees. The powder does not harm the bees (and, if you use sugar, can even become a small source of feed), but does interfere with the mite's ability to maintain its hold on the bee. It is also believed to increase the bees' grooming behavior. This causes a certain percentage of mites to become dislodged. Powdered sugar works best as an amplifier of the effects of a screened bottom board.
- Freezing drone brood takes advantage of varroa mites' preference for longer living drone brood. The beekeeper will put a frame in the hive that is sized to encourage the queen to lay primarily drone brood. Once the brood is capped, the beekeeper removes the frame and puts it in the freezer. This kills the varroa mites that are parasitizing those bees. It also kills the drone brood, but most hives produce an excess of drone bees so it is not generally considered a loss. After freezing, the frame can be returned to the hive. The nurse bees will clean out the dead brood (and dead mites) and the cycle continues.
- Drone brood excision is a variation applicable to top bar hives. Honeybees tend to place comb suitable for drone brood along the bottom and outer margins of the comb. Cutting this off at a late stage of development ("purple eye stage") and discarding it reduces the mite load on the colony. It also allows for inspection and counting of varroa on the brood.
- Small cell foundation (4.9 mm across - about 0.3 mm smaller than standard) is believed to limit the space in each cell that varroa mites have in which to inhabit and also to enhance the difference in size between worker and drone brood with the intention of making the drone comb traps more effective in trapping varroa mites. Small cell foundation has staunch advocates though controlled studies have been generally inconclusive.
- The Konya revolving or rotating hive design is a patented invention of Lajos Konya, a beekeeper in Otteveny, Hungary. The hive has a cylindrical brood chamber, circular frames and an apparatus to rotate the frames according to a specific schedule. The rotation is believed to disrupt the varroa mite reproduction cycle with this rotation thereby reducing fecundity of the parasite. Several attempts have been made (and are continuing) to breed bees with an increased "resistance" to varroa mites. In fact, the Africanized honeybee was originally an experiment to cross-breed mite resistance into the European honeybees common in the Americas.

Acarine (Tracheal) mites

Acarapis woodi is a small parasitic mite that infests the airways of the honeybee. The first known infestation of the mites occurred in the British Isles in the early 20th century. First observed on the Isle of Wight in 1904, the mystery illness known as Isle of Wight Disease was not identified as caused by a parasite until 1921. It quickly spread to the rest of Great Britain. It was regarded as having wiped out the entire bee population of the isles (later genetic studies have found remnants that did survive) and dealt a devastating blow to British beekeeping. Brother Adam at the Buckfast Abbey developed a resistant hybrid bee known as the Buckfast bee, which is now available worldwide to combat acarine disease. Diagnosis for tracheal mites generally involves the dissection and microscopic examination of a sample of bees from the hive. Acarine mites, formerly known as tracheal mites are believed to have entered the US in 1984 via Mexico. Mature female acarine mites leave the bee's airway and climb out on a hair of the bee where they wait until they can transfer to a young bee. Once on the new bee, they will move into the airways and begin laying eggs.

Treatment

Acarine mites are commonly controlled with grease patties (typically made from 1 part vegetable shortening mixed with 3-4 parts powdered sugar) placed on the top bars of the hive. The bees come to eat the sugar and pick up traces of shortening which disrupts the mite's ability to identify a young bee. Some of the mites waiting to transfer to a new host will remain on the original host. Others will transfer to a random bee - a proportion of which will die of other causes before the mite can reproduce. Menthol, either allowed to vaporize from crystal form or mixed into the grease patties, is also often used to treat acarine mites.

American foulbrood (AFB)

Menthol Paenibacillus larvae (formerly classified as Bacillus larvae) is a spore-forming bacterium. This disease only affects the bee larvae but is highly infectious and deadly to bees. Infected larvae will darken and die. Lab testing is necessary for definitive diagnosis, but a good field test is to touch a dead larva with a toothpick or twig. It will will be sticky and "ropey" (drawn out). Foulbrood also has a characteristic odor, and experienced beekeepers with a good sense of smell, can often detect the disease upon opening a hive. In the photo at right, some larvae are healthy while others are diseased. Capped cells with decomposing larvae are sunken, as can be seen at lower right. Some caps may be torn as well. Compare with healthy brood.

Treatment

Chemical treatment of American foulbrood is possible using oxytetracycline hydrochloride (Terramycin), but because of the persistence of the spores (which can survive up to 40 years), the most common treatment is the destruction of the colony and burning of all equipment. Another treatment that will be US FDA approved in 2005 is tylosin tartrate. Chemical treatment is sometimes used prophylactically, but this is a source of considerable controversy because the bacterium seems to be rapidly developing resistance.

European foulbrood (EFB)

Melissococcus pluton is a bacterial brood disease that infests the guts of bee larvae. European foulbrood is less deadly than American foulbrood. European foulbrood does not form spores, though it can overwinter on comb. European foulbrood is often considered a "stress" disease - a disease that is dangerous only if the colony is already under stress for other reasons. An otherwise healthy colony can usually survive European foulbrood. An outbreak of the disease may be controlled chemically with oxytetracycline hydrochloride. Prophylatic treatments are not recommended as it leads to resistant bacteria.

Chalkbrood

Ascophaera apis is a fungal disease infests the gut of the larva. The fungus will compete with the larva for food, ultimately causing it to starve. The fungus will then go on to consume the rest of the larva's body, causing it to appear white and 'chalky'. Chalkbrood is often considered another "stress" disease because the fungal spores are always present but are manageable by an otherwise healthy colony. Chalkbrood is most commonly visible during wet springs. Hives with Chalkbrood can generally be recovered by increasing the ventilation through the hive and/or by requeening the hive.

Nosema

Nosema apis is a spore-forming parasite that invades the intestinal tracts of adult bees and causes nosema disease. Nosema is also associated with Black queen-cell virus. Nosema is normally only a problem when the bees can not leave the hive to eliminate waste (for example, during an extended cold spell in winter or when the hives are enclosed in a wintering barn). When the bees are unable to void (cleansing flights), they can develop dysentery. Nosema is treated by increasing the ventilation through the hive. Some beekeepers will treat a hive with antibiotics. Nosema can also be prevented or minimized by removing much of the honey from the beehive then feeding the bees on sugar water in the late fall. Sugar water made from refined sugar has lower ash content than flower nectar, reducing the risk of dysentery, and may have essentially the same nutritional content, although this remains a point of controversy among some beekeepers.

Dysentery

Dysentery is a condition resulting from a combination of long periods of inability to make cleansing flights (generally due to cold weather) and food stores which contain a high proportion of indigestible matter. As a bee's gut becomes engorged with feces that cannot be voided in flight as preferred by the bees, the bee voids within the hive. When enough bees do this the hive population rapidly collapses and death of the colony results. Dark honeys and honeydews have greater quantities of indigestible matter. Occasional warm days in winter are critical for honeybee survival; dysentery problems increase in likelihood if there are periods of more than two or three weeks with temperatures below 50 degrees Fahrenheit. When cleansing flights are few, bees will often be forced out at times when the temperature is barely adequate for their wing muscles to function, and large quantities of bees may be seen dead in the snow around the hives. Colonies that are found dead in spring from dysentery will have feces smeared over the frames and other hive parts. In very cold areas of North America and Europe, where honeybees are kept in ventilated buildings during the coldest part of winter, no cleansing flights are possible, and all honey is removed from the hives and replaced with high fructose corn syrup which has nearly no indigestible matter.

Small hive beetle

Small hive beetle Aethina tumida is a small, dark-colored beetle that lives in beehives. Originally from Africa, the first discovery of small hive beetles in the US occurred in Florida in 1987. They are mainly limited to the southeastern portion of the United States, but are slowly spreading with the annual migration of honeybee colonies used for pollination in other areas of the country. The life cycle of this beetle includes part of its development in the ground outside of the hive. Controls to prevent ants from climbing into the hive are believed to also be effective against the hive beetle. Several beekeepers are experimenting with the use of diatomaceous earth around the hive as a way to disrupt the beetle's lifecycle. The diatoms abrade the insect's surface, causing them to dehydrate and die. Several pesticides are currently used against the small hive beetle. The chemical is commonly applied inside the corrugations of a piece of cardboard. Standard corrugations are large enough that a small hive beetle will enter the cardboard through the end but small enough that honeybees can not enter (and thus are kept away from the pesticide).

Wax moths

Main article: Waxworm Galleria mellonella (greater wax moths) will not attack the bees directly, but feed on the wax used by the bees to build their honeycomb. Their full development to adults requires access to used brood comb or brood cell cleanings — these contain protein essential for the larvae's development, in the form of brood coocoons. The destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae. When honey supers are stored for the winter in a mild climate, or in heated storage, the wax moth larvae can destroy portions of the comb, even though they will not fully develop. Damaged comb may be scraped out and will be replaced by the bees. Wax moth larvae and eggs are killed by freezing, so storage in unheated sheds or barns in higher latitudes is the only control necessary. Because wax moths can not survive a cold winter, they are usually not a problem for beekeepers in the northern U.S. or Canada, unless they survive winter in heated storage, or are brought from the south by purchase or migration of beekeepers. They thrive and spread most rapidly with temperatures above 90°F, so some areas with only occasional days that hot, rarely have a problem with wax moths.

Control and Treatment

A strong hive generally needs no treatment to control wax moths; the bees themselves will kill and clean out the moth larvae and webs. Wax moth larvae may fully develop in cell cleanings when such cleanings accumulate thickly where they are not accessible to the bees. Wax moth development in comb is generally not a problem with top bar hives as unused combs are usually left in the hive during the winter. Since this type of hive is not used in severe wintering conditions, the bees will be able to patrol and inspect the unused comb. Wax moths can be controlled chemically with naphthalene (mothballs) or paradichlorobenzene (urinal disks). If chemical methods are used the combs must be well aired out for several weeks before use. The use of naphthalene is discouraged because it accumulates in the wax. Control by physical means uses freezing of the comb.

Chilled brood

Chilled brood is not actually a disease but can be a result of mistreatment of the bees by the beekeeper. It also can be caused by a pesticide hit that primarily kills off the adult population, or by a sudden drop in temperature during rapid spring buildup. The brood must be kept warm at all times; nurse bees will cluster over the brood to keep it at the right temperature. When a beekeeper