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World Silent Games

World Silent Games

The Deaflympics (previously called World Games for the Deaf, and International Games for the Deaf) are an IOC-sanctioned event at which Deaf athletes compete at an elite level. The Deaflympics are held every 4 years, and are the longest running multi-sport event excluding the Olympics themselves. The first games, held in Paris in 1924, were also the first ever international sporting event for athletes with a disability. The event has been held every four years since, apart from a break for World War Two, and an additional event, the Deaflympic Winter Games, was added in 1949. At the first Games in Paris, 145 athletes from nine European nations took part. In 2005 the 20th Games were held in Melbourne, Australia, and according to [http://www.deaflympics.com/about/ the Deaflympics website], "more than 3,000 deaf athletes and officials from 75 nations" participated. To qualify for the games, athletes must have a hearing loss of at least 55 db in their "better ear". Hearing aids, cochlear implants and the like are not allowed to be used in competition, to place all athletes on the same level. Other examples of ways the games vary from hearing competitions are the manner in which they are officiated. The football referees wave a flag instead of blowing a whistle. On the track, races are started by using a light flash, instead of a starter pistol. The games have been organised by the Comité International des Sports des Sourds (CISS, "The International Committee of Sports for the Deaf") since the first event.

Names of the Games

Officially, the games were originally called the "International Games for the Deaf" from 1924 to 1965, but were sometimes referred to as the "International Silent Games". From 1966 to 1999 they were called the "World Games for the Deaf", and occasionally referred to as the "World Silent Games". From 2000, the games have been known by their Current Name "Deaflympics" (often mistakenly called the "Deaf Olympics").

Future Games

16th Winter Games, 2007 - Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
21st Summer Games, 2009 - Taipei, Chinese Taipei
17th Winter Games, 2011 - High Tatras, Slovakia

Past Games

Summer Games

1st Summer Games, 1924 - Paris, France
2nd Summer Games, 1928 - Amsterdam, Netherlands
3rd Summer Games, 1931 - Nuremberg, West Germany
4th Summer Games, 1935 - London, England
5th Summer Games, 1939 - Stockholm, Sweden

- No games were held between 1939-1949 due to WWII 6th Summer Games, 1949 - Copenhagen, Denmark
7th Summer Games, 1953 - Brussels, Belgium
8th Summer Games, 1957 - Milan, Italy
9th Summer Games, 1961 - Helsinki, Finland
10th Summer Games, 1965 - Washington, USA
11th Summer Games, 1969 - Belgrade, Yugoslavia
12th Summer Games, 1973 - Malmo, Sweden
13th Summer Games, 1977 - Bucharest, Romania
14th Summer Games, 1981 - Cologne, West Germany
15th Summer Games, 1985 - Los Angeles, USA
16th Summer Games, 1989 - Christchurch, New Zealand
17th Summer Games, 1993 - Sofia, Bulgaria
18th Summer Games, 1997 - Copenhagen, Denmark
19th Summer Games, 2001 - Rome, Italy
20th Summer Games, 2005 - Melbourne, Australia

Winter Games

1st Winter Games, 1949 - Seefeld, Austria
2nd Winter Games, 1953 - Oslo, Norway
3rd Winter Games, 1955 - Oberammergau, West Germany
4th Winter Games, 1959 - Montana-Vermala, Switzerland
5th Winter Games, 1963 - Are, Sweden
6th Winter Games, 1967 - Berchtesgaden, Germany
7th Winter Games, 1971 - Abelboden, Switzerland
8th Winter Games, 1975 - Lake Placid, USA
9th Winter Games, 1979 - Meribel, France
10th Winter Games, 1983 - Madonna Di Campigilio, Italy
11th Winter Games, 1987 - Oslo, Norway
12th Winter Games, 1991 - Banff, Canada
13th Winter Games, 1995 - Yllas, Finland
14th Winter Games, 1999 - Davos, Switzerland
15th Winter Games, 2003 - Sundsvall, Sweden

External links


- [http://www.2005deaflympics.com/ Melbourne 2005 Deaflympic Games]
- [http://www.2007Deaflympics.com/ Salt Lake City 2007 Winter Deaflympics]
- [http://www.deaflympics.com/ CISS/Deaflympics]
- [http://www.usadsf.org/ U.S.A. Deaf Sports]
- [http://www.deafsports.org.au/ Deaf Sports Australia]

References


- [http://www.deaflympics.com/ Deaflympics official website]
- [http://library.gallaudet.edu/dr/faq-deaf-sports-igd.html Gallaudet University deaf sports FAQ] Category:Deaflympics Category: Olympics Category: Olympiad Category:Multi-sport events ja:デフリンピック

IOC

The International Olympic Committee is an organisation based in Lausanne, Switzerland, created by Pierre de Coubertin on June 23, 1894 to reinstate the Ancient Olympic Games held in Greece between 776 BC to 396 AD. Its membership is 204 National Olympic Committees. The IOC organises the Olympic Games: the Games of the Olympiad (Summer Olympic Games) are celebrated during the first year of an Olympiad, and the Olympic Winter Games during its third year. The first Games of the Olympiad of modern times were celebrated in Athens, Greece, in 1896. The first Olympic Winter Games were celebrated in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.

Presidents

The IOC Session (composed of the IOC Members) elects, by secret ballot, a President from among its members for a term of eight years renewable once for four years. The next President election will then take place in 2009. The President represents the IOC and presides over all its activities. Note: President Juan Antonio Samaranch has been elected Honorary President For Life. Samaranch was formerly Minister for Sport under General Franco's Fascist government.

Presentation

On June 23, 1894 the Olympic games were re-created by Pierre de Coubertin after a hiatus of 1500 years. The baron hoped to foster international communication and peace through the Olympic Games. The IOC is a parent organisation intended to localize administration and authority for the Games, as well as to provide a single legal entity which owns copyrights, trademarks, and other intangible properties associated with the Olympic games. For example, the Olympic logos, the design of the Olympic flag, the motto, creed, and anthem are all owned and administered by the IOC. There are other organisations which the IOC coordinates as well, which are collectively called the Olympic Movement. The IOC President is responsible for representing the IOC as a whole, and there are members of the IOC which represent the IOC in their respective countries.

Mission and role

The mission of the IOC is to promote Olympism throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement. The IOC’s role is: 1. to encourage and support the promotion of ethics in sport as well as education of youth through sport and to dedicate its efforts to ensuring that, in sport, the spirit of fair play prevails and violence is banned; 2. to encourage and support the organisation, development and coordination of sport and sports competitions; 3. to ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games; 4. to cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace; 5. to take action in order to strengthen the unity and to protect the independence of the Olympic Movement; 6. to act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement; 7. to encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women; 8. to lead the fight against doping in sport; 9. to encourage and support measures protecting the health of athletes; 10. to oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes; 11. to encourage and support the efforts of sports organisations and public authorities to provide for the social and professional future of athletes; 12. to encourage and support the development of sport for all; 13. to encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held accordingly; 14. to promote a positive legacy from the Olympic Games to the host cities and host countries; 15. to encourage and support initiatives blending sport with culture and education; 16. to encourage and support the activities of the InternationalOlympic Academy (“IOA”) and other institutions which dedicate themselves to Olympic education. See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004

Organisation

The powers of the IOC are exercised by its organs, namely: 1. the Session, 2. the IOC Executive Board, 3. the President The IOC Session The Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC. It is the IOC’s supreme organ. Its decisions are final. Each IOC Member has one vote. An ordinary Session is held once a year. Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members. Among others, the powers of the Session are: 1. To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter. 2. To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President, honorary members and honour members. 3. To elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board. 4. To elect the host city of the Olympic Games. The IOC Executive Board The IOC Executive Board consists of the President, four Vice-Presidents and ten other members. All members of the IOC Executive Board are elected by the Session, in a secret ballot, by a majority of the votes cast. The IOC Executive Board assumes the general overall responsibility for the administration of the IOC and the management of its affairs.

IOC Members

:See: list of members of the IOC For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were co-opted, which means they were selected by other members. Countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members, others one or none. When named, they became not representatives of their respective countries to the IOC, but rather to opposite, IOC members in their respective countries. For a long time, members of the royalty were popular targets of cooption, and there are still some around, like Prince Albert de Monaco, and then former athletes. These last 10 years, the composition has evolved, in order to get a better representation of the sports world. Members seats have been allocated specifically to athletes, International Federations leaders and National Olympic Commitees leaders. MEMBERSHIP IOC members are natural persons. The total number of IOC members may not exceed 115. Each member of the IOC is elected for a term of eight years and may be re-elected for one or several further terms. 1. A majority of members whose memberships are not linked to any specific function or office; their total number may not exceed 70; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country; 2. Active athletes, the total number of whom may not exceed 15, elected for eight years by their pairs during the Olympic Games; 3. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within IFs, associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC, the total number of whom may not exceed 15; 4. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, or world or continental associations of NOCs, the total number of whom may not exceed 15; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country within the IOC. CESSATION OF MEMBERSHIP The membership of IOC members ceases in the following circumstances: 1. Resignation: any IOC member may cease his membership at any time by delivering his written resignation to the President. 2. Non re-election: any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if he is not re-elected. 3. Age limit: any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which he reaches the age of 70. 4. Failure to attend Sessions or take active part in IOC work for two consecutive years. 5. Transfer of domicile or of main centre of interests to a country other than the country that was his at the time of his election. 6. Members elected as active athletes cease to be a member upon ceasing to be a member of the IOC Athletes’ Commission. 7. Presidents and persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, world or continental associations of NOCs, IFs or associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC cease to be a member upon ceasing to exercise the function he was exercising at the time of his election. 8. Expulsion: an IOC member may be expelled by decision of the Session if such member has betrayed his oath or if the Session considers that such member has neglected or knowingly jeopardised the interests of the IOC or acted in a way which is unworthy of the IOC. See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004

Host city bids

Countries which wish to host the Summer Olympic Games or the Winter Olympic Games must bid for the organisation with the IOC, which has the ultimate authority of deciding where the Games will take place. The IOC members, representing most of the member countries, vote to decide where the Games will take place. Members from countries which have cities bidding to host the games are excluded from the voting process, up until the point where their city drops out of the contest.

Olympic Marketing

REVENUE The Olympic Movement generates revenue through five major programmes. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) manages broadcast partnerships and the TOP worldwide sponsorship programme. The Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing programmes within the host country under the direction of the IOC. The Olympic Movement generated a total of more than US$4 billion in revenue during the most recent Olympic quadrennium (2001 – 2004). The following chart provides details of the revenue generated from each major programme managed by the IOC and the OCOGs during this period. REVENUE DISTRIBUTION The IOC distributes approximately 92% of Olympic marketing revenue to organisations throughout the Olympic Movement to support the staging of the Olympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport. The IOC retains approximately 8% of Olympic marketing revenue for the operational and administrative costs of governing the Olympic Movement. The Organising Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs) The IOC provides TOP programme contributions and Olympic broadcast revenue to the OCOGs to support the staging of the Olympic Games and Olympic Winter Games: - TOP Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the two OCOGs of each Olympic quadrennium generally share approximately 50% of TOP programme revenue and value-in-kind contributions, with approximately 30% provided to the summer OCOG and 20% provided to the winter OCOG. - Broadcast Revenue to OCOGs; the IOC contributes 49% of the Olympic broadcast revenue for each Games to the OCOG. During the 2001 - 2004 Olympic quadrennium, the Salt Lake 2002 Organising Committee received US$443 million in broadcast revenue from the IOC, and the Athens 2004 Organising Committee received US$732 million. - Domestic Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the OCOGs generate substantial revenue from the domestic marketing programmes that they manage within the host country, including domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing. National Olympic Committees (NOCs) The NOCs receive financial support for the training and development of Olympic teams, Olympic athletes and Olympic hopefuls. The IOC distributes TOP programme revenue to each of the NOCs throughout the world. The IOC also contributes Olympic broadcast revenue to Olympic Solidarity, an IOC organisation that provides financial support to NOCs with the greatest need. The continued success of the TOP programme and Olympic broadcast agreements has enabled the IOC to provide increased support for the NOCs with each Olympic quadrennium. The IOC provided approximately US$318.5 million to NOCs for the 2001 - 2004 quadrennium. International Olympic Sports Federations (IFs) The IOC is now the largest single revenue source for the majority of IFs, with its contributions of Olympic broadcast revenue that assist the IFs in the development of their respective sports worldwide. The IOC provides financial support from Olympic broadcast revenue to the 28 IFs of Olympic summer sports and the seven IFs of Olympic winter sports after the completion of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Winter Games, respectively. The continually increasing value of Olympic broadcast partnership has enabled the IOC to deliver substantially increased financial support to the IFs with each successive Games. The seven winter sports IFs shared US$85.8 million in Salt Lake 2002 broadcast revenue. The contribution to the 28 summer sports IFs from Athens 2004 broadcast revenue has not yet been determined, but the contribution is expected to mark a significant increase over the US$190 million that the IOC provided to the summer IFs following Sydney 2000. Other Organisations The IOC contributes Olympic marketing revenue to the programmes of various recognised international sports organisations, including the International Paralympic Committee, the Paralympic Organising Committee, and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). See [http://www.olympic.org official site of the IOC]

Scandals

The IOC has been involved in a number of scandals, most involving members taking advantage of the bidding cities to extort financial and other rewards. The most widely publicised example occurred in relation to the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City but earlier stories, reported by British journalists Vyv Simson and Andrew Jennings, date back decades. After the Salt Lake City scandal, efforts were made to clamp down on the most blatant misbehaviour of IOC delegates (who used their position as voters for the host city to extract favours from bidders for the games), and an advisory board of recently retired former athletes has been set up. Critics of the organisation believe more fundamental reform is required, for instance replacing the self-perpetuating system of delegate selection with a more democratic process.

See also


- List of members of the International Olympic Committee
- List of IOC meetings
- Olympic Congress
- International Paralympic Committee
- List of IOC country codes

External link


- [http://www.olympic.org/ IOC Official Website]
- [http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Olympic Watch]
- [http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml Overview of IOC-elections of hosting cities] Category:Olympics Category:Sports organisations ko:국제올림픽위원회 ja:国際オリンピック委員会

Olympics

The Olympic Games, or Olympics, is an international multi-sport event taking place every four years and comprising summer and winter games. Originally held in ancient Greece, they were revived by a French nobleman, Pierre Frèdy, Baron de Coubertin in the late 19th century. The Games of the Olympiad, better known as the Summer Olympics, have been held every fourth year since 1896, with the exception of the years during the World Wars. A special edition for winter sports, the Olympic Winter Games, was established in 1924. Originally these were held in the same year as the Summer Olympics, but starting with 1994 the Winter Games are in between, two years after the Games of the Olympiad.

Ancient Olympics

1994 to the opening ceremony.]] 1994 The origin of the ancient Olympic Games has been lost, although there are many legends surrounding its origins. One of these legends associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of εκεχειρία (ekecheiria) or Olympic Truce. The first recorded celebration of the Games in Olympia was in 776 BC, although this was certainly not the first time they were held. The Games were then mostly a local affair, and only one event was contested, the stadion race. From then on, the Games slowly became more important throughout ancient Greece, reaching their zenith in the sixth and fifth centuries BC. The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, contests alternating with sacrifices and ceremonies honouring both Zeus (whose colossal statue stood at Olympia), and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia famous for his legendary chariot race, in whose honour the games were held. The number of events increased to twenty, and the celebration was spread over several days. Winners of the events were broadly admired and were immortalised in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and the period between two celebrations became known as an Olympiad. The Greeks used Olympiads as one of their methods to count years. The most famous Olympic athlete lived in these times: The sixth century BC wrestler Milo of Croton is the only athlete in history to win a victory in six Olympics. The Games gradually lost in importance as the Romans gained power in Greece. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, the Olympic Games were seen as a pagan festival threatening Christian influence, and in 393 the emperor Theodosius outlawed the Olympics, ending a thousand year period of Olympic Games. During the ancient times normally only young men competed. Performers were usually naked, not only as the weather was appropriate but also as the festival was meant to be, in part, a celebration of the achievements of the human body. Upon winning the games, the victor would get not only the prestige of being in first place but also a crown of olive leaves. During competition for some of the events, many of the participants would use oils to keep their skin smooth, as well as provide an appealing lustre to anyone who saw them. It is important to note that the ancient olympic games did not include the carrying of a torch, nor was a symbol made up of rings included. These elements were [http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/olympics/games.html invented during the 1936 games hosted by the Nazi regime in Berlin.]

Revival of the Olympic Games

Theodosius The Olympic Games did not die in 393. Already in the 17th century a sports festival, the "Olympick Games" was held in England. Over the next few centuries, similar events were organised in France and Greece, but these were all small-scale and certainly not international. The interest in reviving the Olympics grew when the ruins of ancient Olympia were uncovered by German archaeologists in the mid-19th century. At the same time, the Baron de Coubertin, founder of modern Olympics, searched for a reason for the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871). He thought the reason was that the French had not received proper physical education, and sought to improve this. In 1890 he attended the Wenlock Olympian Society. Coubertin also thought of a way to bring nations closer together, to have the youth of the world compete in sports, rather than fight in war. In his eyes, the recovery of the Olympic Games would achieve both of these goals. In a congress at the Sorbonne University, in Paris, held from June 16 to June 23, 1894 he presented his ideas to an international audience. On the last day of the congress, it was decided that the first modern Olympic Games would take place in 1896 in Athens, in the country of their birth. To organize the Games, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) was established, with the Greek Demetrius Vikelas as its first president. The first modern Olympic Games were a success. Although the total number of athletes was less than 250, the games were the largest international sports event ever held. The Greek officials and public were also very enthusiastic, and they even proposed to have the monopoly of organizing the Olympics. The IOC decided differently, however, and the second Olympic Games took place in Paris, France.

Modern Olympics

France After the initial success, the Olympics struggled. The celebrations in Paris (1900) and St. Louis (1904) were overshadowed by the world's fair exhibitions in which they were included. The so-called Intercalated Games (because of their off-year status, as 1906 is not divisible by four) were held in 1906 in Athens, as the first of an alternating series of Athens-held Olympics. Although originally the IOC recognized and supported these games, they are currently not recognized by the IOC as Olympic Games, which has given rise to the explanation that they were intended to mark the 10th anniversary of the Modern Olympics. Most contemporary Olympic historians, however, consider them to be official Olympic Games. Either way, the 1906 Games again attracted a broad international field of participants — in 1904, 80% had been American — and great public interest, thereby marking the beginning of a rise in popularity and size of the Games.

Growth

From the 245 participants from 15 nations in 1896, the Games grew to more than 10,500 competitors from 200 countries at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. The number of competitors at the Winter Olympics is much smaller than at the summer edition; 2,400 athletes competed at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City in 78 events. With over 16,000 broadcasters and journalists present in Sydney, the Olympics are one of the largest media events. In 2000, an estimated 3.8 billion viewers watched the Olympics on television. The growth of the Olympics is the largest problem the Olympics face today. Although allowing professional athletes and attracting sponsorships from major international companies solved financial problems in the 1980s, the large number of athletes, media and spectators makes it difficult and expensive for host cities to organise the Olympics.

Membership

Over 200 countries currently participate in the Olympics. This is a noticeably higher number than the number of countries recognised by the United Nations, which is only 192. This is because the International Olympic Committee allows nations to compete which do not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that many other international organisations demand. As a result, many colonies and dependencies are permitted to host their own Olympic teams and athletes even if such competitors hold the same citizenship as another member nation. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as sovereign nations despite the fact that politically they are considered part of another country and their residents do not carry citizenship from that nation. Also, since 1980, Taiwan has competed under the name "Chinese Taipei", and under a flag specially prepared by the IOC as prior to that year the People's Republic of China refused to participate in the Games because Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China".

Political interference

War

Despite what Coubertin had hoped for, the Olympics did not stop wars from happening. In fact, three Olympiads had to pass without Olympics because of war; due to World War I the 1916 Games were cancelled, and because of World War II the games of 1940 and 1944 were also skipped.

Terrorism

In 1972, when the Summer Games were held in Munich, West Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by Palestinian terrorists. A bungled liberation attempt led to the deaths of all of the abducted athletes and a policeman, with five of the terrorists also being killed. This event is known today as the Munich Massacre. During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, USA, a bomb was set off at the Centennial Olympic Park, killing two and injuring more than 100. The bomb was planted by Eric Robert Rudolph, who is an alleged adherent of the extremist group Christian Identity, a sect that holds that white Christians are God's chosen people, and that others will be condemned to hell.

Politics

Politics also interfered with the Olympics on several other occasions, the most well-known of which was the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin; the games were used as propaganda by the German Nazis. The Soviet Union did not participate in the Olympic movement until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, the Soviets organized an international sports event called Spartakiads, from 1928 onward. Many atheletes from associations organized by Communists or close to them chose or were barred from participating in Olympic games and instead particitipated in Spartakiads. A political incident on a smaller scale occurred at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. Two African American track-and-field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand of the 200-meter track and field race. As a result, the IOC told the USOC either to send the two athletes home, or to withdraw the complete track and field team. The USOC opted for the former. In 1963, various newly independent nations set up a challenge to the IOC called Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO), which openly espoused politics in sport. The IOC declared participants in GANEFO "personae non gratae" for the Olympic Games. Between 1996 and 2002, Afghanistan's National Olympic Committee was suspended from the IOC because of the Taliban regime´s ban on any kind of sports. Afghanistan returned to Olympic competition in 2004.

Boycotts

In 1956 the Games were boycotted by the Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland, because of the withdrawal of the Hungarian Uprising by the Warsaw Pact. Furthermore, the Melbourne Games were boycotted by Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon because of the Suez Crisis. In 1968, 1972, and 1976, a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott, to force them to ban respectively South Africa, Rhodesia, and New Zealand. The IOC conceded in the first 2 cases, but refused in 1976 because the boycott was prompted by a New Zealand rugby union tour to South Africa, and rugby was not an Olympic sport. The countries withdrew their teams after the games had started; some African athletes had already competed. A lot of sympathy was felt for the athletes forced by their governments to leave the Olympic Village; there was little sympathy outside Africa for the governments' attitude. Twenty-two countries (Guyana was the only non-African nation) boycotted the Montreal Olympics, because New Zealand wasn't banned. Also in 1976, Canada told the team from Taiwan that it could not compete at the Montreal Summer Olympics under the name "Republic of China", despite a compromise that would have allowed Taiwan to use the ROC flag and anthem. Taiwan refused and as a result did not participate until 1984, when it returned under the moniker "Chinese Taipei". In 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's games. The United States and 64 other Western nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980, for reason of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, but 16 other Western nations did compete at the Moscow Olympics. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc partners countered by skipping the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984, arguing the safety of their athletes could not be guaranteed there. In 1988, North Korea boycotted the Seoul Olympics to protest at not being made co-host with South Korea. Three other nations, Cuba, Ethiopia and Nicaragua (due mostly to economic problems of sending athletes to compete) stayed away in solidarity, though it was not officially announced as a boycott so as to avoid censure by the IOC. Iran's general sporting boycott of Israel is manifest not in explicit refusal to compete (which would attract sanctions) but in withdrawals due to "injuries" and similar reasons. During the 2004 Summer Games at Athens, Greece, judoka Arash Miresmaeili intentionally over-ate, exceeding the weight limit and forfeiting his match against Israeli Ehud Vaks, the first time this had happened at the Olympics.

Olympic Movement

A number of organizations are involved in organizing the Olympic Games. Together they form the Olympic Movement. The rules and guidelines by which these organizations operate are outlined in the Olympic Charter. At the heart of the Olympic Movement is the International Olympic Committee (IOC), currently headed by Jacques Rogge. It can be seen as the government of the Olympics, as it takes care of the daily problems and makes all important decisions, such as choosing the host city of the Games, and the program of the Olympics. Three groups of organizations operate on a more specialized level:
- International Federations (IFs), the governing bodies of a sport (e.g. FIFA, the IF for football (soccer))
- National Olympic Committees (NOCs), which regulates the Olympic Movement within one country (e.g. USOC, the NOC of the United States)
- Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs), which take care of the organization of a specific celebration of the Olympics. At present, 202 NOCs and 35 IFs are part of the Olympic Movement. OCOGs are dissolved after the celebration of each Games, once all subsequent paperwork has been completed. More broadly speaking, the term Olympic Movement is sometimes also meant to include everybody and everything involved in the Olympics, such as national sport governing bodies, athletes, media, and sponsors of the Olympic Games.

Criticism

In the past, the IOC has often been criticized for being a monolithic organization, with several members remaining a member at old age, or even until their deaths. The leadership of IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch especially has been strongly criticised. Under his presidency, the Olympic Movement made great progress, but has been seen as autocratic and corrupt. Samaranch's ties with the former fascist government in Spain, and his long term as a president (21 years)—until he was 81 years old—have also been points of critique. In 1998, it became known that several IOC members had taken bribes from the organizing committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, in exchange for a vote on the city at the election of the host city. The IOC started an investigation, which led to four members resigning, and six being expelled. The scandal set off further reforms, changing the way in which host cities are elected to avoid further bribes. Also, more active and former athletes were allowed in the IOC, and the membership terms have been limited. A BBC documentary aired in August 2004, entitled Panorama: "Buying the Games", investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it is possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. In particular, Bulgaria's member Ivan Slavkov, and Muttaleb Ahmad from the Olympic Council of Asia, were implicated. They have denied the allegations.

Olympic symbols

Bulgaria The Olympic movement uses many symbols, most of them representing Coubertin's ideas and ideals. The best known symbol is probably that of the Olympic Rings. These five intertwined rings represent the unity of five continents. They appear in five colors on a white field on the Olympic Flag. These colors, white (for the field), red, blue, green, yellow, and black were chosen such that each nation had at least one of these colors in its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914, but the first Games at which it was flown were Antwerp, 1920. It is hoisted at each celebration of the Games. The official Olympic Motto is "Citius, Altius, Fortius", a Latin phrase meaning "Swifter, Higher, Stronger". Coubertin's ideals are probably best illustrated by the Olympic Creed: :"The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well." The Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia and brought to the host city by runners carrying the torch in relay. There it plays an important role in the opening ceremonies. Though torches have played a part historically, the relay was introduced in 1936.

Opening ceremonies

1936.]] Various traditional elements frame the opening ceremonies of a celebration of the Olympic Games. The ceremonies typically start with the performing of the host country's national anthem. The traditional part of the ceremonies starts with a parade of nations, during which most participating athletes march into the stadium country by country. One honoured athlete, typically a top competitor, from each country carries the flag of his or her nation, leading the entourage of other athletes from that country. Traditionally (starting at the 1928 Summer Olympics) Greece marches first, because of their historical status as the origin of the Olympics, while the host nation marches last. (Exceptionally, in 2004, when the Games were held in Greece, Greece marched last as host nation rather than first, although the Flag of Greece was carried in first.) Between these two nations, all other participating nations march in alphabetical order of the dominant language of the host country, or in English alphabetical order if the host country does not write its dominant language using an alphabet. After all nations have entered, the president of the host country's Olympic Organizing Committee makes a speech, followed by the IOC president, who at the end of his speech, introduces the organizing country's head of state, who in turn formally opens the Olympics. Next, the Olympic Anthem is played, and the Olympic Flag rises in the stadium. The flag bearers of all countries circle a rostrum, where one athlete (since the 1920 Summer Olympics) and one referee (since the 1972 Summer Olympics) speak the Olympic Oath, declaring they will compete and judge according to the rules. Finally, the penultimate runner in the Olympic Flame relay brings the Torch into the stadium, passing the flame to the last carrier. The last carrier of the Torch, often a well-known athlete from the host nation, lights the fire in the stadium's cauldron. (The Olympic Flame has been lit since the 1928 Summer Olympics, but the torch relay did not start until the 1936 Summer Olympics.) The lighting of the Olympic Flame is followed by the release of doves, symbolizing peace; this was first done at the post-World War I 1920 Summer Olympics, and discontinued after several doves were burned alive in the Olympic Flame during the opening of the 1988 Summer Olympics. Apart from these traditional elements, the host nation ordinarily presents artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of that country.

Olympic sports

At the 2004 Olympics, events were held in 28 sports categories, per IOC count. If each sport such as aquatics was counted separately, there were 37. Nine sports were on the original Olympic program in 1896: athletics (track and field), cycling, fencing, gymnastics, weightlifting, shooting, swimming, and wrestling. If the 1896 rowing events had not been cancelled due to bad weather, they would have been included in this list as well. At the most recent Winter Olympics, seven sports were conducted, or 15 if each sport such as skiing and skating are counted. Of these, cross country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have featured on the program at all Winter Olympics. In addition, figure skating and ice hockey have also been contested as part of the Summer Games before introduction of separate Winter Olympics. In recent years, the IOC has added several new sports to the program to attract attention from young spectators. Examples of such sports include snowboarding and beach volleyball. The growth of the Olympics also means that some less popular (modern pentathlon) or expensive (white water canoeing) sports have to fear for their place on the Olympic program. The IOC decided to discontinue baseball and softball beginning in 2012. Rule 48.1 of the Olympic Charter requires that there be a minimum of 15 Olympic sports on the program of the Games of the Olympiad. Following its 114th Session (Mexico 2002), the IOC also decided to limit the program of the Summer Games to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. The Olympic sports are defined as those governed by the International Federations listed in Rule 46 of the Olympic Charter. A two-thirds vote of the IOC is required to amend the Charter to promote a Recognised Federation to Olympic status and therefore make the sports it governs eligible for inclusion on the Olympic program. Rule 47 of the Charter requires that only Olympic sports may be included in the program. The IOC reviews the Olympic program at the first Session following each Olympiad. A simple majority is required for an Olympic sport to be included in the Olympic program. Under the current rules, an Olympic sport not selected for inclusion in a particular Games remains an Olympic sport and may be included again later with a simple majority. At the 117th IOC Session, 26 sports were included in the program for London 2012. Until 1992, the Olympics also often featured demonstration sports. The objective was for these sports to reach a larger audience; the winners of these events are not official Olympic champions. These sports were sometimes sports popular only in the host nation, but internationally known sports have also been demonstrated. Some demonstration sports eventually were included as full-medal events.

Amateurism and professionalism

In Coubertin's vision, athletes should be gentlemen. As in most cases only amateurs were considered such, professional athletes were not allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. The exception to this were the fencing instructors, who were indeed expected to be gentlemen. This exclusion of professionals has caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion, Jim Thorpe, was disqualified when it was discovered that he played semi-professional baseball prior to winning his medals. He was restored as champion on compassionate grounds by the IOC in 1983. Twenty-four years later, Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they were considered to be professionals, earning money with their sport. It gradually became clear to many that the amateurism rules had become outdated. For example, many athletes from Eastern European nations were officially employed by the government, but effectively given opportunity to train all day, thereby only being amateurs in name. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism. In the 1980s, amateurism regulations were relaxed, and completely abolished in the 1990s. This switch was perhaps best exemplified by the American Dream Team, composed of well-paid NBA stars, which won the Olympic gold medal in basketball in 1992. As of 2004, the only sport in which no professionals compete is boxing; in men's football, the number of players over 23 years of age is limited to three per team. Advertisement regulations are still very strict, at least on the actual playing field, although "Official Olympic Sponsors" are common. Athletes are only allowed to have the names of clothing and equipment manufacturers on their outfits. The sizes of these markings are limited.

Doping

One of the major problems facing the Olympics (and international sports in general) is doping, or performance enhancing drugs. In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes used drugs to enhance their performance. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach, even during the race. As these methods became more extreme, gradually the awareness grew that this was no longer a matter of health through sports. The first and only olympic death caused by doping occurred in 1960. At the cycling road race in Rome the Danish Knut Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coronial inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines. In the mid-1960s, sports federations put a ban on doping, and the IOC followed suit in 1967. The first Olympic athlete to test positive for doping use was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use. Seventy-three athletes followed him over the next 34 years, several medal winners among them. The most publicized doping-related disqualification was that of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, who won the 100m at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, but tested positive for stanozolol. Despite the testing, many athletes continued to use doping without getting caught. In 1990, documents were revealed that showed many East German female athletes had been unknowingly administered anabolic steroids and other drugs by their coaches and trainers as a government policy. In the late 1990s, the IOC took initiative in a more organized battle against doping, leading to the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999. The recent 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics have shown that this battle is not nearly over, as several medallists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified due to doping offences.

Olympic champions and medallists

World Anti-Doping Agency may be considered the most successful Olympic athlete in the history of the modern Olympics.]] World Anti-Doping Agency For all events held at the Olympic Games, a classification is made up. The athletes (or teams) who place first, second, or third receive medals. The winners receive what are called "gold medals". (Though they used to indeed be of solid gold, they are now actually gilted silver, making the description somewhat inaccurate.) The runners-up receive silver medals, and the third-place athletes bronze medals. In some events contested by a single-elimination tournament (most notably boxing), third place might not be determined, in which case both semi-final losers receive bronze medals. The practice of awarding medals to the top three competitors was introduced in 1904; at the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal, silver and bronze, while various prizes were awarded in 1900. However, the 1904 Olympics also awarded silver trophies for first place, which makes Athens 1906 the first games that awarded the three medals only. In addition, from 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth and sixth have received certificates which became officially known as "victory diplomas;" since 1976 the medal winners have received these also, and in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh- and eighth-place finishers were added, presumably to ensure that all losing quarterfinalists in events using single-elimination formats would receive diplomas, thus obviating the need for consolation (or officially, "classification") matches to determine fifth through eighth places (though interestingly these latter are still contested in many elimination events anyway). Certificates were awarded also at the 1896 Olympics, but there they were awarded in addition to the medals to first and second place. Commemorative medals and diplomas — which differ in design from those referred to above — are also made available to participants finishing lower than third and eighth respectively. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the first three were given wreaths as well as their medals. Because the Olympics are held only once every four years, the public and athletes often consider them as more important and valuable than world championships and other international tournaments, which are often held annually. Many athletes have become celebrities or heroes in their own country, or even world-wide, after becoming Olympic champion. The diversity of the sports, and the great differences between the Olympic Games in 1896 and today make it difficult to decide which athlete is the most successful Olympic athlete of all times. This is further complicated since the IOC no longer recognises the Intercalated Games which it originally organised and which most historians do consider as Olympic games. When measuring by the number of titles won at the Modern Olympic Games, the following athletes may be considered the most successful (Intercalated Games are included in Ray Ewry's scores)

Locations of Modern Olympic Games

The table below gives an overview of all host cities of both the Olympic Summer Games (Games of the Olympiad) and Winter Games. Only actual host cities are listed. Click on the Roman numeral to get details of the Games and the corresponding host city selection process. The Summer Games are numbered by Olympiad, so there are gaps for the World Wars; the Winter Games are numbered consecutively, so there are no gaps in the numbering.

References


- Buchanan, Ian & Mallon, Bill (2001). Historical dictionary of the Olympic movement. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-81084-054-5.
- Wallechinsky, David (2000). The complete book of the Summer Olympics – Sydney 2000 edition. New York: Overlook Press. ISBN 1-58567-033-2.
- Wallechinsky, David (2002). The complete book of the Winter Olympics – Salt Lake City 2002. New York: Overlook Press. ISBN 1-58567-195-9.
- Kamper, Erich & Mallon, Bill (1992). The Golden Book of the Olympic Games. Milan, Italy: Vallardi & Associati. ISBN 8-88520-235-7.
- Simson, Vyv & Jennings, Andrew (1992). Dishonored Games: Corruption, Money, and Greed at the Olympics. New Tork: S.P.I. Books. ISBN 1-56171-199-3
- The Economics of staging the Olympics. A comparison of the Games 1972-2008. Edward Elgar Publishing, Glos 2005, ISBN 1843768933

See also


- Bids for Olympic Games
- Bids for Olympic Winter Games

External links


- [http://www.olympicmovement.com Official website of the Olympic Movement]
- [http://www.torino2006.org/index.php?lang=en Official website of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino]
- [http://en.beijing2008.com Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of the 29th Olympiad]
- [http://www.culturalolympics.org.uk Culture at the Olympics educational magazine]
- [http://www.haidukpress.com/tantalus/index.html Story of Pelops, mythical king of Olympia honoured by the ancient games]
- [http://mutualfunds.about.com/od/news/a/2004_olymics.htm Article on Rising Costs to Host the Olympic Games]
- [http://www.aafla.org/6oic/over_frmst.htm Olympic Information Center by the Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles] – Includes a primer on the Olympic Games, and many historical documents on the Olympic Games are presented in digital form.
- [http://wipo.int/clea/docs/en/wo/wo018en.htm Nairobi Treaty on the Protection of the Olympic Symbol] Category:Multi-sport events
- Olympics Category:Sports competitions zh-min-nan:Olympia Ūn-tōng-hoē ko:올림픽 ms:Sukan Olimpik ja:近代オリンピック th:กีฬาโอลิมปิก

1924

1924 (MCMXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January


- January 7 - Great fire in London harbour
- January 8 - Heavy blizzards in England
- January 10 - British submarine L-34 sinks in the English Channel - 43 dead.
- January 12 - Gopinath Saha shoots a man he erroneously thinks is a Police commissioner of Calcutta, Charles Augustus Tegart - he is arrested soon after
- January 21 - Vladimir Lenin dies and Joseph Stalin begins to purge his rivals to clear way for his leadership.
- January 22 - Ramsay MacDonald becomes the first Labour Prime Minister.
- January 23 - Soviet Union officially declares that Lenin died January 21.
- January 25 - The 1924 Winter Olympics open in Chamonix, France (in the French Alps), inaugurating the Winter Olympic Games.
- January 26 - Petrograd (St. Petersburg) is renamed Leningrad.
- January 27 - Lenin is buried in a mausoleum in the Red Square.

February


- February 1 - The United Kingdom recognizes Soviet Union.
- February 1 - Australian Loans Council meets for the first time
- February 4 - Mohandas Gandhi is released prematurely on medical grounds.
- February 5 - GMT: Hourly time signals from Royal Greenwich Observatory are broadcasted for the first time.
- February 8 - Death penalty: The first state execution using gas in the United States takes place in Nevada.
- February 14 - IBM corporation founded.
- February 16-February 26 - Dock strike in US harbors.
- February 22 - Calvin Coolidge becomes the first President of the United States to deliver a radio broadcast from the White House.

March


- March 1 - Diana Vreeland, fashion editor and columnist, marries Thomas Reed Vreeland at St. Thomas's church in New York.
- March 3 - The 1400-year-old Islamic caliphate is abolished when Caliph Abdul Mejid II of the Ottoman Empire is deposed. The last remnant of the old regime gives way to the reformed Turkey of President Kemal Atatürk.
- March 9 - Italy annexes Fiume
- March 25 - Greece proclaims it is a republic.
- March 29 - Government of Raymond Poincaré starts in France.

April


- April 1 - Adolf Hitler is sentenced to five years in jail for his participation in the Beer Hall Putsch. However he was only in jail for nine months.
- April 1 - First revenue flight for Belgium's SABENA Airlines.
- April 6 - Fascists win elections in Italy with 2/3 majority.
- April 13 - Referendum in Greece favors the formation of Hellenic Republic.
- April 26 - Harry Grindell Matthews demonstrates his "death ray" in London but fails to convince British War Office
- April 27 - Group of Alawites kill some Christian nuns in Syria – French troops march against them.

May


- May 3 - The Aleph Zadik Aleph, the oldest Jewish youth fraternity, founded.
- May 4 - The 1924 Summer Olympics opening ceremonies held in Paris, France.
- May 10 - J. Edgar Hoover is appointed head the Bureau of Investigation.
- May 21 - University of Chicago students Richard Loeb and Nathan Leopold, Jr. murder 14-year-old Bobby Franks in a thrill killing.

June


- June 1 - Harry Grindell Matthews returns from Paris to London - he tries to use a Pathe film to demonstrate that his death ray works
- June 2 - U.S. President Calvin Coolidge signs the Indian Citizenship Act into law, granting citizenship to all Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States.
- June 5 - Ernst Alexanderson sends the first facsimile across the Atlantic Ocean (to his father in Sweden).
- June 8 - George Mallory and Andrew Irvine are last seen "going strong for the top" of Mount Everest by teammate Noel Odell at 12:50 PM. The two mountaineers were never seen alive again.
- June 10 - Fascists kidnap and kill Italian socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti in Rome.
- June 12 - the Roundout Heist - Six men of Egan's Rats gang rob a mail train in Roundout, Illinois. Robbery is later found to have been an inside job
- June 16 - Whampoa Military Academy is founded.
- June 23 - American airman Russell L. Maughan flew from New York to San Francisco in 21 hours and 48 minutes on a dawn-to-dusk flight in a Curtiss pursuit plane.

August-October


- August 18 - France begins to withdraw its troops from Germany.
- September 9 - Hanapepe Massacre occurs on Kauai, Hawaii
- September 9 - 8-hour work day in Belgium
- October 2 - The Geneva Protocol is adopted as a means to strengthen the League of Nations.
- October 19 - Abdul Azis declares himself protector of holy places in Mecca.
- October 22 - Toastmasters is founded.
- October 24 - British Foreign Office publishes Zinoviev Letter.
- October 25 - British authorities in India arrest Subhas Chandra Bose and jail him for the next two and half years

November


- November 4 - Fermin Romo of Wyoming elected as the first woman governor in the United States.
- November 4 - Calvin Coolidge defeats John W. Davis in the U.S. presidential election
- November 19 - In Los Angeles, California, famous silent film director Thomas Ince ("The Father of the Western") dies, reportedly of a heart attack, in his bed (rumors soon surface that he was shot dead by publishing tycoon William Randolph Hearst).
- November 27 - In the New York City the first Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade is held.

December


- December 12 - Failed communist takeover attempt in Estonia
- December 24 - Air crash in Croydon air field - 8 dead.
- December 24 - Albania becomes a republic.
- December 30 - Edwin Hubble announces the existence of other galaxies.

Unknown date


- Andre Breton founds surrealism, defining it as "pure psychic automatism"
- Voting in federal elections becomes compulsory in Australia
- US bootleggers begin to use Thompson SMGs
- Fritz Haarmann sentenced to death for 27 murders

Births

January-February


- January 2 - Sabine Baring-Gould, English composer and novelist (b. 1834)
- January 3 - Hank Stram, American football coach and broadcaster
- January 6 - Earl Scruggs, American musician
- January 11 - Roger Guillemin, French neuroendocrinologist, recpient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 11 - Sam B. Hall, American politician (d. 1994)
- January 11 - Slim Harpo, American musician (d. 1970)
- January 12 - Olivier Gendebien, Belgian race car driver (d. 1998)
- January 16 - Katy Jurado, Mexican actress (d. 2002)
- January 19 - Jean-Francois Revel, French author
- January 21 - Telly Savalas, American actor (d. 1994)
- January 26 - Annette Strauss, American philanthropist and mayor of Dallas, Texas (d. 1998)
- January 27 - Sabu, Indian actor (d. 1963)
- January 29 - Luigi Nono, Italian composer (d. 1990)
- January 30 - Lloyd Alexander, American writer
- February 2 - Elfi von Dassanowsky, Austrian-born producer and musician
- February 17 - Margaret Truman, American novelist
- February 19 - Lee Marvin, American actor (d. 1987)
- February 20 - Gloria Vanderbilt, American cosmetics entrepreneur
- February 21 - Robert Mugabe, first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
- February 23 - Allan McLeod Cormack, South-African physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1998)
- February 29 - Al Rosen, baseball player

March-May


- March 1 - Deke Slayton, astronaut (d. 1993)
- March 7 - Kobo Abe, Japanese novelist (d. 1993)
- March 15 - Walter Gotell, German actor (d. 1997)
- March 27 - Sarah Vaughan, American jaz singer (d. 1990)
- March 28 - Freddie Bartholomew, British actor (d. 1992)
- March 30 - Alan Davidson, British author (d. 2003)
- April 1 - Brendan Byrne, Governor of New Jersey
- April 3 - Marlon Brando, American actor (d. 2004)
- April 3 - Doris Day, American actress
- April 4 - Gil Hodges, American baseball player (d. 1972)
- April 7 - Johannes Mario Simmel, Austrian writer
- April 15 - Sir Neville Marriner, English conductor and violinist
- April 24 - Clement Freud, British writer, radio personality, and politician
- April 25 - Albert King, American musician (d. 1992)
- May 11 - Antony Hewish, English radio astronomer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics
- May 12 - Tony Hancock, English comedian (d. 1968)
- May 18 - Priscilla Pointer, American actress
- May 19 - Sandy Wilson, British composer
- May 22 - Charles Aznavour, French singer, actor, and songwriter

June-August


- June 1 - Dr. William Sloane Coffin, American clergyman
- June 3 - Torsten Wiesel, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- June 12 - George Herbert Walker Bush, 41st United States President
- June 18 - George Mikan, basketball player (d. 2005)
- June 20 - Chet Atkins, American country guitar player (d. 2001)
- June 20 - Audie Murphy, American World War II hero and actor (d. 1971)
- June 27 - Bob Appleyard, English cricketer
- June 29 - Flo Sandon's, Italian singer
- June 29 - Ezra Laderman, American composer
- July 4 - Eva Marie Saint, American actress
- July 5 - Janos Starker, Hungarian cellist
- July 13 - Carlo Bergonzi, Italian tenor
- July 14 - James W. Black, Scottish pharmacologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- July 19 - Stanley K. Hathaway, American politician
- August 1 - Georges Charpak, Ukrainian-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- August 2 - John Carroll O'Connor, American actor (d. 2001)
- August 3 - Leon Uris, American writer (d. 2003)
- August 12 - Derek Shackleton, English cricketer
- August 12 - Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, leader of Pakistan (d. 1988)
- August 15 - Robert Bolt, English writer (d. 1995)
- August 23 - Robert Solow, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- August 28 - Peggy Ryan, American actress (d. 2004)
- August 29 - Consuelo Velázquez, Mexican songwriter (d. 2005)
- August 31 - Buddy Hackett, American comedian and actor (d. 2003)

September-October


- September 2 - Daniel arap Moi, President of Kenya
- September 4 - Joan Aiken, English writer (d. 2004)
- September 8 - Mimi Parent, Canadian painter (d. 2005)
- September 9 - Rik Van Steenbergen, Belgian cyclist (d. 2003)
- September 11 - Tom Landry, American football player and coach (d. 2000)
- September 19 - Don Harron, Canadian entertainer
- September 22 - Charles Keeping, English illustrator (d. 1988)
- September 22 - Rosamunde Pilcher, English novelist
- October 1 - Jimmy Carter, President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- October 1 - William Rehnquist, Chief Justice of the United States (d. 2005)
- October 10 - Ed Wood, American filmmaker (d. 1978)
- October 11 - Mal Whitfield, American athlete
- October 12 - Doris Grau, American actress (d. 1995)
- October 15 - Mark Lenard, American actor (d. 1996)
- October 21 - Celia Cruz, Cuban singer (d. 2003)

November-December


- November 13 - Motoo Kimura, Japanese population geneticist (d. 1994)
- November 19 - William Russell, British actor
- November 20 - Benoit Mandelbrot, Polish-born mathematician
- November 24 - Mel Patton, American athlete
- November 25 - Takaaki Yoshimoto, Japanese poet, critic, and philosopher.
- December 2 - Alexander M. Haig, Jr., American politician
- December 25 - Rod Serling, American television screenwriter (d. 1975)
- December 25 - Atal Behari Vajpayee, tenth Prime Minister of India
- December 25 - Moktar Ould Daddah, first President of Mauritania (d. 2003)
- December 28 - Milton Obote, President of Uganda (d. 2005)
- Tuanku Al-Mutassimu Billahi Muhibbudin Sultan Abdul Halim Al-Muadzam Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Badlishah, King of Malaysia
- King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia

Deaths


- January 21 - Vladimir Lenin, first leader of the USSR (b. 1870)
- January 24 - Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg (b. 1894)
- February 3 - Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1856)
- April 21 - Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (b. 1858)
- May 4 - E. Nesbit, English author (b. 1858)
- May 15 - Paul-Henri-Benjamin d'Estournelles de Constant, French diplomat, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1852)
- May 24 - Victor Herbert, Irish dramatist (b. 1859)
- June 3 - Franz Kafka, Austrian author (b. 1883)
- June 10 - George Mallory, English mountain climber (lost on Mount Everest) (b. 1886)
- June 11 - Théodore Dubois, French composer and teacher (b. 1837)
- July 23 - Frank Frost Abbott, American classical scholar (b. 1860)
- July 27 - Ferruccio Busoni, Italian pianist and composer (b. 1866)
- August 3 - Joseph Conrad, Polish-born author (b. 1857)
- August 17 - Pavel Urysohn, Russian mathematician (b. 1898)
- September 15 - Frank Chance, baseball player and manager (b. 1877)
- October 12 - Anatole France, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1844)
- November 4 - Gabriel Fauré, French composer (b. 1845)
- November 29 - Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer (b. 1858)
- December 7 - Gene Stratton Porter, American author (b. 1863)
- December 29 - Carl Spitteler, Swiss writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1845)
- December 31 - Sir Samuel William Knaggs, British civil servant (b. 1856)

Nobel Prizes


- Physics - Manne Siegbahn
- Chemistry - Bryan Hymer
- Physiology or Medicine - Willem Einthoven
- Literature - Wladyslaw Stanislaw Reymont
- Peace - Fermin Romo Category:1924 ko:1924년 ms:1924 ja:1924年 simple:1924 th:พ.ศ. 2467

World War Two

, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb. From top going counterclockwise: Allied landing on D-Day 1944, the Nuremberg Rally 1936, the Nagasaki atom bomb 1945, the Soviet flag over the Reichstag in Berlin 1945 and the Gate of Auschwitz.]] World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a mid-20th Century conflict that engulfed much of the globe and is accepted as the largest and deadliest continuous war in human history. It was the first time that a number of newly developed technologies, including nuclear weapons, were used against either military or civilian targets. World War II resulted in the direct or indirect death of anywhere from 50 to 60 million or more people, over 3% of the world population at that time. It is estimated to have cost more money and resources than all other wars combined: about 1 trillion US dollars in 1945 (adjusted for inflation; roughly 10.5 trillion in 2005), not including subsequent reconstruction [http://www.historychannel.com/worldwartwo/?page=triumph5]. The outcomes of the war, including new technology and changes to the world's geopolitical, cultural and economic arrangement, were unprecedented. The conflict began by most Western accounts on September 1 1939 with the German invasion of Poland (the Pacific war is taken to have started on July 7 1937 with the Japanese attack on China) and lasted until mid-1945, involving many of the world's countries. Virtually all countries that participated in World War I were involved in World War II. Britain, France, Australia and New Zealand declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939 and Canada followed on September 10, 1939. The United States entered the conflict in December of 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

Summary

Attributed in varying degrees to the Treaty of Versailles, the Great Depression, and the rise in nationalism, racism, fascism, National socialism, Japanese imperialism, and militarism, the causes of the war are a matter of debate. The war was fought between the Axis Powers and the Allies. The Axis initially consisted of an alliance between Germany and Italy, which later expanded to include Japan and Eastern European countries such as Romania and Bulgaria. Some of the nations that Germany conquered sent military forces, particularly to the Eastern front. Among the expeditionary forces that joined Germany were forces from Vichy France, The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain (though Spain was itself a neutral country) and armies of Russians and Ukrainians under the command of the general Andrey Vlasov. The Allies were initially the United Kingdom, including the Commonwealth, France and Poland, later joined by the USSR, the United States of America and China. Fighting occurred across the Atlantic Ocean, in Western and Eastern Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea, Africa, the Middle East, in the Pacific and South East Asia, and it continued in China. In Europe, the war ended with the surrender of Germany on 8 May 1945 (V-E and Victory Days), but continued in Asia until Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 (V-J Day). At least 50 million people died as a result of the war. This figure includes acts of genocide such as the Holocaust and General Ishii Shiro's Unit 731 experiments in Pingfan, incredibly bloody battles in Europe and the Pacific Ocean, and massive bombings of cities, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan and the firebombing of Dresden (and even worse but less known) of Pforzheim in Germany. Few areas of the world were unaffected; the war involved the "home front" and bombing of civilians to a new degree. Atomic weapons, jet aircraft, rockets and radar, the blitzkrieg, or "lightning war", the massive use of tanks, submarines, torpedo bombers and destroyer/tanker formations, are only a few of many wartime inventions and new tactics that changed the face of the conflict. Post–World War II Europe was partitioned into Western and Soviet spheres of influence, the former undergoing economic reconstruction under the Marshall Plan and the latter becoming satellite states of the Soviet Union. This partition was, however, informal; rather than coming to terms about the spheres of influence, the relationship between the victors steadily deteriorated, and the military lines of demarcation finally became the de facto country boundaries. Western Europe largely aligned as NATO, and Eastern Europe largely as the Warsaw pact countries, alliances which were fundamental to the ensuing Cold War. In Asia, the United States' military occupation of Japan led to Japan's democratisation. China's civil war continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The war sparked a wave of independence for colonies of European powers, who were exhausted from fighting the war. There was a fundamental shift in power from Western Europe to the new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, though there were few actual boundary changes. __TOC__

Causes

People's Republic of China]] Main articles: Causes of World War II, Events preceding World War II in Europe, Events preceding World War II in Asia The causes of World War II are naturally a debated subject, but a common view, particularly among the allies in the early post-war years, ties them to the expansionism of Germany and Japan: Germany had lost wealth, power and status following the First World War and the expansion was to make Germany great again.
- In Germany there was a strong desire to escape the bonds of the World War I Treaty of Versailles, and eventually, Hitler and the Nazis assumed control of the country. They led Germany through a chain of events: rearmament, reoccupation of the Rhineland, a merger with Austria (Anschluss), incorporation of Czechoslovakia and finally the invasion of Poland.
- In Asia, Japan's efforts to become a world power and the rise of militarist leadership (in the 1930s the government in Japan was undermined as militarists rose to power and de facto gained totalitarian control) led to conflicts with first China and later the United States. Japan also sought to secure additional natural resources, such as oil and iron ore, due in part to the lack of natural resources on Japan's own home islands.

Participants

iron ore and Joseph Stalin, during the