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Heinrich W. M. Olbers

Heinrich W. M. Olbers

Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (October 11, 1758 – March 2, 1840) was a German astronomer, physician and physicist. He was born in Arbergen, and studied to be a physician at Göttingen. After his graduation in 1780, he began practicing medicine in Bremen, Germany. At night he dedicated his time to astronomical observation. In 1802, Olbers discovered (and named) the asteroid Pallas. In 1807 he discovered the asteroid Vesta, which he allowed Gauss to name. On March 6 1815, Olbers also discovered a periodic comet named after him (formally designated 13P/Olbers). He died in Bremen. Olbers' paradox is named after him.

Honors

The following celestial features are named for him:
- Asteroid 1002 Olbersia.
- Olbers crater on the Moon. Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus ja:ハインリヒ・オルバース

1758

1758 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- April 29 - Battle of the Bay of Bengal - A French fleet under Sir George Pocock engages the French fleet of Anne Antoine d'Aché indecisively near Madras.
- May 21 - Mary Campbell is abducted from her home in Pennsylvania by Lenape during the French and Indian War.
- June 12 - French and Indian War: Siege of Louisbourg - James Wolfe's attack at Louisbourg, Nova Scotia commences.
- June 23 - Seven Years' War: Battle of Krefeld - Anglo-Hanoverian forces under Ferdinand of Brunswick defeat the French.
- July 8 - French and Indian War: French forces hold Fort Carillon against British at Ticonderoga, New York.
- July 25 - French and Indian War: The island battery at Fortress Louisbourg is silenced and all French warships are destroyed or taken.
- August 3 - Battle of Negapatam - Off the coast of India, Admiral Pocock again engages d'Aché's French fleet, this time with more success.
- August 25 - Battle of Zorndorf - Frederick defeats the Russian army of Count Wilhelm Fermor near the Oder.
- September 3 - the Tavora affair - attempted assassination of Joseph I of Portugal
- September 14 - French and Indian War: a British attack on Fort Duquesne is defeated.
- October 14 - Battle of Hochkirch - Frederick loses a hard-fought battle against the Austrians under Marshal Leopold von Daun, who besieges Dresden.
- November 25 - French and Indian War: French forces abandon Fort Duquesne to British control.
- December 25 - Halley's Comet appears for the first time after Halley's discovery of it.
- First European settlement in what is now Erie County by the French at the mouth of Buffalo Creek.
- Pope Clement XIII ascends to papacy
- Rudjer Boscovich publishes his atomic theory in Theoria philosophiae naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in nalura existentium
- James Abercromby replaces the earl of Loudoun as supreme commander in the American colonies. He is replaced himself after failing to take the fort at Ticonderoga.

Ongoing events

- French and Indian War (1754-1763)
- Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

Births

- April 28 - James Monroe, 5th President of the United States (d. 1831)
- May 6 - André Masséna, French marshall (d. 1817)
- May 6 - Maximilien Robespierre, French revolutionary (executed) (d. 1794)
- May 17 - John St Aubyn, British fossil collector (d. 1839)
- August 5 - Emperor Go-Momozono of Japan (d. 1779)
- September 29 - Horatio Nelson, British admiral (d. 1805)
- October 16 - Noah Webster, American lexicographer (d. 1843)
- Charles d'Abancourt, French statesman (murdered in prison) (d. 1792)
- Kamehameha I, King of Hawaii

Deaths

- January 7 - Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet (b. 1686)
- February 10 - Thomas Ripley, English architect
- March 2 - Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (b. 1679)
- March 6 - Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington, English politician
- March 22 - Jonathan Edwards, American minister (b. 1703)
- March 22 - Richard Leveridge, English bass and composer (b. 1670)
- April 22 - Antoine de Jussieu, French naturalist (b. 1686)
- April 30 - François d'Agincourt, French composer (b. 1684)
- May 3 - Pope Benedict XIV (b. 1675)
- June 12 - Augustus William, Prince of Prussia (b. 1722)
- July 6 - George Howe, 3rd Viscount Howe, British general (killed in battle)
- October 12 - Richard Molesworth, 3rd Viscount Molesworth, British field marshal (b. 1680)
- October 14 - Francis Edward James Keith, Scottish soldier and Prussian field marshal (b. 1696)
- November 5 - Hans Egede, Norwegian Lutheran missionary (b. 1686)
- November 20 - Johan Helmich Roman, Swedish composer (b. 1694)
- November 22 - Richard Edgcumbe, 1st Baron Edgcumbe, English politician (b. 1680)
- December 5 - Johann Friedrich Fasch, German composer (b. 1688)
- December 25 - James Hervey, English clergyman and writer (b. 1714) Category:1758 ko:1758년

March 2

March 2 is the 61st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (62nd in leap years). There are 304 days remaining.

Events

- 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks.
- 1717 - The Loves of Mars and Venus becomes the first ballet performed in England.
- 1791 - Long-distance communication speeds up with the unveiling of a semaphore machine in Paris.
- 1807 - The U.S. Congress passes an act to "prohibit the importation of slaves into any port or place within the jurisdiction of the United States ... from any foreign kingdom, place, or country."
- 1836 - Texas Revolution: Declaration of independence of the Republic of Texas from Mexico.
- 1855 - Alexander II becomes Tsar of Russia.
- 1861 - Nevada Territory and Dakota Territory are organized as political divisions of the United States.
- 1861 - Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia: Tsar Alexander II signed the emancipation reform into law.
- 1877 - U.S. presidential election, 1876: The U.S. Congress declares Rutherford B. Hayes the winner of the election even though Samuel J. Tilden had won the popular vote on November 7, 1876 (Reconstruction ends).
- 1888 - The Convention of Constantinople is signed, guaranteeing free maritime passage through the Suez Canal during war and peace.
- 1899 - In Washington State, USA, Mount Rainier National Park is established.
- 1901 - The U.S. Congress passes the Platt amendment, limiting the autonomy of Cuba as a condition for the withdrawal of American troops.
- 1903 - In New York City the Martha Washington Hotel opens, becoming the first hotel exclusively for women.
- 1917 - The enactment of the Jones-Shafroth Act grants Puerto Ricans United States citizenship.
- 1917 - Nicholas II of Russia abdicates the throne in favor of his brother Michael.
- 1919 - The first Communist International meets in Moscow.
- 1933 - King Kong premieres in New York City.
- 1939 - Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli is elected Pope and takes the name Pius XII.
- 1943 - World War II: Battle of the Bismarck Sea - United States and Australian forces sink Japanese convoy ships.
- 1946 - Ho Chi Minh is elected the President of North Vietnam.
- 1949 - Captain James Gallagher lands his B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II in Fort Worth, Texas after completing the first non-stop around-the-world airplane flight in 94 hours and one minute.
- 1955 - King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia abdicates the throne in favor of his father, King Norodom Suramarit.
- 1956 - Morocco declares its independence from France.
- 1959 - Miles Davis holds the first recording session for Kind of Blue at Columbia 30th Street Studio in New York, NY.
- 1962 - In Hershey, Pennsylvania, Wilt Chamberlain of the Philadelphia 76ers scores 100 points against the New York Knicks, breaking several National Basketball Association records.
- 1962 - In Burma, the army led by General Ne Win seizes power in a coup.
- 1963 - Release of Please Please Me in the United Kingdom, the first LP from The Beatles.
- 1969 - In Toulouse, France the first test flight of the Concorde is conducted.
- 1969 - Soviet and Chinese forces clash at a border outpost on the Ussuri River.
- 1972 - The Pioneer 10 spaceprobe is launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida with a mission to explore the outer planets.
- 1978 - Czech Vladimír Remek becomes the first non-Russian or non-American to go into space, when he is launched aboard Soyuz 28.
- 1985- TV anime series Mobile Suit Z Gundum broadcasts its first episode in Japan.
- 1987- Chrysler acquires American Motors
- 1989 - Twelve European Community nations agree to ban the production of all chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by the end of the century.
- 1990 - Nelson Mandela elected deputy President of the African National Congress.
- 1992 - Moldova joins the UN
- 1995 - Nick Leeson is arrested for his role in the collapse of Barings Bank.
- 1995 - Yahoo! is incorporated, establishing the Internet Portal as a model.
- 1998 - Data sent from the Galileo spaceprobe indicates that Jupiter's moon Europa has a liquid ocean under a thick crust of ice.
- 2002 - U.S. invasion of Afghanistan: Operation Anaconda begins, ending on March 19) after killing 500 Taliban and al Qaeda fighters, with 11 allied troop fatalities.
- 2003 The first International Symposium on Taiwan Sign Language Linguistics is held at Chung Cheng University.
- 2004 - Voters in the U.S. state of Georgia vote on a referendum concerning its Confederacy-derived flag.
- 2004 - Disgruntled by the state's education act (Act 60), residents of Killington, Vermont vote to become part of New Hampshire.
- 2004 - War in Iraq: Al Qaeda carries out the Ashoura Massacre in Iraq, killing 170 and wounding over 500.
- 2004 - War in Iraq: A United Nations report from the weapons inspection teams states that Iraq had no weapons of mass destruction of any significance after 1994, despite President Bush's objection to the contrary before the invasion.

Births

- 1316 - King Robert II of Scotland, (d. 1390)
- 1409 - John II of Alençon, French soldier (d. 1476)
- 1459 - Pope Adrian VI (d. 1523)
- 1545 - Thomas Bodley, English diplomat and library founder (d. 1613)
- 1578 - George Sandys, English colonist and poet (d. 1644)
- 1705 - William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, Scottish judge and politician (d. 1793)
- 1770 - Louis Gabriel Suchet, French marshal (d. 1826)
- 1779 - Joel Roberts Poinsett, American statesman and botanist (d. 1851)
- 1793 - Sam Houston, President of the Republic of Texas (d. 1863)
- 1800 - Evgeny Baratynsky, Russian poet (d. 1844)
- 1810 - Pope Leo XIII, (d. 1903)
- 1820 - Multatuli, Dutch writer (d. 1887)
- 1824 - Bedrich Smetana, Czech composer (d. 1884)
- 1829 - Carl Schurz, German revolutionary and American statesman (d. 1906)
- 1849 - Robert Means Thompson, U.S. naval officer (d. 1930)
- 1859 - Sholom Aleichem, Russian Yiddish novelist (d. 1916)
- 1860 - Susanna M. Salter, Mayor of Argonia, Kansas (d. 1961)
- 1876 - Pope Pius XII, (d. 1958)
- 1900 - Kurt Weill, German composer (d. 1950)
- 1902 - Moe Berg, baseball player and spy (d. 1972)
- 1904 - Dr. Seuss, American author (d. 1991)
- 1908 - Walter Bruch, German engineer (d. 1990)
- 1909 - Mel Ott, baseball player (d. 1958)
- 1914 - Martin Ritt, American director (d. 1990)
- 1917 - Desi Arnaz, Cuban-born actor, bandleader, and musician (d. 1986)
- 1919 - Jennifer Jones, American actress
- 1923 - Robert H. Michel, American politician
- 1926 - Murray Rothbard, American economist (d. 1995)
- 1930 - John Cullum, American actor and singer
- 1931 - Mikhail Gorbachev, President of the Soviet Union, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1931 - Tom Wolfe, American author
- 1935 - Al Waxman, Canadian actor (d. 2001)
- 1937 - Abdelaziz Bouteflika, President of Algeria
- 1940 - Tony Croatto, Italian-born singer and composer (d. 2005)
- 1942 - John Irving, American author
- 1942 - Lou Reed, American singer and guitarist
- 1943 - Peter Straub, American author
- 1944 - Uschi Glas, German actress
- 1948 - Rory Gallagher, Irish guitarist
- 1948 - Jeff Kennett, Australian politician
- 1949 - Eddie Money, New York police officer and singer
- 1949 - JPR Williams, Welsh rugby player
- 1949 - Gates McFadden, American actress
- 1950 - Karen Carpenter, American singer and drummer (d. 1983)
- 1952 - Mark Evanier, American writer
- 1952 - Laraine Newman, American actress and comedian
- 1955 - Shoko Asahara, Japanese religious leader
- 1956 - Mark Evans, Australian bassist (AC/DC)
- 1958 - Ian Woosnam, Welsh golfer
- 1962 - Morioka Hiroyuki, Japanese writer
- 1962 - Jon Bon Jovi, American singer, songwriter, and actor
- 1964 - Megan Leigh, American actress (d. 1990)
- 1973 - Trevor Sinclair, English footballer
- 1974 - Monika Niederstätter, Italian athlete
- 1977 - Chris Martin, British musician (Coldplay)
- 1977 - Heather McComb, American actress
- 1977 - Andrew Strauss, English cricketer
- 1979 - Damien Duff, Irish footballer
- 1981 - Bryce Dallas Howard, American actress
- 1982 - Kevin Kurányi, German footballer
- 1982 - Ben Roethlisberger, American football player
- 1982 - Corey Webster, American football player
- 1985 - Robert Iler, American actor
- 1985 - Reggie Bush, American football player

Deaths

- 855 - Lothar, King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor (b. 795)
- 1316 - Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert I of Scotland (b. 1296)
- 1572 - Mem de Sá, Portuguese Governor-General of Brazil
- 1589 - Alessandro Cardinal Farnese, Italian cardinal (b. 1520)
- 1729 - Francesco Bianchini, Italian philosopher and scientist (b. 1662)
- 1730 - Pope Benedict XIII (b. 1649)
- 1755 - Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French writer (b. 1675)
- 1758 - Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (b. 1679)
- 1791 - John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (b. 1703)
- 1793 - Carl Gustaf Pilo, Swedish-born artist
- 1797 - Horace Walpole, English politican and writer (b. 1717)
- 1830 - Samuel Thomas von Sömmering, German physician (b. 1755)
- 1835 - Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1768)
- 1840 - Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers, German astronomer (b. 1758)
- 1865 - Carl Sylvius Völkner, German missionary to New Zealand
- 1880 - Sir John MacNeill, Irish civil engineer (b. 1790)
- 1895 - Berthe Morisot, French painter (b. 1841)
- 1921 - King Nicholas I of Montenegro (b. 1841)
- 1930 - D. H. Lawrence, English writer (b. 1885)
- 1938 - Ben Harney, American composer and pianist (b. 1871)
- 1939 - Howard Carter, British archaeologist (b. 1874)
- 1953 - Jim Lightbody, American runner (b. 1882)
- 1960 - Stanisław Taczak, Polish general, commander-in-chief of the Greater Poland Uprising (b.1874)
- 1975 - Josiah Mwangi Kariuki, Kenyan politician (b. 1929)
- 1982 - Philip K. Dick, American author (b. 1928)
- 1987 - Randolph Scott, American actor and director (b. 1898)
- 1991 - Serge Gainsbourg, French singer (b. 1928)
- 1992 - Sandy Dennis, American actress (b. 1937)
- 1999 - Dusty Springfield, English singer (b. 1939)
- 2001 - John Diamond, British journalist (b. 1953)
- 2003 - Hank Ballard, American musician (b. 1927)
- 2003 - Malcolm Williamson, Australian composer, (b. 1931)
- 2004 - Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (b. 1916)
- 2004 - Marge Schott, baseball team owner (b. 1928)
- 2005 - Rick Mahler, baseball player (b. 1953)

Holidays and observances

- Bahá'í Faith — Feast of 'Alá (Loftiness) - First day of the 19th month of the Bahá'í Calendar.
- Bahá'í Faith — Beginning of the Fast (sunrise to sunset fast for 19 days).
- Church of England — Saint Chad's Day.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/2 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.imdb.com/OnThisDay?day=2&month=March IMDb (Internet Movie Database): On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/3/2 Today in History: March 2] ----- March 1 - March 3 - February 2 - April 2 -- listing of all days ko:3월 2일 ms:2 Mac ja:3月2日 simple:March 2 th:2 มีนาคม

1840

1840 is a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

- January 3 - One of the predecessor papers to the Herald Sun of Melbourne, Australia, The Port Phillip Herald, is founded by George Cavanaugh.
- January 10 - Uniform penny postage introduced in the UK.
- January 13 - The steamship Lexington burns and sinks four miles off the coast of Long Island with the loss of 139 lives.
- January 19 - Captain Charles Wilkes circumnavigates Antarctica, claiming what became known as Wilkes Land for the United States.
- January 20 - Dumont D'Urville discovers Adélie Land, Antarctica.
- January 22 - British colonists reach New Zealand. Official founding date of Wellington.
- February 6 - Treaty of Waitangi, document granting British sovereignty in New Zealand, is signed.
- February 10 - Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom marries Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg-Gotha.
- February 11 - Gaetano Donizetti's opera La Fille du Regiment premieres in Paris.
- March 1 - William Hobson, first Governor of New Zealand, suffers a stroke.
- March 1 - Adolphe Thiers becomes prime minister of France.
- May 1 - Britain issues the Penny Black, world's first postage stamp.
- May 6 - The Penny Black, world's first postage stamp becomes valid for the pre-payment of postage.
- May 7 - The Great Natchez Tornado: A massive tornado strikes Natchez, Mississippi during the early afternoon hours. Before it was over, 317 people had lost their lives and 209 were injured. It is the second deadliest tornado in U.S. history.
- July 4 - The Cunard Line's 700-ton wooden paddlewheel steamer RMS Britannia departs from Liverpool bound for Halifax, Nova Scotia on the first transatlantic passenger cruise.
- July 15 – Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia sign a London Treaty with the Sublime Porte, ruler of the Ottoman Empire.
- August 10 - Fortsas hoax - number of book collectors gather to Binche, Belgium to attend a non-existent book auction of the late "Count of Fortsas"
- September 10 - Ottoman and British troops bombard Beirut and land troops on the coast to pressure Egyptian Muhammad Ali to retreat from the country.
- October 7 - Willem II becomes King of the Netherlands.
- October 14 – Maronite leader Bashir II surrenders to the British forces and goes into exile in Malta.
- November - William Henry Harrison defeats Martin Van Buren in the U.S. presidential election.
- David Livingstone leaves for Africa.
- Punch caricature magazine begins publication.
- Pedro II is declared "of age" prematurely and begins to reassert central control in Brazil.
- Mount Allison University is founded in Sackville, New Brunswick, Canada.
- Washingtonian Temperance Society is founded.

Births

- January 3 - Father Damien, Belgian missionary priest (d. 1888)
- January 23 - Ernst Abbe, German physicist (d. 1905)
- February 4 - Hiram Stevens Maxim, American firearms inventor (d. 1916)
- February 5 - John Boyd Dunlop, Scottish inventor (d. 1921)
- February 21 - Murad V, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1904)
- February 22 - August Bebel, German politician (d. 1913)
- February 23 - Carl Menger, Austrian economist (d. 1921)
- February 29 - John Philip Holland, Irish inventor (d. 1914)
- March 28 - Emin Pasha, German doctor and African administrator (d. 1892)
- April 2 - Emile Zola, French writer (d. 1902)
- April 22 - Odilon Redon, French painter (d. 1916)
- April 27 - Edward Whymper, English mountaineer (d. 1911)
- May 7 - Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer (d. 1893)
- May 13 - Alphonse Daudet, French writer (d. 1897)
- June 2 - Thomas Hardy, English writer (d. 1928)
- August 4 - Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German sexologist (d. 1902)
- October 9 - Simeon Solomon, British artist (d. 1905)
- October 16 - Kuroda Kiyotaka, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1900)
- November 12 - Auguste Rodin, French sculptor (d. 1917)
- November 14 - Claude Monet, French painter (d. 1926)
- November 21 - Victoria, Princess Royal of the United Kingdom and Empress of Germany (d. 1901)
- November 29 - Rhoda Broughton, Welsh writer (d. 1920)

Deaths

- January 6 - Fanny Burney, English novelist (b. 1752)
- January 22 - Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, German anthropologist (b. 1752)
- February 13 - Nicolas Joseph Maison, French marshal and Minister of War (b. 1770)
- April 25 - Siméon-Denis Poisson, French mathematician, geometer, and physicist (b. 1781)
- May 7 - Caspar David Friedrich, German artist (b. 1774)
- May 26 - Sidney Smith, British admiral (b. 1764)
- May 27 - Nicolo Paganini, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1782)
- June 7 - King Frederick William III of Prussia (b. 1770)
- September 7 - Étienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre MacDonald, French marshal (b. 1765)
- December 11 - Emperor Kokaku of Japan (b. 1771) Category:1840 ko:1840년 th:พ.ศ. 2383

Astronomer

An astronomer or astrophysicist is a scientist whose area of research is astronomy or astrophysics. astrophysicss, and being the first to study the surface of the moon]] Astronomy is generally thought to have begun in ancient Babylon by the Persian Zoroastrian priests (the magi). Recent studies of Babylonian records have shown them to be extremely accurate for the ancient night sky. Following the Babylonians, the egyptians also had an emphasis on observations of the sky. Mixtures of religious interpretations of the sky, as mythic tales of the gods, led to a duality that we now identify as astrology. It is important to recognize that before about 1750, there was no distinction between astronomy and astrology. Unlike most scientists, astronomers cannot directly interact with the celestial bodies, and so instead must resort to detailed observation in order to make discoveries. Generally, astronomers use telescopes or other imaging equipment to make such observations.

Famous astronomers

Physicist

A physicist is a scientist trained in physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena spanning all length scales: from the sub-atomic particles from which all ordinary matter is made (particle physics) to the behavior of the material Universe as a whole (cosmology). There are numerous different branches of physics and each has its corresponding specialists, such as astrophysicists, geophysicists, or biophysicists. Employment as a professional physicist generally requires a doctoral degree. Physicists are employed by universities as professors, lecturers, and researchers, and by laboratories in industry. Many people who are trained as physicists, however, use their skills in other parts of the economy, in particular in engineering, computing, and finance.

Astrophysicists and physical cosmologists

At the largest scale, astrophysicists and astronomers study the structure and motion of the universe. This branch of physics is one of the oldest, with its foundations in the ancient study of astronomy. Modern astronomic observation dates from the early 17th century, when Galileo Galilei made the first telescopic observations of the sky. Around the same time period, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler made their careful study of the motion of the planets and comets, laying the groundwork for the first principles of planetary motion. Traditional tools of the astronomer include the telescope, and a device such as the quadrant or sextant to measure elevation. In the 20th century, the radio telescope extended the range of astronomical observation. This expanded range of observation led to the development of physical cosmology, the study of the structure, beginnings, and fate of the cosmos. Two of the more celebrated physicists of the modern age are Edwin Hubble and Steven Hawking. Despite enormous advances in the technology used to make observations of the universe, the majority of astrophysical observation is still a slow and painstaking job.

Particle and quantum physicists

Physicists who deal with the smallest end of the physical universe study particle physics. This is the branch of physics that deals with the structure and ultimate nature of matter. These physicists study particles and phenomena that cannot be seen with the naked eye. To conduct their research, these physicists use particle accelerators and sensitive detecting equipment. Modern particle physics was born when the Danish physicist Niels Bohr first proposed a model for the atom that would explain certain behavior of photon emission. It was soon found that the atom could be split (fission) or combined (fusion). Each process resulted in behavior that could not be explained by Bohr's model of the atom. In the atomic age, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger developed a theory of quantum mechanics to explain the behavior of matter at the smallest scale. Modern physicists are still trying to cope with difficulties introduced by this theory. In particular, it does not fit well with our view of gravity and the universe at the large scale, although it explains the small scale very well. Today's physicists hope to reconcile the two views of the universe some day soon.

External links

- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook]
- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos052.htm Physicists and Astronomers]; US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics ---- ja:物理学者 ko:물리학자 simple:Physicist th:นักฟิสิกส์

Göttingen

Göttingen () is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the capital of the district of Göttingen. The Leine river runs through the town. In 2004 the population was 129,466.

General information

The origins of Göttingen lay in a village called Gutingi. This village was first mentioned in a document in 953. The city was founded between 1150 and 1200 to the north-west of this village and adopted its name. In medieval times the city was a member of the Hanseatic League and hence a wealthy town. Today Göttingen is famous for its old university (Georgia Augusta, or "Georg-August-Universität"), which was founded in 1737 and became the most visited university of Europe. In 1837 seven professors protested against the absolute sovereignty of the kings of Hanover; they lost their offices, but became known as the "Göttingen Seven". They include some well-known celebrities: the Brothers Grimm, Wilhelm Weber and Georg Gervinus. Also, German chancellors Otto von Bismarck and Gerhard Schröder went to law school at the Göttingen university. Among the most famous mathematicians in history, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, and David Hilbert were professors at Göttingen. Like other university towns, Göttingen has developed its own folklore. On the day of their doctorate, postgraduate students are drawn in handcarts from the Great Hall to the Gänseliesel-Fountain in front of the Old Town Hall. There they have to climb the fountain and kiss the statue of the Gänseliesel (Goose girl). She is considered to be the most-kissed girl in the world. Nearly untouched by allied bombing in World War II, the inner city of Göttingen is now an attractive place to live with many shops, cafes and bars. For this reason, many university students live in the inner city and give Göttingen a young face. In 2003, 45% of the inner city population was only between 18 and 30 years of age. Economically, Göttingen is noted for its production of optical and fine mechanical machinery, including the light microscopy division of Carl Zeiss, Inc. — the region around Göttingen advertises itself as "Measurement Valley". Unemployment in Göttingen was at 12.6% (2003).

History

The origins of Göttingen lay in a village named Gutingi which was mentioned the first time in a document of the emperor Otto I in 953. Archaeological evidence points towards a settlement as early as in the seventh century. The findings in this village show the existence of extensive commercial relations with other regions and a developed craftsmanship. At an uncertain point in time between 1150 and 1200 the present city was founded to the north-west of the older village. The new city adopted the name of the village. As normally the founding of a city is a privilege granted by the ruler of the territory, and the ruler was the duke of Saxony and Bavaria, Henry the Lion, it is presumed that he founded the city. Around 1200 Göttingen possessed full city rights. With time the former Old village was fully integrated into the city, and with the construction of the new city walls in 1362, it was integrated in the city precinct. Between 1351 and 1572 Göttingen was a member of the Hanseatic League. During this time it had gained considerable independence from its territorial rulers. The city council did not allow the construction of castles in the surroundings of the city, and moved to destroy these, for example in Rosdorf, Grone and the one inside the city as well. This independence later waned, and around the first half of the 16th century the princes of Calenberg-Göttingen, a branch of the Welf dynasty had taken back control. In 1584 the city came into possession of the princes of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel, also of the Welf dynasty, and in 1635 to the princes of Calenberg. In 1692 it became a possession of the prince-electors of Hanover. The university of Göttingen was founded in 1737 by George II August, king of England and prince-elector of Hanover. During the Napoleonic period the city was briefly in the hands of Prussia in 1806, turned over in 1807 to the newly created Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia, and returned to the state of Hanover in 1813 after Napoleon's defeat. In 1814 the prince-electors of Hanover were elevated to kings of Hanover. In 1854 the city was connected to the new railway system. Today, Göttingen station is served by the high speed trains (ICE). After the defeat of Austria and her ally Hanover at the hands of Prussia in the war of 1866, Göttingen and the Kingdom of Hanover became part of Prussia. During the Third Reich, the university suffered greatly as many of its greatest minds emigrated early after the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, or were forced to leave later. This was due to the anti-Semitic policies of the time, as many of the excellent professors and scholars were Jewish. Not to forget that the insistence in a "German physics" prevented researchers from applying Einstein's discoveries which was of course nearly impossible. After the war the once-famous university had to be rebuilt almost from scratch, especially the physics and mathematics departments, a process which continues until today. The Göttingen synagogue was destroyed in the Reichspogromnacht on November 9, 1938. Many of the Jews of Göttingen were executed in the concentration camps. Also, there was a concentration camp for adolescents in Moringen which was liberated in 1945. concentration camps After the war the city and district of Göttingen joined the administrative district (Regierungsbezirk) of Hildesheim. In a reform in 1973 the district of Göttingen was enlarged by incorporating by the dissolved districts of Duderstadt and Hannoversch Münden.

Incorporations

The following communities were incorporated in the city of Göttingen:
- 1963: Herberhausen
- 1964: Geismar, Grone, Nikolausberg and Weende
- 1973: Deppoldshausen, Elliehausen, Esebeck, Groß Ellershausen, Hetjershausen, Holtensen, Knutbühren und Roringen

Population

The city's population has increased since the Middle Ages. With the arrival of the early modern period, the growth rate accelerated extremely. In 1985, a peak of 132,100 inhabitants was reached. The population of 2004 was 129,466 inhabitants. Of those, around 24,000 were students.

Religion

1973 Since the Middle Ages, the area of Göttingen has been part of the archbishopric of Mainz, and most of the population was Catholic. Starting in 1528 the teachings of church reformer Martin Luther became more and more popular in the city. In 1529 the first Protestant sermon was preached in the church Paulinerkirche, a former Dominican monastery church. For the following centuries nearly all the people in the city were Lutherans. As of today, the area of Göttingen is part of the Protestant Lutheran state church of Hanover. Apart from the Lutheran, there are several other Protestant churches in Göttingen (Freikirchen). In 1746 there were once again Catholic services in Göttingen, at first only for the students of the new university, but one year later for all the interested citizens. But it took until 1787 that the first Catholic church, Saint Michael, was built since the Reformation. In 1929 a second Catholic church, Saint Paul, was erected. Today, the major religions are Lutheran and Catholicism. Also, there has been a Baptist congregation since 1894, a Mennonite congregation since 1946, as well as a congregation of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints. The existence of a Jewish community is documented since the 16th century During the Third Reich, the synagogue was destroyed in the Reichsprogromnacht on November 9, 1938, as were many others throughout Germany. The Jewish community was persecuted, and many of its members met their deaths in the concentration camps. In recent years, the Jewish community flourishes once again, with the immigration of Jewish people from the states of the former Soviet Union. Finally, there are many Islamic congregations. Islam gained a foothold in Göttingen, as it did in other German cities, with the immigration of Turkish workers during the Wirtschaftswunder in the 1960s and 1970s. They are the majority of Muslims in Göttingen. Other Muslims are of Arabic origin or come from Pakistan and India. There exists a representative mosque in the city district of Grone. There is a secular trend in Germany, especially in eastern Germany, but also in the west, where a growing number of people are not baptised or leave the church. This trend was especially noticeable in the last decade of the passed century. Nowadays the situation has stabilised for larger churches, though.

Politics

A town council with 24 councillors dates from the 12th century. In 1319 this council took control of the new city district (Neustadt) just in front of the wall. The council election took place on the Mondays following Michaelmas (September 29). Starting in 1611 all citizens could elect the 24 counsellors. Previously this right was restricted and depended on income and profession. Afterwards, the council elected the Bürgermeister (mayor). In 1669 the number of councillors was reduced to 16, and later to 12. In 1690 the city administration was reorganised again. Then the council consisted of the judge, two mayors, the city lawyer (Syndikus), the secretary and eight councillors. All of these were appointed by the government. During the Napoleonic era the mayor was called Maire, and there was also a city council. In 1831 there was another reform of the constitution and the administration. The title of the mayor changed to Oberbürgermeister. In the following decades there were more reforms to the city administration, which reflected the constitutional and territorial reorganisations of Germany. During the Third Reich the mayor was appointed by the NSDAP. In 1946 the authorities of the British Occupation Zone, to which Göttingen then belonged, introduced a communal constitution which reflected the British model.

Coat of Arms

The Coat of Arms of Göttingen shows in the top half three silver towers with red roofs on a field of blue. The lateral towers possess four windows each and are crowned by golden crosses. Around the central towers there are four silver balls. The city towers represent the status as city which is imbued with certain rights. In the bottom field there is a golden lion on a red field. This lion represents the lion of the Welf dynasty, which in its various branches ruled the area of Göttingen for 850 years. This Coat of Arms is documented for the first time in 1278. In some occasions the city used a more simple coat of arms. This was a black mayuscule "G" on a golden field. On top of the letter was a crown.

Twinnings

The town has been twinned with Cheltenham in England since 1951, with Torun in Poland since 1978, with Pau in France since 1962 and with Wittenberg in Saxony-Anhalt since 1988. There has been a solidarity agreement with La Paz Centro in Nicaragua since 1989 which has as of now not yet lead to a formal twinning agreement.

People born in Göttingen

- Heinrich Ewald
- Hans-Jochen Vogel
- Bernhard Vogel
- Herbert Grönemeyer
- Gundula Krause
- Sandra Nasic

Sports

Göttingen has:
- a cricket club
- [http://www.bowlingcentergoettingen.de/ bowling alley]
- [http://www.golf.uni-goettingen.de/ driving range]

- at least two skittles alleys.
- [http://www.badeparadies.de/anzeige.html indoor swimming complex] and a number of outdoor pools. cricket club

Universities and colleges

- Georg August University of Göttingen, http://www.uni-goettingen.de/
- Private Fachhochschule Göttingen, http://www.pfh-goettingen.de/
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts, http://www.fh-goettingen.de

External links

- City's own website, http://www.eng.goettingen.de/ (English) or http://www.goettingen.de/ (German)
- [http://www.goest.de/ Events and Nightlife Calendar for Göttingen]
- [http://www.goecam.de/ Webcams in Göttingen] Category:Cities in Germany Category:Towns in Lower Saxony Category:University towns ko:괴팅겐 ja:ゲッティンゲン nb:Göttingen

Medicine

Medicine is a branch of health science concerned with maintaining human health and restoring it by treating disease and injury; it is both an area of knowledge, a science of body systems and diseases and their treatment, and the applied practice of that knowledge. The practice of medical care is shared between the medical profession—physicians or doctors—and other groups of professionals, such as nurses or pharmacists (sometimes called allied health professions). Historically, only members of the medical profession proper have been considered to actually practice medicine in the strictest sense, in contrast to the allied fields of health care professionals. Clinicians can be physicians, nurses, or physician assistants -- those who provide health care or otherwise tend to their patients. The medical profession is the social and occupational structure of the group of people formally trained and authorized to apply medical knowledge. Many countries and legal jurisdictions have legal limitations on who may practice medicine or the allied medical fields. Medicine is typically seen as composed of various specialized sub-branches, such as pediatrics, gynecology, neurology, dealing with particular body systems, diseases, or areas of health. Systems of medical and healthcare practices have existed among human societies since at least the dawn of recorded history. These systems have developed in various ways in different cultures and regions. Medicine as understood in the modern period has historically been considered to be the mainstream tradition which developed in the Western world since the early modern age. Many other traditions of medicine and healthcare are still widely practiced throughout the world, most of which are still considered to be separate and distinct from Western medicine, also called biomedicine or the Hippocratic tradition. The most highly developed systems of medicine outside the Western system are the Ayurvedic tradition of India and traditional Chinese medicine. Various non-mainstream traditions of health care have also developed in the Western world distinct from mainstream medicine. The various other systems practiced among various cultures are sometimes practiced alongside or in cooperation with Western medicine, while sometimes being seen as competing traditions. Medicine is also often used amongst medical professionals as shorthand for Internal Medicine. Veterinary medicine is the practice of health care specialized for other animal species.

History of medicine

Medicine as it is practiced now is rooted in various traditions, but developed mainly in the late 18th and early 19th century in Germany (Rudolf Virchow) and France (Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard and others). The new, "scientific" medicine replaced earlier Western traditions of medicine, mostly based on the "four humours" and other pre-modern theories. The focal points of development of clinical medicine shifted to the United Kingdom and the USA by the early 1900s (Sir William Osler, Harvey Cushing). Evidence-based medicine is the recent movement to link the practice and the science of medicine more closely through the use of the scientific method and modern information science. Genomics and knowledge of human genetics is already having a large influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology and genetics are influencing medical practice and decision-making.

Practice of medicine

The practice of medicine combines both science and art. Science and technology are the evidence base for many clinical problems for the general population at large. The art of medicine is the application of this medical knowledge in combination with intuition and clinical judgment to determine the proper diagnoses and treatment plan for this unique patient and to treat the patient accordingly. Central to medicine is the patient-doctor relationship established when a person with a health concern or problem seeks the help of a physician (i.e. the medical encounter). Other health professionals similarly establish a relationship with a patient and may perform interventions from their perspective, e.g. nurses, radiographers and therapists. As part of the medical encounter, the doctor needs to:
- develop a relationship with the patient
- gather data (medical history and physical examination combined with laboratory or imaging studies)
- analyze and synthesize that data (assessment and/or differential diagnosis), and then
- develop a treatment plan (further testing, therapy, watchful observation, referral and follow-up)
- treat the patient accordingly
- assess the progress of treatment and alter the plan as necessary. The medical encounter is documented in a medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. One method that is used is called the problem-oriented medical record (POMR), which includes a problem list of diagnoses and a "SOAP" method of documentation for each visit:
- S - Subjective, the medical history of the problem from the point-of-view of the patient.
- O - Objective, the physical examination and any laboratory or imaging studies.
- A - Assessment, is the medical decision-making process including the differential diagnoses and most probable diagnoses.
- P - Plan, the way resolve the problem and monitor progress

Medical systems

Medicine is practiced within the medical system of a particular culture or government. Leaving aside tribal cultures, the most significant divide in developed countries is that between universal health care and the market based health care (such as practiced in the U.S.).

Patient-doctor relationship

The doctor-patient relationship and interaction is a central process in the practice of medicine. There are many perspectives from which to understand and describe it. An idealized physician's perspective, such as is taught in medical school, sees the core aspects of the process as the physician learning from the patient his symptoms, concerns and values; in response the physician examines the patient, interprets the symptoms, and formulates a diagnosis to explain the symptoms and their cause to the patient and to propose a treatment. In more detail, the patient presents a set of complaints or concerns about his health to the doctor, who then obtains further information about the patient's symptoms, previous state of health, living conditions, and so forth, and then formulates a diagnosis and enlists the patient's agreement to a treatment plan. Importantly, during this process the doctor educates the patient about the causes, progression, outcomes, and possible treatments of his ailments, as well as often providing advice for maintaining health. This teaching relationship is the basis of calling the physician doctor, which originally meant "teacher" in Latin. The patient-doctor relationship is additionally complicated by the patient's suffering (patient derives from the Latin patiens, "suffering") and limited ability to relieve it on his own. The doctor's expertise comes from his knowledge about, or experience with, other people who have suffered similar symptoms, and his presumed ability to relieve it with medicines or other therapies about which the patient may initially have little knowledge. The doctor-patient relationship can be analyzed from the perspective of ethical concerns, in terms of how well the goals of non-maleficence, beneficence, autonomy, and justice are achieved. Many other values and ethical issues can be added to these. In different societies, periods, and cultures, different values may be assigned different priorities. For example, in the last 30 years medical care in the Western World has increasingly emphasized patient autonomy in decision making. The relationship and process can also be analyzed in terms of social power relationships (e.g., by Michel Foucault), or economic transactions. Physicians have been accorded gradually higher status and respect over the last century, and they have been entrusted with control of access to prescription medicines as a public health measure. This represents a concentration of power and carries both advantages and disadvantages to particular kinds of patients with particular kinds of conditions. A further twist has occurred in the last 25 years as costs of medical care have risen, and a third party (an insurance company or government agency) now often insists upon a share of decision-making power for a variety of reasons, reducing freedom of choice of both doctors and patients in many ways. The quality of the patient-doctor relationship is important to both parties. The better the relationship in terms of mutual respect, knowledge, trust, shared values and perspectives about disease and life, and time available, the better will be the amount and quality of information about the patient's disease transferred in both directions, enhancing accuracy of diagnosis and increasing the patient's knowledge about the disease. In some settings, e.g. the hospital ward, the patient-doctor relationship is much more complex, and many other people are involved when somebody is ill: relatives, neighbors, rescue specialists, nurses, technical personnel, social workers and others.

Clinical skills

Main articles: Medical history, Physical examination. A complete medical evaluation includes a medical history, a physical examination, appropriate laboratory or imaging studies, analysis of data and medical decision making to obtain diagnoses, and treatment plan. The components of the medical history are:
- Chief complaint (CC) - the reason for the current medical visit.
- History of present illness (HPI) - the chronological order of events of symptoms. A mnemonic PQRST is sometimes helpful in obtaining the history:
- Provocative-palliative factors - what makes a symptom worse or better.
- Quality - description of the symptom
- Region - which part of the body is affected
- Severity - what is the intensity of the symptom; using a scale of 0-10 (10 worst)
- Timing - what is the course of the symptom
- Current activity - occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does.
- Medications - what drugs including OTCs, and home remedies, as well as herbal remedies such as St. John's Wort. Allergies are recorded.
- Past medical history (PMH/PMHx) - other medical diagnoses, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases and/or vaccinations, history of known allergies.
- Review of systems (ROS) - an outline of additional symptoms to ask which may be missed on HPI, generally following the body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc).
- Social history (SH) - birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, alcohol).
- Family history (FH) - listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A family tree is sometimes used. The physical examination is the examination of the patient looking for signs of disease. The doctor uses his senses of sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (taste has been made redundant by the availability of modern lab tests). Four chief methods are used: inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation; smelling may be useful (e.g. infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). The clinical examination involves study of:
- Vital signs include height, weight, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration rate, hemoglobin oxygen saturation
- General appearance of the patient
- Skin
- Head, eye, ear, nose, and throat (HEENT)
- Cardiovascular - heart and blood vessels
- Respiratory - lungs
- Abdomen and rectosigmoid
- Genitalia
- Spine and extremities - musculoskeletal
- Neurological and psychiatric Laboratory and imaging studies results may be obtained, if ncessary. The medical decision-making (MDM) process involves analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem. The treatment plan may include ordering additional laboratory tests and studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-up may be advised. This process is used by primary care providers as well as specialists. It may take only a few minutes if the problem is simple and straightforward. On the other hand, it may take weeks in a patient who has been hospitalized with multi-system problems, with involvement by several specialists. On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations.

Settings where medical care is delivered

See also clinic, hospital, and hospice Medicine is a diverse field and the provision of medical care is therefore provided in a variety of locations. Primary care medical services are provided by physicians or other health professionals who has first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. These occur in physician's office, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sex. Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency rooms, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting. Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc. Modern medical care also depends on information - still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means.

Branches of medicine

Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Some examples include: nurses, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, physiotherapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, dietitians and bioengineers. The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry and psychology, while separate disciplines from medicine, are sometimes also considered medical fields. Physician assistants, nurse practitioners and midwives treat patients and prescribe medication in many legal jurisdictions. Veterinary medicine applies similar techniques to the care of animals. Medical doctors have many specializations and subspecializations which are listed below.

Basic sciences

- Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures.
- Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components.
- Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine.
- Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells.
- Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms.
- Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.
- Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance.
- Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.
- Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in human, for example.
- Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
- Neuroscience is a comprehensive term for those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain.
- Nutrition is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition and neoplastic diseases.
- Pathology is the study of disease - the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof.
- Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions.
- Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.
- Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons.

Diagnostic specialties

- Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services which apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States these services are supervised by a Pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff, each of whom usually hold a medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services.
- Transfusion medicine is concerned with the transfusion of blood and blood component, including the maintenance of a "blood bank".
- Cellular pathology is concerned with diagnosis using samples from patients taken as tissues and cells using histology and cytology.
- Clinical chemistry is concerned with diagnosis by making biochemical analysis of blood, body fluids and tissues.
- Hematology is concerned with diagnosis by looking at changes in the cellular composition of the blood and bone marrow as well as the coagulation system in the blood.
- Clinical microbiology is concerned with the in vitro diagnosis of diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
- Clinical immunology is concerned with disorders of the immune system and related body defenses. It also deals with diagnosis of allergy.
- Radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body, e.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography.
- Interventional radiology is concerned with using imaging of the human body, usually from CT, ultrasound, or fluoroscopy, to do biopsies, place certain tubes, and perform intravascular procedures.
- Nuclear Medicine uses radioactive substances for in vivo and in vitro diagnosis using either imaging of the location of radioactive substances placed into a patient, or using in vitro diagnostic tests utilizing radioactive substances.

Clinical disciplines

- Anesthesiology (AE), Anaesthesia (BE), is the clinical discipline concerned with providing anesthesia. Pain medicine is often practiced by specialised anesthesiologists.
- Dermatology is concerned with the skin and its diseases.
- Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.
- General practice, Family practice, family medicine or primary care is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. Family doctors are usually able to treat over 90% of all complaints without referring to specialists.
- Hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Doctors whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists.
- Internal medicine is concerned with systemic diseases of adults, i.e. those diseases that affect the body as a whole , (restrictive ,current meaning) or with all adult non-operative somatic medicine (traditional , inclusive meaning) , thus excluding pediatrics , surgery , gynaecology & obstetrics and psychiatry. There are several subdisciplines of internal medicine:
- Cardiology is concerned with the heart and cardiovascular system and their diseases.
- Critical care medicine is concerned with the therapy of patients with serious and life-threatening disease o