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Macrouridae

Macrouridae

Many; see text. Grenadiers or rattails (less commonly whiptails) are generally large, brown to black gadiform marine fish of the family Macrouridae. Found at great depths from the Arctic to Antarctic, members of this family are among the most abundant of the deep-sea fishes. Grenadiers are perhaps best known for their cameo in the blockbuster film Titanic, where the fish are glimpsed during ROV reconnaissance of the wreck. The Macrouridae are a large and diverse family with some 34 genera and 383 species recognized. They range in length from approximately 10 centimetres in the graceful grenadier (Hymenocephalus gracilis) to 1.5 metres in the giant grenadier (Albatrossia pectoralis). An important commercial fishery exists for the larger species, such as the giant grenadier and roundnose grenadier (Coryphaenoides rupestris). The family as a whole may represent up to 15 per cent of the deep-sea fish population. Typified by large heads with large mouths and eyes, grenadiers have slender bodies that taper greatly to a very thin caudal peduncle or tail (excluding one species, there is no tail fin): this rat-like tail explains the common name rattail and the family name Macrouridae, from the Greek makros meaning "great" and oura meaning "tail". The first dorsal fin is small, high and pointed (and may be spinous); the second dorsal fin runs along the rest of the back and merges with the tail and extensive anal fin. The scales are small. Greek As with many deep-living fish, the lateral line system in grenadiers is well-developed; it is further aided by numerous chemoreceptors located on the head and lips, and chemosensory barbels underneath the chin. Benthic species have gas bladders with unique muscles attached to them. The animals are thought to use these muscles to "strum" their gas bladders and produce sound, possibly playing a role in courtship and mate location. Light-producing organs called photophores are present in some species; they are located in the middle of the abdomen, just before the anus and underneath the skin. Living at depths from 200 to 6,000 metres, rattails are the most common benthic fish of the deep (however, two genera are known to prefer the midwater). Rattails may be solitary or they may form large schools, as with the roundnose grenadiers. The benthic species are attracted to structural oases, such as hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, and shipwrecks. Rattails are thought to be generalists, feeding on smaller fish, pelagic crustaceans such as shrimp and amphipods, cumaceans and less often cephalopods and lanternfish. As well as being important apex predators in the benthic habitat, some species are also notable as scavengers. As few rattail larvae have been recovered, little is known of their life history. They are known to produce a large number (over 100,000) of tiny (1-2 millimetres in diameter) eggs made buoyant by lipid droplets. The eggs are presumed to float up to the thermocline (the interface between warmer surface waters and cold, deeper waters) where they develop. The juveniles remain in shallower waters, gradually migrating to greater depths with age. Spawning may or may not be tied to the seasons, depending on the species. At least one species (Coryphaenoides armatus) is thought to be semelparous; that is, the adults die after spawning. Non-semelparous species may live to 56 years or more. The Macrouridae in general are thought to have low resilience; commercially exploited species may be overfished and this could soon lead to a collapse of rattail fisheries. See also: List of fish common names, list of fish families

Family Macrouridae

- Subfamily Bathygadinae
- Genus Bathygadus
- Genus Gadomus
- Subfamily Macrourinae
- Genus Albatrossia
- Genus Asthenomacrurus
- Genus Caelorinchus
- Genus Cetonurichthys
- Genus Cetonurus
- Genus Coryphaenoides
- Genus Cynomacrurus
- Genus Echinomacrurus
- Genus Haplomacrourus
- Genus Hymenocephalus
- Genus Hyomacrurus
- Genus Kumba
- Genus Kuronezumia
- Genus Lepidorhynchus
- Genus Lucigadus
- Genus Macrosmia
- Genus Macrourus
- Genus Malacocephalus
- Genus Mataeocephalus
- Genus Mesobius
- Genus Nezumia
- Genus Odontomacrurus
- Genus Paracetonurus
- Genus Pseudocetonurus
- Genus Pseudonezumia
- Genus Sphagemacrurus
- Genus Trachonurus
- Genus Ventrifossa
- Subfamily Macrouroidinae
- Genus Macrouroides
- Genus Squalogadus
- Subfamily Trachyrincinae
- Genus Idiolophorhynchus
- Genus Trachyrincus

External links

- [http://filaman.uni-kiel.de/Summary/FamilySummary.cfm?ID=185 FishBase entry on Macrouridae] Category:Gadiformes

Gadiform

Euclichthyidae (Eucla cod)
Lotidae
Macrouridae (grenadiers or rattails)
Moridae (morid cods or moras)
Melanonidae (pelagic cods)
Macruronidae (southern hakes)
Bregmacerotidae (codlets)
Muraenolepididae (eel cods)
Phycidae (phycid hakes)
Merlucciidae (merluccid hakes)
Gadidae (true cods) Gadiformes is an order of ray-finned fish, also called the Anacanthini, that includes the cod and its allies. Many major food fish are in this order. Common characteristics include the positioning of the pelvic fins (if present), below or anterior to the pectoral fins. The fins are spineless, and the gas bladder does not have a pneumatic duct.

Reference

- D.M. Cohen, T. Inada, T. Iwamoto and N. Scialabba, FAO species catalogue. Vol. 10. Gadiform fishes of the world (Order Gadiformes). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of cods, hakes, grenadiers and other gadiform fishes known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis 10 (125) (1990)

External link

- [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/OrdersSummary.cfm?order=Gadiformes FishBase page for Gadiformes]

Fish

Conodonta
Hyperoartia
:Petromyzontidae (lampreys)
Pteraspidomorphi (early jawless fish)
Thelodonti
Anaspida
Cephalaspidomorphi (early jawless fish)
:Galeaspida
:Pituriaspida
:Osteostraci
Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
:Placodermi
:Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
:Acanthodii
:Osteichthyes (bony fish)
::Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
::Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)
:::Actinistia (coelacanths)
:::Dipnoi (lungfish)
A fish is a poikilothermic (cold-blooded) water-dwelling vertebrate with gills. There are over 27,000 species of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Taxonomically, fish are a paraphyletic group whose exact relationships are much debated; a common division is into the jawless fish (class Agnatha, 75 species including lampreys and hagfish), the cartilaginous fish (class Chondrichthyes, 800 species including sharks and rays), with the remainder classed as bony fish (class Osteichthyes). Fish come in different sizes, from the 14m (45 ft) whale shark to a 7 mm (just over 1/4 of an inch) long stout infantfish. Many types of aquatic animals named "fish", such as jellyfish and cuttlefish, are not true fish. Other sea dwelling creatures, like dolphins, are actually mammals. Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures to varying degrees. Endothermic teleosts (bony fishes) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes, tunas, and one species of "primitive" mackerel (Gasterochisma melampus). All sharks in the family Lamnidae – shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark – are known to have the capacity for endothermy, and evidence suggests the trait exists in family Alopiidae (thresher sharks). The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to bluefin tuna and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 °C above ambient water temperatures. See also gigantothermy. Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased contractile force of muscles, higher rates of central nervous system processing, and higher rates of digestion.

Fish ecology

Fish can be found in almost all large bodies of water in either salt, brackish, or fresh water, at depths ranging from just below the surface to several thousand meters. However, hyper-saline lakes like the Great Salt Lake do not support fishes. Some species of fish have been specially bred to be kept and displayed in an aquarium, and can survive in the home environment. Catching fish for the purpose of food or sport is known as fishing. The annual yield from all fisheries worldwide is about 100 million tonnes. Overfishing is a threat to many species of fish. On May 15 2003, the journal Nature reported that all large oceanic fish species worldwide had been so systematically over caught that fewer than 10% of 1950 levels remained. [http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030514.wfish1405/BNStory/National/] Particularly imperiled were sharks, Atlantic cod, Bluefin tuna, and Pacific sardines. The authors recommended immediate, drastic cutbacks in fish catches and reservation of ocean habitats worldwide.

Note on usage: "fish" vs. "fishes"

"Fishes" is the proper English plural form of "fish" that biologists use when speaking about two or more fish species, as in "There are over 25,000 fishes in the world" (meaning that there are over 25,000 fish species in the world). When speaking of two or more individual fish organisms, then the word "fish" is used, as in "There are several million fish of the species Gadus morhua" (meaning that G. morhua comprises several million individuals). To see both in action, consider the statement "There are twelve fish in this aquarium, representing five fishes" (meaning that the aquarium contains twelve individuals, some of the same species and some of different species, for a total of five species). The usage of the two words is similar to that of the words "people" and "peoples".

Fish as food

Fishes are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish are often called "fish" when used as food. For more details, see Fish (food). Fish (food)

External links

- [http://www.70south.com/resources/animals/marine/antarcticfish 70South - information on Antarctic fish]
- [http://www.aworldoffish.com A World of Fish] Species information and fish care
- [http://www.fishbase.org Fish database] (FishBase)
- Join Ray Mullet in the [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/nof/fish/ Fish Olympics]!
- Project for children - [http://marine.rutgers.edu/~kils/BASS/mobile/INDEX.HTM build a fish mobile with a behavior]
- [http://www.aquatichouse.com Fish Keeping]
- [http://www.aquaticcommunity.com Site with one of the largest fish databases in the world]
- [http://reelinthefish.net/interviews/jameskoliver.html Reelinthefish.net | Interview with Dr James K. Oliver, Reefbase Scientist]
- [http://fishy.us Fishy.Us]Articles & Particles
- [http://hardrockforums.com/forums Saltwater & Freshwater Forums]
- [http://www.fishfriend.com/ Your Fish Tank's Friend]
- [http://find-a-seafood-recipe.com/ Fish and Seafood Recipes]Cooking With Fish
- [http://www.easyreefer.com/ Reef aquarium community and learning center]
- [http://www.fiberi.de German Educator in Fisheries, Specialist in Fancy Goldfish and Fishhealth, with Forum and large Picture-Gallery]
- [http://www.freeonlinegames.com/play/3019.html]Interesting fish game.
- [http://www.sushifaq.com The Sushi FAQ - (the alt.food.sushi Usenet group FAQ) at SushiFAQ.com]
- [http://sushiotaku.blogspot.com/ The Sushi Otaku Blog] Category:Fisheries science Category:Seafood zh-min-nan:Hî ko:물고기 ms:Ikan ja:魚類 simple:Fish th:ปลา

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean, located mostly in the north polar region, is the smallest of the world's five oceans, and the shallowest. Even though IHO recognizes it as an ocean, oceanographers may call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it as one of the mediterranean seas of the Atlantic Ocean.

Geography

Atlantic Ocean The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,090,000 km² (5,440,000 mi²), slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US. The coastline length is 45,389 km. Nearly landlocked, it is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and a number of islands. It includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea. An underwater ocean ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the Arctic Ocean into two basins: the Eurasian, or Nansen, Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,000 and 15,000 ft) deep, and the North American, or Hyperborean, Basin, which is about 4,000 m deep. The topography of the ocean bottom is marked by fault-block ridges, plains of the abyssal zone, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,407 ft), in part due to the large extent of continental shelf extant on the Eurasian side [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm]. continental shelfs.]] The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the Norwegian Current, which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The East Greenland Current carries the major outflow. Temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes. Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the equator, meeting with warmer air in the middle latitudes and causing rain and snow. Little marine life exists where the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major ports are the Russian cities of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk (Archangel). The Arctic Ocean is important as the shortest air route between the Pacific coast of North America and Europe overflies it. Major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months. Geographic coordinates:

Climate

Arkhangelsk Arkhangelsk Polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow. There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice covers the Arctic Ocean.

Elevation extremes

- lowest point: Fram Basin −4,665 m (according to [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm], the Arctic Ocean's Eurasian Basin deepest point is at −5,450 m (17,881 ft))
- highest point: sea level 0 m

Natural resources

Oil and gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales). The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark. It is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world's oil and gas resources, the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the global energy market. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC]

Natural hazards

Ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost on islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May.

Environment - current issues

Endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack; seasonal hole in ozone layer over the North Pole. Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's albedo, thus possibly affecting global warming. Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh, Arctic Ocean meltwater to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.

Ports and harbors

ocean current patterns Churchill, Manitoba (Canada), Inuvik, (Canada) Prudhoe Bay, (US) Barrow, (US) Pevek, (Russia) Tiksi, (Russia), Dikson (Russia), Dudinka, (Russia), Murmansk (Russia), Arkhangelsk (Russia) Kirkenes, (Norway) Vardø, (Norway)

Transportation - note

Sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and Northern Sea Route (Eurasia) are important seasonal waterways.

Exploration

The first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dogsled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard with air support. See also Northwest Passage, Open Polar Sea.

References

Bibliography:
- Neatby, Leslie H., Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters 1973 ISBN 0821401246
- Ray, L., and Stonehouse, B., eds., The Arctic Ocean 1982 ISBN 0333310179
- Thorén, Ragnar V. A., Picture Atlas of the Arctic 1969 ISBN 0821401246 Based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/arctic.html

External links

- [http://www.arctic-council.org Arctic Council]
- [http://www.northernforum.org The Northern Forum]
- [http://vitalgraphics.grida.no/arcticmap Arctic Environmental Atlas] Interactive map of the Greater Arctic, including shaded relief and bathymetry of the Arctic Ocean.
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov NOAA Arctic Theme Page] Comprehensive Arctic Resource with data, photos, maps, essays on key Arctic issues, and much more.
- [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations
- [http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection] Viewable interdisciplinary, diverse collection of Arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types.
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np.html NOAA North Pole Web Cam] Images from Web Cams deployed in Spring on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean.
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np_weatherdata.html NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data] Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean.
- [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63980,00.html Search for Arctic Life Heats Up by Stephen Leahy] Category:Oceans Category:Seas Category:Arctic zh-min-nan:Pak-ke̍k-iûⁿ ko:북극해 ja:北極海 simple:Arctic Ocean th:มหาสมุทรอาร์กติก

Titanic (1997 film)

Titanic is a 1997 dramatic movie released by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox. The bulk of the plot is set aboard the ill-fated RMS Titanic during her maiden voyage in 1912. The movie won 11 Academy Awards on March 23, 1998 including best picture of 1997. As of 2005, Titanic has the highest box office take in movie history ([http://www.filmsite.org/boxoffice.html unadjusted for inflation]).The 1997 film should not be confused with the Titanic movie made in 1953, or a made-for-television film of the same title that was telecast in 1996.

Making the film

The film was directed by James Cameron and starred Leonardo DiCaprio, Kate Winslet, Billy Zane, Frances Fisher, Kathy Bates, Eric Braeden, David Warner, Danny Nucci, Gloria Stuart, Victor Garber, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Bernard Fox, Ioan Gruffudd, Suzy Amis and Bill Paxton. When this epic disaster film was not finished in time for its scheduled July 1997 release date, it sent shockwaves throughout Hollywood: studio execs began wondering if they might have another Heaven's Gate on their hands. The two releasing studios, 20th Century Fox (which handled the international distribution and actually had movie rights to the Titanic name) and Paramount Pictures (which had the U.S. rights) panicked. By the middle of 1997, Titanic had become the most costly film ever made (its reported cost hovered in the $200 million range) and the bills were still coming in. When director James Cameron finally delivered the film to Paramount, it ran over 3 hours and it was anyone's guess whether he would ever work in Hollywood again. But Cameron stood his ground and threatened edit-happy studio executives with the message: "You will cut my film over my dead body." Moved to a crowded release date of December 19, 1997 (opposite, among other major releases, the James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies), the film opened with little promotion, and returned a relatively weak $28 million in ticket sales on the first weekend. Within a week the gross tripled. By New Year's Day, the film had hit $100 million and showed no sign of slowing down. It held a virtual lock on first place at the box office for nearly four months and would become the (inflation unadjusted) highest grossing film of all-time with more than $1.8 billion in ticket sales worldwide. Adjusted for inflation, it is currently the seventh highest grossing film of all time. Cameron, who fought extremely hard to finish the film, was rewarded with an Academy Award for Best Director.

Plot summary

Tomorrow Never Dies It is 1996, and a treasure hunter and his team explore the wreck of the RMS Titanic in their submersible. A safe is brought to the surface and is opened. It contains, not the fabled treasure the adventurers had hoped for, but only papers. One of them is a nude pencil portrait dated 14 April, 1912, and signed "JD". It shows a beautiful young woman reclining nude with casual modesty on a couch. On a necklace around her neck is the diamond they seek: The Heart of the Ocean. Rose DeWitt Bukater, an ancient but still lively woman of 101 years (based upon the American artist Beatrice Wood), watches a CNN report of the treasure hunt and sees the nude portrait. She phones the treasure hunter Brock Lovett and informs him that she knows of the diamond, the Heart of the Ocean, and also the identity of the beautiful young woman in the portrait: "Oh, yes. The woman in the picture is me." Rose, accompanied by her granddaughter, flies out to the recovery site and proceeds to tell the treasure hunters of her experiences on the Titanic. Rose, just 17 years old in April of 1912, boards the ship with the upper-class passengers with her mother, society matron Ruth DeWitt Bukater; and her fiance, industrialist Caledon Hockley. Rose clearly does not feel very much for Caledon, but her mother pushes for the marriage for financial security, to maintain their current lavish lifestyle and bolster their social cachet among the Philadelphia elite. Meanwhile, a drifter and artist named Jack Dawson wins third-class tickets to the ship in a poker game. Jack Dawson Rose is so unhappy about her forced engagement, as well as her endlessly shallow life, that she attempts to kill herself by jumping off the stern of the ship. Jack sees her and intervenes to prevent her suicide. Rose's company finds the two and Caledon reluctantly invites Jack to dine with their party the following evening in the first-class dining saloon in gratitude. In the meantime, Rose and Jack soon strike up a tentative friendship as he shares tales of his adventures in traveling and she expresses her own hopes, and he shows her his sketchbook of artwork. Their bond deepens when they later ditch the first-class formal dinner party for a much livelier gathering belowdecks in third-class. Jack is clearly falling in love with Rose, but Rose is inclined to ignore their growing affection because of her engagement and their different social standings. But eventually she decides to throw caution to the wind and offer her heart to Jack. Rose asks Jack to sketch her wearing nothing but the Heart of the Ocean diamond, the same portrait the treasure hunters will find 84 years later. They later consummate their relationship in the backseat of a car in one of the ship's cargo holds. In the meantime, Captain Edward J. Smith and his crew have been seemingly ignoring many warnings about upcoming ice fields in the ship's path, and the Titanic maintains the high speed suggested by White Star Line managing director J. Bruce Ismay even as the ship heads into the night. On the night of 14 April 1912, the two lookouts see an iceberg directly in the Titanics path. Despite the many efforts of the crew and engineers, the ship strikes the massive berg, flooding the lower compartments past their "unsinkable" capacity and causing the ship to begin its unstoppable descent to disaster. Caledon discovers the relationship between Jack and Rose and gets even by framing Jack for stealing his diamond. Even though she has the chance to escape the sinking ship early on with her mother, Rose runs away from Caledon — and her chance at getting into a lifeboat — to find Jack. She frees Jack and they try desperately to make their way back above decks to escape the rapidly sinking ship. They find many obstacles, including locked gates that are used to keep the third-class passengers from reaching the upper decks to safety, as well as Caledon's violent temper that forces them back to the lower decks. They finally make their way to the top deck, but the lifeboats are gone and they, along with hundreds of terrified passengers, have no choice but to try to head aft and stay on the ship for as long as possible before the titan sinks completely into the water. The bow of the ship sinks deeper and deeper until the pressure on the hull causes the ship to split completely in half, before the two halves finally go under at 2:20 AM on 15 April. Rose and Jack stick together and wait with the hundreds of other passengers thrashing helplessly in the water, shouting desperately for those in lifeboats to row back and rescue them. By the time one of the officers decides to row back and help those in need, almost all of the passengers have died of hypothermia in the freezing Atlantic. Rose is heartbroken to realize that Jack has succumbed, as well. She bids him goodbye, then manages to get the lifeboat's attention to come back and rescue her. The survivors in the lifeboats wait for hours until the RMS Carpathia, the closest ship to answer and heed the Titanics radio distress signals, arrives to save them. Upon arrival at New York City Rose discovers she still has the Heart of the Ocean tucked into the pocket of Caledon's coat. As an old woman in 1996, Rose now goes onto the deck of the salvage ship and throws the Heart of the Ocean into the ocean where Jack died. Back in Rose's room, the viewer sees pictures of her life's achievements, including a photograph of her riding a horse at the Santa Monica Pier, just as she and Jack had planned to do together. Rose lies in bed nearby, a scene where some fans have debated whether she is asleep or had passed away. Underwater, the Titanic looms out of the darkness and everything turns new again. A steward opens the doors from the promenade deck to the Grand Staircase, where all those who died on the ship smile in greeting. At the top of the staircase, Jack turns and smiles at Rose, a young girl of 17 again, smiling back as he helps her up the last few steps. They kiss as the crowd applauds at the couple.

Criticism and reception

Titanic generally opened to lukewarm reviews. Many reviewers felt the story and dialogue were weak while the visuals were spectacular. Jeff Millar of the Houston Chronicle wrote, "When the ship does hit the berg, at the one-hour-and-45-minute point, we are immediately compensated for the padding in writer-director James Cameron's basic narrative -- a shipboard romance." Titanics cost and size was compared to classic Hollywood epics, Roger Ebert said "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted and spellbinding. If its story stays well within the traditional formulas for (Hollywood epics), well, you don't choose the most expensive film ever made as your opportunity to reinvent the wheel." When the film opened in the U.S. on December 19, Titanic received steady attendance, but by Sunday that weekend theaters were beginning to sell out, with Titanics opening weekend gross totaling $28,638,131. Titanics popularity did not abate and theaters were still being sold out three months after the film’s release. Titanic differs from most films released since the late 1990s in that it took fifteen weeks for its weekly gross to drop by 50%. Typically films drop by about 40% a week. By the end of March, 1998 Titanic had become the first film to earn more than $1 Billion. Many filmgoers saw Titanic multiple times, and the related soundtrack and book became top sellers. Titanic grossed a total of $1,845,034,188 worldwide and is the highest grossing film of all time. When corrected for inflation, the U.S. domestic gross is actually the sixth highest of all time, immediately behind The Ten Commandments. Similar figures for the global box office are not readily available, but the international box office grew in significance for Hollywood movies in the 20 years between Star Wars and Titanic, and it is at least plausible that its worldwide gross of $1.8 billion is the largest all time even if inflation were accounted for. The depiction of First Officer William McMaster Murdoch caused controversy in Murdoch's hometown of Dalbeattie, Scotland. The film depicts the first officer accepting a bribe, shooting two passengers in panic before committing suicide. 20th Century Fox apologized for the depiction and James Cameron donated $8,340 to a memorial fund dedicated to Murdoch.
Soundtrack
:Full article: Titanic soundtrack The soundtrack CD for Titanic was a big seller composed by James Horner and led to the release of a second volume that contained a mixture of previously unreleased soundtrack recordings with newly-recorded performances of some of the songs in the film, including one track recorded by Enya's sister, Máire Brennan.
U.S. awards
Titanic won Oscars in just about every category it was nominated in except for the acting and makeup categories. Titanic was nominated in 14 categories and won 11, being the second movie to win that number (the first was Ben-Hur with The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King matching the record in 2004). It was at the time also the only movie of which both two people playing the same person (Kate Winslet as Rose and Gloria Stuart as Old Rose) were nominated (coincidentally, the second film to be so nominated, Iris, also starred Winslet). # Art direction — Art Direction: Peter Lamont; Set Decoration: Michael Ford # Cinematography — Russell Carpenter # Costume Design — Deborah L. Scott # Direction — James Cameron # Film Editing — Conrad Buff, James Cameron, Richard A. Harris # Music (Original Dramatic Score) — James Horner # Music (Original Song) — "My Heart Will Go On," music by James Horner; lyric by Will Jennings # Best Picture — James Cameron and Jon Landau, Producers # Sound — Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano # Sound Effects Editing — Tom Bellfort, Christopher Boyes # Visual Effects — Robert Legato, Mark Lasoff, Thomas L. Fisher, Michael Kanfer It also received the following nominations: # Best Actress in a Leading Role — Kate Winslet # Best Actress in a Supporting Role — Gloria Stuart # Best Makeup — Tina Earnshaw, Greg Cannom, Simon Thompson
DVD release
Titanic was first released to DVD in North America in 1999 in a widescreen-only single disc edition with no special features. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features at a later date. Six years later, on October 25, 2005, a special edition release finally occurred with a 3-DVD set that included a widescreen-only presentation of the movie divided onto two of the discs, 45 minutes of deleted scenes, an alternate ending, a faux 1912-style newsreel, a crew tribute-cum-gag reel, and other features. The three-disc edition is released by Paramount Pictures, Region 1, for USA and Canada only. An international two and four-disc edition will be released by Twentieth Century Fox, Region 2 (PAL) and Region 4 (NTSC) encoded. The international releases were originally scheduled at the same time as the USA and Canadian release, but was postponed tentatively to November 7, 2005.
Deleted scenes
The 2005 DVD release included about 45 minutes worth of deleted scenes that were cut from the film either for pacing, to shorten the film to a marketable running time, or for reasons James Cameron describes in his commentary as "tonal". Some of the cut sequences are minor additions, while others are major scenes. The public were first made aware of many of these deleted scenes with the publication of Titanic's screenplay in 1998 and a few of them were first shown in a Fox TV special detailing the making of the film, and later Cameron incorporated some of the cut scenes into his Titanic Explorer CD-ROM. Still other scenes involving Jack and Rose passed into near-legend with fans of the romantic subplot of the film wanting to see more of their heroes. The following is a list of 19 of the major deleted scenes included on the DVD release. There were 31 deleted scenes in total: # An extension of Rose unpacking her paintings, in which Cal clearly states that he believes her to be a virgin. The context is in discussing how the beds have never been slept in before. # Prior to her suicide attempt, Rose is shown trying to undress herself but growing violently frustrated when she is unable to do so (due to the nature of high society costuming at the time, servants were required to assist with dressing and undressing). # A lengthy sequence that would have followed Rose being presented with the Heart of the Ocean, starting with a CGI morph of young Rose's hand holding the diamond to a closeup of Old Rose's hand. Old Rose announces that she is tired and needs rest, but Brock wants to continue pumping her for information. Old Rose is adamant and returns to her quarters. Brock is reminded that his sponsors want to pull the plug on the expedition, after which he is confronted by Rose's angry grandaughter, Lizzy. Brock explains his dream of finding the diamond, and shows Lizzy how his hand will look as it holds the diamond. Lizzy asks Brock if he believes Rose was on the Titanic, and he replies "Yeah, I'm a believer". (This dialogue was included in some of the trailers for the film). The cut sequence continues with another CGI morph from the Titanic wreck to Rose walking along the Promenade Deck. She then sneaks through the gate into Third Class and searches for Jack in the Common Area where is he talking with Cora, a young girl. Rose finds Jack and thanks him for saving her life. # A scene that would have followed the above had Jack and Rose discussing her dreams, and she talks about her desire to become a movie actress. To emphasize the point, she vamps for a passenger's movie camera. # After the Third Class party sequence, Jack walks Rose back to the First Class entrance as they sing "Come Josephine in My Flying Machine." Rose says "I don't wanna go back" and the two look at the stars for a few moments, spotting a meteorite cutting across the sky. Jack says everytime you see a shooting star, it's a soul going to heaven. This scene emphasizes the later significance of Rose whispering "Come Josephine" while staring at the sky after Titanic and Jack is lost. # During Rose and Cal's tour of the ship, they also visited the gymnasium, which was recreated faithfully from old photographs. (A later deleted scene shows passengers huddling in the gymnasium while waiting for lifeboats.) # A brief piece of dialogue that reveals Lovejoy is a former cop hired by Cal's father to take care of his son. # After their romp through the boiler room, and prior to the lovemaking scene in the car, Jack and Rose kiss passionately among the boilers. # The Californian tries to warn Titanic about the ice fields, but are rudely cut off by the radio operators on board. The Californian's radio officer gives up and goes to bed. # Right after the collision, there was originally a comedic moment with Molly Brown asking a bartender for "a little ice" as the iceberg passes the window behind her. Historically speaking, this is inaccurate as Brown had actually been reading in her stateroom at the time of the collision; Cameron said he cut the scene as he felt in retrospect that it was inappropriate to include a comical moment at such a crucial point in the film. # Jack and Rose play with the ice that has fallen onto the deck, Jack confident the ship is safe. Rose drops a piece of ice down Jack's shirt. # An historically famous moment in which one of the two Titanic radio operators suggests his colleague use the "new" SOS distress signal. "Might be the only chance you get to use it." # In her lifeboat, Molly Brown teaches some of her fellow passengers how to row. # After Cal realizes he has accidentally given the diamond to Rose, there originally followed a lengthy and suspenseful cat-and-mouse fight sequence between Lovejoy and Jack in the quickly flooding main dining room. This sequence was cut by Cameron after it received unfavorable responses from test audiences. This scene explains why Lovejoy sports a head injury just before his death in the final version of the film. # Cora, the little girl who befriended Jack, is shown drowning with her family, trapped behind a locked Third Class gate. # Captain Smith orders the mostly-empty lifeboats to return to Titanic for more passengers. Aboard Molly Brown's boat, the crewmember in charge refuses, saying it's every man for himself. "The fools," Smith says. # After Jack helps Rose to get on the floating door following Titanic's sinking, another man tries to get on as well, but Jack threatens to kill him if he does as there's only enough room for Rose. Jack is also shown realizing at this point that he is going to die. # An alternate, extended version of the Carpathia rescue sequence that shows additional footage of the survivors, including footage of Second Officer Lightoller and a group of other survivors balancing on the overturned collapsible lifeboat B (based upon historical accounts and a famous sequence from A Night to Remember). # An alternate version of the scene in which Old Rose throws the diamond into the ocean. In the cut version, Old Rose goes to the stern of the ship and looks up at the sky and sees a shooting star (a reference to the earlier "Come Josephine" scene aboard Titanic that was cut). Brock, Lizzy and Lewis notice her and think at first that she's planning to jump. When they realize that she had the diamond all the time, Brock tries to convince her not to throw it away, but she won't be swayed. She does, however, allow him to hold it in his hands - and his hand makes the shape that he showed Lizzy in the earlier scene. Rose then throws the diamond into the water. (This last sequence is not included in the "deleted scenes" section of Disc 3 of the DVD release, but rather is included by itself on Disc 2. It is dubbed an alternate ending, although strictly speaking the sequence in which Old Rose goes to sleep or dies and returns to Titanic and Jack is identical in both versions.) Although he agreed to include these and other scenes (there were 31 in total) on the DVD release, James Cameron has stated that he has no intention of reintegrating any of these sequences into the movie (unlike what he did with his earlier films Terminator 2: Judgement Day and Aliens which were released in extended versions with deleted scenes reinstated).
Notes
# Millar, Jeff: [http://www.chron.com/cgi-bin/auth/story/content/chronicle/ae/movies/reviews/1219titanic.html “Jaw-dropping spectacle fills 'Titanic'”], Houston Chronicle, December 16, 1997. # Ebert, Roger: [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19971219/REVIEWS/712190303/1023 “Titanic”], Roger Ebert.com, December 19, 1997. # # Smith, Helen: [http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic%20memorial%20william%20murdoch.shtml “’Titanic’ Makers Apologize to Hero’s Hometown”], Reuters. #
Reference

-
External links

- [http://www.titanicmovie.com/ Titanic official website]
-
- [http://www.moviemistakes.com/film1299 Titanic at Moviemistakes.com]
- [http://csmonitor.com/cgi-bin/durableRedirect.pl?/durable/1998/03/06/feat/feat.1.html Girl Power At the Movies] Category:1997 films Category:Films based on actual events Category:Historically inaccurate films Category:Disaster movies Category:Action films Category:Drama films Category:Romance films Category:American films Category:Best Picture Oscar Category:Best Actress Oscar Nominee (film) Category:Best Song Oscar Category:Best Song Oscar Nominee Category:RMS Titanic Category:Films directed by James Cameron Category:Films shot in Mexico ko:타이타닉 (1997) ja:タイタニック (映画)

Greek language

Greek (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – "Hellenic") is an Indo-European language with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, it is spoken by 15 million people in Greece, Cyprus, the former Yugoslavia, particularly The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Turkey. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world, such as those in Melbourne, Australia which is the third-largest Greek-populated city in the world, after Athens and Thessaloniki. Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet, the first true alphabet, since the 9th century B.C. and before that, in Linear B and the Cypriot syllabaries. Greek literature has a long and rich tradition.

History

This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on Proto-Greek language. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since the 2nd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of this is found in the Linear B tablets dating from 1500 BC. The later Greek alphabet (q.v.) is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the Phoenician alphabet (abjad); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods:
- Mycenean Greek: the language of the Mycenean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 16th century BC onwards.
- Classical Greek (also known as Ancient Greek): In its various dialects was the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained known in the Byzantine world, and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to Italy.
- Hellenistic Greek (also known as Koine Greek): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with Attic (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great, but after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of Christianity, as the Apostles used it to preach in Greece and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the Alexandrian dialect, Post-Classical Greek or even New Testament Greek (after its most famous work of literature).
- Medieval Greek: The continuation of Hellenistic Greek during medieval Greek history as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the Byzantine Empire, and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the 15th century. Also known as Byzantine Greek.
- Modern Greek: Stemming independently from Koine Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the late Byzantine period (as early as 11th century). Two main forms of the language have been in use since the end of the medieval Greek period: Dhimotikí (Δημοτική), the Demotic (vernacular) language, and Katharévousa (Καθαρεύουσα), an imitation of classical Greek, which was used for literary, juridic, and scientific purposes during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Demotic Greek is now the official language of the modern Greek state, and the most widely spoken by Greeks today. It has been claimed that an "educated" speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē , the version of Greek used to write the New Testament and the Septuagint, is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers. Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: astronomy, democracy, philosophy, thespian, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, isomer, biomechanics etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary. See English words of Greek origin, and List of Greek words with English derivatives.

Classification

Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, Ancient Macedonian language (which may be regarded as a dialect of Greek) and Phrygian, are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, Armenian seems to be the most closely related to it.

Geographic distribution

Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in Greece and Cyprus. There are also Greek-speaking populations in Georgia, Ukraine, Egypt, Turkey, Albania, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Southern Italy. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including Armenia, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States.

Official status

Greek is the official language of Greece where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside Turkish, the official language of Cyprus. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus, Greek is one of the 20 official languages of the European Union.

Phonology

This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. :All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet

Vowel sounds

Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic:

Lateral line

In fish, the lateral line is a sense organ used to detect movement in the surrounding water, making so-called "lateral echolocation" possible. Lateral lines are usually visible as faint lines running lengthwise down each side, from the vicinity of the gill covers to the base of the tail. Sometimes parts of the lateral organ are modified into electroreceptors, organs used to detect electrical impulses. It is possible vertebrates like sharks can use these organs to detect magnetic fields as well. Most amphibian larvae and some adults still have a lateral organ. The receptors in the line, known as neuromasts, each consist of a group of hair cells, whose hairs are surrounded by a protruding jelly-like cupula, typically 1/10 to 1/5 mm long. The neuromasts are usually at the bottom of a pit or groove, which is large enough to be visible. Teleosts and elasmobranchs usually have lateral-line canals, in which the neuromasts are not directly exposed to the environment, but communicate with it via canal pores. Additional neuromasts may appear individually at various locations on the body surface. The hair cells in the lateral line are similar to the hair cells inside the vertebrate inner ear, indicating that the lateral line and the inner ear share a common origin. The development of the lateral-line system depends on the fish's mode of life. For instance, active swimming types tend to have more neuromasts in canals than on the surface, and the line will be further away from pectoral fins, presumably to reduce the "noise" generated by fin motion. Uses of the lateral-line system include collision avoidance, orientation relative to water currents, and predation. For instance, blind cavefish have rows of neuromasts on their heads, which could be used to precisely locate food without the use of sight, and killifish can sense ripples caused by insects struggling on the surface of the water. Experiments with pollack have shown that the lateral line is also an key enabler for schooling behavior. Some crustaceans and cephalopods have similar organs. See also: fish hearing

References

- A.N. Popper and C. Platt, "Inner ear and lateral line", in The Physiology of Fishes, 1st ed. (CRC Press, 1993)
- N.A.M. Schellart and R.J. Wubbels, "The auditory and mechanosensory lateral line system", in The Physiology of Fishes, 2nd ed. (CRC Press, 1998) Category:Ichthyology

Barbel

:This article is about fish. Barbel can also refer to the USS Barbel (SS-316), the USS Barbel (SS-580), or the entire Barbel class of submarines. Barbel class Barbel class A barbel on a fish is a slender, whiskerlike tactile organ near the mouth. Fish that have barbels include the catfish, the carp, the goatfish and some species of shark. They house the taste buds of such fish and are used to search for food in murky water. Barbels are often erroneously referred to as 'barbs', which are found in bird feathers for flight. Barbel is also the name of approximately 50 species of fresh-water fish, members of the carp family, in Europe. The English species, Barbus Barbus, is revered by sport fishermen. It is a large, powerful fish that requires clean, fast-flowing water. In the UK it reaches a size of up to 19lb, with anything of more than 7lb considered to be of specimen size. Famous barbel rivers include the Hampshire Avon, the Kennet, the Great Ouse and more recently the Severn, where the barbel was not native but has thrived after its introduction. Category:Cypriniformes

Photophore

A photophore is a light-emitting organ which appears as luminous spots on various marine animals, including fishes and cephalopods. The organ can be simple, or as complex as the human eye; eqipped with lenses, shutters, color filters and reflectors [http://tolweb.org/accessory/Cephalopod_Photophore_Terminology?acc_id=2015]. The light can be produced from compounds during the digestion of prey, from specialized mitochondrial cells in the organism, called photocytes ("light producing" cells) from the nomenclature of ichthyology, or, similarly, associated with symbiotic bacteria in the organism that is cultured. The character of photophores is important in the identification of benthic fishes. In medicine, the photophore is an instrument (a type of endoscope) used to observe internal organs and tissues. Compare: chemoluminescence, bioluminescence, biophoton

Reference

#[http://tolweb.org/accessory/Cephalopod_Photophore_Terminology?acc_id=2015 Photo, diagram and description of a cephalopod photophore]

Hydrothermal vent

A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are commonly found in places that are also volcanically active, where hot magma is relatively near the planet's surface. Hydrothermal vents are abundant on Earth because it is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface. Common land types include hot springs, fumaroles and geysers. The most famous hydrothermal vent system is probably Yellowstone National Park in the United States. In 1949 a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portions of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C, saline brines and associated metaliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift. The highly saline character of the waters were not hospitable to living organisms. The brines and associated muds are currently under investigation as a source of mineable precious and base metals. Submarine hydrothermal vents (black smokers) were discovered along the East Pacific Rise in 1977. Despite their inaccessible location on ocean floors, many have been thoroughly mapped and explored. Relative to the majority of the deep sea, the areas around hydrothermal vents are biologically productive, often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids. Chemosynthetic archaea form the base of the food chain, supporting diverse organisms, including giant tube worms, clams, and shrimp. The water that issues from hydrothermal vents consists mostly of ground water that has percolated down into hot regions from the surface, but it also commonly contains some portion of primordial water that originated deep underground and is only now surfacing for the first time. The proportion varies from location to location. Hydrothermal vents have been speculated to exist on Mars, and are believed to exist on Jupiter's moon Europa.

References

- Degens, Egon T. (ed.), 1969, Hot Brines and Recent Heavy Metal Deposits in the Red Sea, 600 pp, Springer-Verlag.
- Glyn Ford and Jonathan Simnett, Silver from the Sea, September/October 1982, Volume 33, Number 5, Saudi Aramco World, http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198205/silver.from.the.sea.htm Accessed 17 October 2005

External link

- [http://www.washington.edu/newsroom/news/2000archive/12-00archive/k121200.html A new type of hydrothermal vent]
- [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/chemistry/circulation.html Vent geochemistry]
- http://www.oceansonline.com/hydrothe.htm Category:Geology
- Category:Economic geology

Cold seep

A cold seep (sometimes called a cold vent) is an area of the ocean floor where hydrogen sulfide, methane and other hydrocarbon-rich fluid seepage occurs. Cold seeps are distinct from hydrothermal vents: the former's emissions are of the same temperature as the surrounding seawater, whereas the latter's emissions are super-heated. Cold seeps constitute a biome supporting several endemic species. Entire communities of light independent organisms - known as extremophiles - develop in and around cold seeps, most relying on a symbiotic relationship with chemoautotrophic bacteria. These bacteria, both archaea and eubacteria, process sulfides and methane through chemosynthesis into chemical energy. Higher organisms, namely vesicomyid clams and vestimentiferan tubeworms use this energy to power their own life processes, and in exchange provide both safety and a reliable source of food for the bacteria. Other bacteria form mats, blanketing sizable areas in the process. tubeworm Unlike hydrothermal vents, which are volatile and ephemeral environments, cold seeps emit at a slow and dependable rate. Likely owing to the differing temperatures and stability, cold seep organisms are much longer-lived than those inhabiting hydrothermal vents. Indeed, recent research has revealed seep tubeworms to be the longest living noncolonial invertebrates known, with a minimum lifespan of between 170 and 250 years. Cold seeps were first discovered in 1984 by Dr. Charles Paull in the Monterey Canyon, just off Monterey Bay, California, at a depth of 3,200 metres. Since then, seeps have been discovered in other parts of the world's oceans, including the Gulf of Mexico, the Sea of Japan, and in waters off the coast of Alaska. The deepest seep community known is distributed between the Kuril and Japan trenches and the Kashima seamount in the Sea of Japan, at a depth of 5,000 to 6,500 metres.
Cold seeps develop unique topography over time, where reactions between methane and seawater create carbonate rock formations and reefs. These reactions may also be dependent on bacterial activity.

External links

- [http://people.whitman.edu/~yancey/califseeps.html Paul Yancy's vents and seeps page]
- [http://www.mbari.org/benthic/coldseeps.htm Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute's seeps page]
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/02/000203075002.htm ScienceDaily News: Tubeworms in deep sea discovered to have record long life spans] Category:Hydrothermal vents Category:Geology

Crustacea

Class Branchiopoda :Subclass Phyllopoda :Subclass Sarsostraca Class Remipedia :Order Enantiopoda :Order Nectiopoda Class Cephalocarida :Order Brachypoda Class Maxillopoda :Subclass Mystacocarida :Subclass Copepoda :Subclass Branchiura :Subclass Pentastomida :Subclass Tantulocarida :Subclass Thecostraca ::Infraclass Cirripedia Class Ostracoda :Order Metacopina :Subclass Myodocopa :Subclass Podocopa Class Malacostraca :Subclass Eumalacostraca :Subclass Hoplocarida :Subclass Phyllocarida The crustaceans (Crustacea) are a large group of arthropods (55,000 species), usually treated as a subphylum. They include various familiar animals, such as lobsters, crabs, shrimp and barnacles. They are variously found in marine and freshwater, with a few terrestrial members (such as woodlice). The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology.

Structure of crustaceans

Crustaceans have three distinct body parts: head, thorax, and abdomen (or pleon), although the head and thorax may fuse to form a cephalothorax. They have two pairs of antennae on the head, compound eyes, three pairs of mouthparts and a telson. Smaller crustaceans respire through their body surface by diffusion and larger crustaceans respire with gills. Crustaceans typically have a thick carapace on the dorsal side of their body. Their appendages are typically biramous, including the second pair of antennae (but not the first).

Reproduction

Most crustaceans have separate sexes and are distinguished by appendages on the abdomen called swimmerets or, more technically, pleopods. The first (and sometimes the second) pair of pleopods are larger on the male than on the female. Terrestrial crabs (such as the Christmas Island red crab) mate seasonally and return to the sea to release the eggs. Crabs' eggs are retained by the females until they hatch into free-swimming larvae.

Taxonomy

The formal classification of crustaceans varies somewhat. In general, because of the large number of species, taxonomists have made extensive use of subordinate taxonomic categories (suborders, superfamilies and so forth), and the status of different groupings is frequently controversial; this can make taxonomic references hard to follow. Evolutionary relationships between the different groups are not entirely clear, making the exact definition of larger groups difficult. Some authorities have treated the entire group of crustaceans as a class, in which case the classes escribed in the taxonomic table are treated as subclasses. Other authors omit some or all of the classes listed here, in which case some of the groups given here as subclasses are promoted to full class rank. This listings given at the end of this article and in the summary table at the right are those recommended by ITIS, and as such probably represent a consensus of modern opinion. However, good practice in describing crustaceans must clearly be to include descriptions at several taxonomic levels, to ensure that readers can link the information to others' schemes. Less formally, we can state that the most important groups of crustaceans are barnacles (infraclass Cirripedia), branchiopods, copepods and Malacostraca (crabs, lobsters, shrimps and krill). There are around 1,220 barnacle species, 1,000 branchiopods, 13,000 copepods, and 30,000 Malacostraca.

Geological history

Although crustaceans are rarer as fossils than trilobites are, a number of different types of crustaceans are common in the rocks of the Cretaceous period as well as those of the Caenozoic era. Most of the smaller crustaceans, such as shrimp, have an exoskeleton which is somewhat delicate and for this reason their fossil record is incomplete. However, crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters have a thicker exoskeleton which is reinforced with calcium carbonate and so their fossil record is much better. The fossil record of barnacles is scarce and little is known of their history prior to the Mesozoic era. Well preserved specimens are known from the rocks of the Cretaceous period and the Caenozoic era. The most well known crustaceans, the malacostraca (crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp), although widespread today are only found sporadically as fossils. Most of the known fossil crabs are of forms which lived on the sea-floor or in a reef environment. In rocks such as the Gault clay from the Cretaceous period and the London clay from the Eocene period in England fossil crabs may be found. The 'Lobster Bed' of the Greensand formation from the Cretaceous period which occurs at Atherfield on the Isle of Wight in England contains many well preserved examples of the small glypheoid lobster Mecochirus magna. The lithographic limestones from the Jurassic period of Solnhofen in Germany have long been famed for the many exceptionally preserved crab, lobster and shrimp fossils they have yielded (such as Aeger, Eryon, and Pseudastacus).

External links

- [http://www.itis.usda.gov/ ITIS Taxonomy] Taxonomic Serial No.: 83677
- [http://www.crustacea.net Crustacea.net, an online resource on the biology of crustaceans]
- [http://www.microscope-microscope.org/applications/pond-critters/animals/cyclops.htm Cyclops, fresh water crustacean (copepod)]
- [http://www.nhm.org/research/publications/CrustaceaClassification.pdf An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea.] Martin, J. W. & Davis, G. E., 2001. 132 pg. pdf file. Category:Crustaceans ja:甲殻類

Amphipod

:Gammaridea :Caprellidea :Hyperiidea :Ingolfiellidea Amphipoda (amphipods) include over 7000 described species of small, shrimp-like crustaceans. Most amphipods are marine, although a few live in freshwater or are terrestrial. One species common to mid-Atlantic and estuarine waters is Jassa falcata. Gammaracanthuskytodermogammarus loricatobaicalensis claims to be the longest binomial name. It was proposed by B. Dybowski for an amphipod from Lake Baikal; it was later invalidated by the ICZN.

External links

- [http://www.crustacea.net/crustace/amphipoda/index.htm Amphipoda page at www.crustacea.net] includes a list of families
- [http://www.imv.uit.no/amphipod/index.html The Amphipod Home Page] ICZN Category:Amphipods

Cephalopod

Sepiida
Sepiolida
Spirulida
Teuthida

Octopoda
Vampyromorphida

Nautilida The Cephalopods ("head-foot") are the mollusk class Cephalopoda characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, and a modification of the mollusk foot, a muscular hydrostat, into the form of arms or tentacles. Teuthology, a branch of malacology, is the study of cephalopods and teuthologists are the scientists who study them. The class contains two extant subclasses. In the Coleoidea, the mollusk shell has been internalized or is absent; this subclass includes the octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish. In the Nautiloidea the shell remains; this subclass includes the nautilus. There are around 786 distinct living species of Cephalopods. Two important extinct subclasses are Ammonoidea, the ammonites and Belemnoidea, the belemnites. Cephalopods are found in all the oceans of the world and at all depths. None of them can tolerate freshwater, but some few species do tolerate more or less brackish water. They are regarded as the most intelligent of the invertebrates and have well developed senses and large brains. With the exception of Nautilus, they have special skin cells called chromatophores that change color and are used for communication and camouflage. The nervous system of cephalopods is the most complex of the invertebrates. The giant nerve fibers of the cephalopod mantle have been a favorite experimental material of neurophysiologists for many years. Many species can see polarization of light. They are probably colorblind, yet they distinguish a vast number of tones. Cephalopods' primary method of movement is by jet propulsion, a very energy-consuming way to travel compared to the tail propulsion used by fish. The relative inefficiency of jet propulsion worsens with larger animals. This is probably the reason why many species prefer to use their fins or arms for locomotion if possible. Oxygenated water is taken into the mantle cavity to the gills and through muscular contraction of this cavity, the spent water is expelled through the hyponome, created by a fold in the mantle. Motion of the cephalopods is usually backward as water is forced out anteriorly through the hyponome, but direction can be controlled somewhat by pointing it in different directions. Some octopus species are also able to walk along the sea bed. Squids and cuttlefish can move short distances in any direction by rippling of a flap of muscle around the mantle. With a few exceptions, Coleoidea live by the motto "live fast, die young". Most of the energy extracted from their food is used for growing. The penis in most male Coleoidea is a long and muscular end of the gonoduct used to transfer spermatophores to a modified arm called a hectocotylus. That in turn is used to transfer the spermatophores to the female. In species where the hectocotylus is missing, the penis is long and able to extend beyond the mantle cavity and transfers the spermatophores directly to the female. They tend towards a semelparous reproduction strategy; they lay many small eggs in one batch and die afterwards. The Nautiloidea, on the other hand, stick to iteroparity; they produce a few large eggs in each batch and live for a long time.

Evolution

The class developed during the late Cambrian and were during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic dominant and diverse marine life forms. Early cephalopods were at the top of the food chain. The ancient (cohort Belemnoidea) and modern Coleoidea (cohort Neocoleoidea) diverged from the external shelled Nautiloidea around 425 million years ago. Unlike most modern cephalopods, ancient varieties had protective shells. These shells at first were conical but later developed into curved nautiloid shapes seen in modern nautilus species. Internal shells still exist in many non-shelled living cephalopod groups but most truly shelled cephalopods, such as the ammonites, became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous.

Classification

The classification as listed here (and on other cephalopod articles) follows primarily from [http://www.mnh.si.edu/cephs/newclass.pdf Current Classification of Recent Cephalopoda] (May 2001). Other classifications differ, primarily in how the various decapod orders are related, and whether they should be orders or families.
- CLASS CEPHALOPODA
- Subclass Nautiloidea: nautilus
- Order Nautilida
- (Order Bacritida): extinct nautiloids
- (Subclass Ammonoidea): extinct ammonites
- Subclass Coleoidea
- (Cohort Belemnoidea): extinct belemnites
- Cohort Neocoleoidea
- Superorder Decapodiformes
-
- Order Spirulida: Ram's Horn Squid
-
- Order Sepiida: cuttlefish
-
- Order Sepiolida: pygmy, bobtail and bottletail squid
-
- Order Teuthida: squid
- Superorder Octopodiformes
-
- Order Vampyromorphida: Vampire Squid
-
- Order Octopoda: octopus

External links

- [http://www.cephbase.utmb.edu/ CephBase - cephalopod database]
- [http://www.tonmo.com/ The Octopus News Magazine Online - Ceph Discussion]
- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=cephalopoda Tree of Life Web Project - Cephalopoda]
- [http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/Metazoa/Protostoma/Mollusca/Cephalopoda/Coleoidea.htm Mikko's Phylogeny Tree]
- [http://homepage.mac.com/nmonks/ammonites/articles.html Articles on various fossil cephalopod topics for non-specialists]
- [http://www.cco.caltech.edu/~brokawc/Bi11/cephalopods.html Fish vs. Cephalopods]
- [http://www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=329 Will Fast Growing Squid Replace Slow Growing Fish?]
- ja:頭足類

Lanternfish

Benthosema
Bolinichthys
Centrobranchus
Ceratoscopelus
Diaphus
Diogenichthys
Electrona
Gonichthys
Gymnoscopelus
Hintonia
Hygophum
Idiolychnus
Krefftichthys
Lampadena
Lampanyctodes
Lampanyctus
Lampichthys
Lepidophanes
Lobianchia
Loweina
Metelectrona
Myctophum
Nannobrachium
Notolychnus
Notoscopelus
Parvilux
Protomyctophum
Scopelopsis
Stenobrachius
Symbolophorus
Taaningichthys
Tarletonbeania
Triphoturus Lanternfish (or myctophids, from the Greek mykter, "nose" and ophis, "serpent") are small, deep sea fish of the large family Myctophidae. One of two families in the order Myctophiformes, the Myctophidae are represented by 246 species in 33 genera, having a circumglobal distribution. They are aptly named after their conspicuous use of bioluminescence. Their sister family, the Neoscopelidae, are much fewer in number but superficially very similar; at least one neoscopelid shares the common name lanternfish: The large-scaled lantern fish (Neoscopelus macrolepidotus). Sampling via deep trawling indicates that, together with the bristlemouths (Gonostomatidae) and lightfishes (Photichthyidae), lanternfish account for as much as 90% of all deep sea fish biomass. Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. With an estimated global biomass of 550-660 million metric tonnes, lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world's oceans. Although plentiful and prolific, currently only a few commercial lanternfish fisheries exist: These include limited operations off South Africa, in the subantarctic, and in the Gulf of Oman.

Physical description

Myctophid morphology is typified by a slender, compressed body covered in small, silvery deciduous cycloid scales (ctenoid in four species), a large bluntly rounded head, large elliptical to round lateral eyes (dorsolateral in Protomyctophum species), and a large terminal mouth with jaws closely set with rows of small teeth. The fins are generally small, with a single high dorsal fin, an adipose fin, and an anal fin—supprted by a cartilaginous plate at its base—originating under or slightly behind the posterior end of the dorsal fin; the caudal fin is forked. The pectoral fins, usually with eight rays, may be large and well-developed to small and degenerate, or completely absent in a few species; the pectorals are greatly elongated in others, such as Lampanyctus species. The gas bladder is present in most lanternfish, but it degenerates or fills with lipids during the maturation of a few species. The lateral line is uninterrupted. In all but one species (Taaningichthys paurolychnus), a number of photophores (light-producing organs) are present; these are paired and concentrated in ventrolateral rows on the body and head. Some may also possess specialised photophores on the caudal peduncle, in close proximity to the eyes (e.g., the "headlights" of Diaphus species), and luminous patches at the base of the fins. The photophores—which emit a weak blue, green, or yellow light—are known to be arranged in species-specific patterns; some may also be sexually dimorphic in nature. This is true for the luminous caudal patches, with the males' being typically supracaudal (dorsal) and the females' being infracaudal (ventral). Lanternfish range in size from ca. 3–30 centimetres standard length, with most being under 15 centimetres. In life, shallow-living species are an iridescent blue to green or silver, while deeper-living species are dark brown to black.

Ecology

Lanternfish are well-known for their diel vertical migrations: During daylight hours most species remain within the gloomy bathypelagic zone, between 300–1,200 metres depth; but towards sundown the fish begin to rise upwards into the epipelagic zone, between 10—100 metres depth. The lanternfish are thought to do this in order to avoid predation, and because they are following the diel vertical migrations of zooplankton upon which the lanternfish feed. After a night spent feeding in the surface layers of the water column, the lanternfish begin to descend back into the lightless depths and are gone by daybreak. Most species remain within close proximity to the coast, schooling over the continental slope. Different species are known to segregate themselves by depth, forming dense, discrete conspecific layers—this is believed to be a means of avoiding interspecies competition. Due to the lanternfishes' gas bladders, these layers are visible on sonar scans and give the impression of a "false bottom": This is the so-called deep-scattering layer that so perplexed early oceanographers. It should be noted that there is great variability in migration patterns within the family. Some deeper-living species may not migrate at all, while others may do so only sporadically. Migration patterns may also be dependent on life history stage, sex, latitude, and season. The arrangements of lanternfish photophores are different for each species, so it is assumed that their bioluminescence plays a role in intraspecies communication, specifically in shoaling and courtship behaviour. The concentration of the photophores on the flanks of the fish also indicate the light's use as camouflage: In a strategy termed counterillumination, the lanternfish regulate the