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Globo

Globo

Rede Globo is Brazil's biggest television network and also number one producer and provider of Portuguese language television programming in the world. Is also the third biggest TV channel of the world, being watched by 80 millions people daily.

History

Globo started airing on April 26, 1965 in Rio de Janeiro. In 1966 it started to air in São Paulo. The network was aired by Roberto Marinho and the Marinho family. Rede Globo is present in all states of the country and is the market leader, with a share of 40-60% of the audience. The national news, "Jornal Nacional," was the first to be transmitted nationaly in Brazil. It is famous for the telenovelas (soap operas) which, together with the news and football, dominate primetime viewing in Brazil. These are exported all over the world, especially to Portugal where they have a cult following, and are also shown dubbed into different languages.

Centers and Afiliates

Rede Globo has a main production complex in Rio de Janeiro called Projac, where most of their shows are produced, and another center in São Paulo. Projac is one of largest TV production centers in the world and the biggest in Latin America, with numerous scenographic cities as locations for soap operas. Afiliates cover 97% of territory of Brazil. Is regonized the biggest world TV network in territorial distance enclosing all interior in States of Brazil. Rede Globo have its own TV stations in Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro State), São Paulo (São Paulo), Brasília (Distrito Federal), Belo Horizonte (Minas Gerais) and Recife (Pernambuco).

International

TV Globo Internacional operates satellite television channels around the world, including the United States, Europe, Japan and Africa, bringing a mix of entertainment, news and sports programming to Brazilian and other Portuguese-speaking people. It also operates a similar channel in Portugal, called GNT.

Controversy

Rede Globo has and has had for many years by far the biggest number of viewers in Brazil, thus also having the power to influence election results, especially with the use of it's news broadcasting in manner that is favorable to its proprietors' preferred candidates. Most notoriously, in 1989, it broadcasted an edited version of the last debate between Fernando Collor de Mello, whom it openly favored, and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (current President - 2003/2007), just before election day in a manner that the former received more air time and had more favorable segments of the debate shown. In 1993 Channel Four made a documentary "Beyond Citizen Kane" about the power and influence of the network in Brazil. The Marinho family bought the international rights to the documentary, and by refusing to license it to other broadcasters or release it on video, curtailed its distribution worldwide.

Globo Shareholdings

Rede Globo is a part of Organizações Globo a communication conglomerate, the 5th biggest of the world. The TV network/channel is the cradle of this mega-complex builded and increased in last decades for the great financial success gotten by Rede Globo.
- [http://www.oglobo.com.br O Globo], daily newspaper in Rio de Janeiro
- [http://www.extra.inf.br/ Extra], daily newspaper in Rio de Janeiro
- [http://www.diariosp.com.br/ Diário de São Paulo], daily newspaper in São Paulo
- [http://www.valoronline.com.br Valor Econômico], daily business newspaper in São Paulo (50%-50% with Grupo Folha)
- [http://editoraglobo.globo.com/ Editora Globo], publishing group
- [http://globofilmes.globo.com/ Globo Filmes], film studio
- [http://globovideo.globo.com Globo Video], home video distributor
- [http://www.nettv.com.br NET TV], cable tv network
- [http://www.sky.tv.br/ SKY TV Brasil], satellite pay tv, 47%
- [http://globosat.globo.com/ Globosat], pay tv channels
- [http://tvglobointernacional.globo.com/Globo International], pay tv channel worldwide
- [http://gntpt.globo.com/ GNT], pay tv channel in Portugal
- [http://www.globo.com Globo.com], a webportal
- [http://radioclick.globo.com/ Radio Globo], AM radio network
- [http://radioclick.globo.com/cbn/ CBN], FM news radio network
- [http://www.rbs.com.br/ RBS], AM/FM radio station and tv afiliate
- [http://radioclick.globo.com/98fm/ 98 FM], FM radio station
- [http://www.frm.org.br/ Fundação Roberto Marinho], philantropic foundation
- [http://www.shoptime.com.br/ Shoptime], shop tv channel/website
- [http://globosat.globo.com/universalchannel/ Universal TV], pay tv channel, 50%

List of famous people from Globo Television

- Fernanda Montenegro
- Rodrigo Santoro
- Sonia Braga
- Xuxa
- Vera Fisher
- Jô Soares
- Galvão Bueno
- Tarcísio Meira
- Glória Menezes
- Deborah Secco
- Regina Duarte
- Lima Duarte
- Chico Anysio
- Francisco Cuoco
- Paulo Gracindo
- José Wilker
- Carla Camurati

Rede Globo Shows

External links

- [http://www.redeglobo.com.br/ Globo TV (portuguese)]
- [http://www.globo.com/ Globo's web portal (Portuguese)]
- [http://gntpt.globo.com/ GNT - Globo's channel in Portugal] Category:Companies of Brazil Category:Television networks Category:Television in Brazil

Brazil

The Federative Republic of Brazil (República Federativa do Brasil in Brazilian Portuguese) is the largest and most populous country in Latin America, and fifth largest in the world. Spanning a vast area between central South America and the Atlantic Ocean, it is the easternmost country of the Americas and it borders Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French department of French Guiana — every South American nation except for Ecuador and Chile. Named after brazilwood, a tree highly valued by early colonists, Brazil is home to both extensive agricultural lands and rain forests. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, it is today South America's leading economic power and a regional leader. As a former colony of Portugal, Portuguese is its official language.

History

Main article: History of Brazil Brazil is thought to have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years by semi-nomadic populations when the first Portuguese explorers, led by Pedro Álvares Cabral, disembarked in 1500. Over the next three centuries, it was resettled by the Portuguese and exploited mainly for brazilwood (Pau-Brasil) at first, and later for sugarcane(Cana-de-Açúcar) agriculture and gold mining. Work in the colony was based on slavery. In 1808, Queen Maria I of Portugal and her son and regent, the future João VI of Portugal, fleeing from Napoleon, relocated to Brazil with the royal family, nobles and government. Though they returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to the opening of commercial ports to the United Kingdom — at the time isolated from most European ports by Napoleon — and to the elevation of Brazil to the status of a Kingdom united to Portugal's Crown. Then prince regent Dom Pedro I of Brazil and IV of Portugal declared independence on 7 September 1822, establishing the independent Empire of Brazil. As the crown remained in the hands of the house of Bragança, this was more the severance of the Portuguese empire in two, than an independence movement as seen elsewhere in the Americas. The Brazilian Empire was theoretically a democracy in the British style, although in practice, the emperor-premier-parliament balance of power more closely resembled the autocratic Austrian Empire. Slavery was abolished in 1888, and intensive European immigration created the basis for industrialization. Pedro I was succeeded by his son, Pedro II — who in old age was caught by a political dispute between the Army and the Cabinet, a crisis arising from the Paraguay War. In order to avoid a civil war between Army and Navy, Pedro II renounced the throne on 15 November 1889, when a federal republic was established by Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil attracted over 5 million European and Japanese immigrants. That period also saw Brazil industrialise, further colonize, and develop its interior. Brazilian democracy was replaced by dictatorships three times — 1930–1934 and 1937–1945 under Getúlio Vargas, and 1964–1985, under a succession of generals appointed by the military. Today, Brazil is internationally considered a democracy since 1985, specifically a presidential democracy, which was kept after a plebiscite in 1993 where voters had to choose between a presidential or parliamentary systems, whilst also choosing if Brazil should reinstate its constitutional monarchy.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Brazil Politics of Brazil] The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government. The President has extensive executive powers: he appoints the Cabinet, and he is also both head of state and head of government. The President and Vice-President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms. The Brazilian legislature, the bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional, includes the Federal Senate or Senado Federal of 81 seats, of which three members from each state or federal district are elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four-year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period. Beside the Senate there is the Chamber of Deputies or Câmara dos Deputados of 513 seats, whose members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms. See also:
- Cangaço (criminal hinterland bands in the first years of the 20th century)
- Café com leite (reference to Brazil's domination by the "coffee oligarchs" in the first years of the 20th century)
- Coronelismo (reference to machine politics in the first years of the 20th century, still present on a lesser scale in modern times)
- Integralismo (influential Brazilian fascist movement in the 1930s)

States

Main article: States of Brazil Brazil consists of 26 states (estados, singular estado) and 1 federal district (distrito federal): Brazil and its 26 states and Federal District are divided by IBGE into 5 distinctive regions: North, Northeast, Center-West, Southeast and South (Division by Regions). See also:
- List of cities in Brazil (all cities and municipalities)
- List of major cities in Brazil (metropolitan areas and major regional cities)

Geography

List of major cities in Brazil Main article: Geography of Brazil Brazil is characterized by the extensive low-lying Amazon Rainforest in the north, and a more open terrain of hills and low mountains to the south — home to most of Brazil's population and its agricultural base. Along the Atlantic seacoast are also found several mountain ranges, reaching roughly 2,900 m high. The highest peak is the Pico da Neblina at 3,014 m, in Guiana's highlands. Major rivers include the Amazon, the largest river in the world by volume, and often considered the world's longest; the Paraná and its major tributary, the Iguaçu River, where the impressive Iguaçu falls are located; the Rio Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and the Tapajós rivers. Situated on the equator, Brazil's climate is predominantly tropical, with little seasonal variation, although the subtropical south is more temperate, and occasionally experiences frost and snow. Precipitation is abundant in the humid Amazon Basin, but more arid landscapes are found as well, particularly in the northeast. A number of islands in the Atlantic Ocean are part of Brazil:
- Saint Peter and Paul Rocks
- Rocas Atoll
- Fernando de Noronha
- Trindade and Martim Vaz See also:
- Protected areas of Brazil
- National parks (Brazil)
- List of Brazilian National Forests
- List of mountains in Brazil

Economy

Main article: Economy of Brazil Economy of Brazil in the world [http://www.citymayors.com/features/largest_cities1.html 1] ]] Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, as well as a large labor pool, Brazil's GDP (PPP) outweighs that of any other Latin American country, and the country is expanding its presence in world markets. Major export products include airplanes, coffee, vehicles, soybean, iron ore, orange juice, steel, textiles, footwear and electrical equipment. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program, and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a US$41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. [http://www.canadianliberty.bc.ca/relatedinfo/BRAZIL'S_IMF_DISASTER.html] During the summer of 1998, investors expressed concerns that a downturn in economic growth was imminent. However, in January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the Real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn, and the country posted moderate GDP growth. Economic growth slowed considerably in 2001 — to less than 2% — because of a slowdown in major markets, the hiking of interest rates by the Central Bank to reduce inflationary pressures, and fears over the economic policies of the new government to be elected. Investor confidence was strong at the end of 2001, in part because of the strong recovery in the balance of trade. Chronic poverty remains a pressing problem. After Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's inauguration on 1 January 2003, there was some fear that his party radicals might provoke an economic about-face, and that Brazil might experience a financial crisis. However, the Brazilian economy seems to have detached itself from politics, and after a GDP increase of 0.5% in 2003, Brazil has enjoyed a robust growth in 2004. It is estimated that there will be moderate growth in 2005 and 2006.

Brazil Socioeconomic Rankings
Indicator	World Rank	Value	Comparable countries
Total Nominal GDP	14th	604,855 million USD	Australia, Russia
Total PPP GDP	9th	1,461,564 million Int.Dollars	Italy, Russia
Per capita Nominal GDP	74th	3,325 USD	Romania, Dominica
Per capita PPP GDP	70th	8,049 Int.Dollars	Bulgaria, Thailand
Gini Coefficient	111th	59,3	Paraguay, Guatemala
Human Development Index	63th	0.792	Russia, Romania

But... FIFA soccer ranking for Brazil is number one (with 848 points for January 2005), above France, Spain, Netherlands, Argentina.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Brazil.
See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil. Indigenous peoples in Brazil, Southern Brazil]] The main ethnic group in Brazil are the Portuguese, who colonized the country after 1500. Until independence in 1822, the Portuguese were the only European nation that successfully settled in Brazil, and most of Brazil's culture is based on that of Portugal. The Dutch and the French also colonized Brazil during the 17th century, but their presence lasted only a few decades. The Amerindian population of Brazil has in large part been exterminated or assimilated into the Portuguese population. Since the beginning of Brazil's colonization, intermarriage between the Portuguese and Native Brazilians has been common. Brazil has a large black population, descended from African slaves brought to the country from the 16th century until the 19th century. The African population in Brazil has mixed substantially with the Portuguese, causing a large mixed-race population. Beginning in the 19th century, the Brazilian government stimulated European immigration to substitute for the manpower of the former slaves. The first non-Portuguese immigrants to settle in Brazil were Germans, in 1824. However, significant European immigration to Brazil began only in the 1870s, when immigration from Italy increased. Brazil has the largest Italian population outside of Italy, with 25 million Italians and Italian-descended Brazilians, constituting 15% of Brazil's population. Another important influx of immigrants came from Spain. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil received immigrants from several other European countries, such as Poland, Russia, Ukraine and Austria. Starting in the early 20th century, Brazil also received a large number of Asians: Korean, Chinese, Taiwanese, and Japanese immigrants. The Japanese are the largest Asian minority in Brazil, and Japanese-Brazilians are the largest Japanese population outside of Japan (1.5 million). Significant immigration from the Middle-East (Lebanon and Syria) has also occurred. Brazil's population is mostly concentrated along the coast, with a lower population density in the interior. The population of the southern states is mainly of European descent, while the majority of the inhabitants of the north and northeast are of mixed ancestry (Amerindians, Africans and Europeans).

Ethnicity and race

Syria] According to the 2000 IBGE census:
- white 53.7%
- mixed race 38.5%
- black 6.2%
- other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 0.9%
- unspecified 0.7% Most white Brazilians are of Portuguese or Italian descent. There are also significant populations of German, Spanish, and Polish descent, and other European ethnic groups. Brazilians of Portuguese ancestry are found in the entire country, while those of Italian descent are predominantly in Southern and Southeastern Brazil. The other white ethnic groups, such as German and Polish, are mostly concentrated in the extreme South of Brazil. There are entire cities settled by Germans-Brazilians in Southern Brazil. Brazilians of mixed-race ancestry are found in the whole country, although most of them live in the Northern and Northeastern states. Mixed-race Brazilians include mulatto, caboclo (or mameluco) and cafuzo, however the majority are a mix of Amerindians, whites and blacks. Black Brazilians are concentrated mostly in the Northeastern states, although large black populations can be found throughout the country. Asian Brazilians (mainly of Japanese descent) and Arab Brazilians are concentrated in the Southeastern states (mainly in São Paulo). Amerindian Brazilians are concentrated in the Northern states, mostly in the Amazon area. Despite their diversity, most Brazilians consider themselves to be part of a single "Brazilian ethnic group", and all people born in Brazil, no matter their origin, are considerated totally Brazilians. The only exceptions are non-assimilated indigenous tribes. Racism in Brazil is an unbailable crime.

Languages

indigenous tribes] Portuguese is the official language, and is spoken by the entire population. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, giving it a national culture distinct from its Spanish-speaking neighbors. Portuguese is the only language with fully official status in Brazil, and there are few regional variances. It is virtually the only language used in schools, newspapers, radio and TV, and for all business and administrative purposes. The language spoken in Brazil is slightly different from that spoken in Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries. Brazilian Portuguese is more archaic than European Portuguese, and has some phonological and orthographic differences, although mutual comprehension is not affected. Spanish is understood in various degrees by most people, since it is very close to Portuguese. English is part of the official high school curriculum, but very few people achieve any usable degree of fluency. Many minority languages are spoken daily throughout the vast national territory of Brazil. Half of these languages are spoken by indigenous peoples, mostly in Northern Brazil. The main indigenous languages are: Guaraní, Kaingang, Nadëb, Carajá, Caribe, Tucano, Arára, Terêna, Borôro, Apalaí, Canela and many others. Still others are spoken by communities of descendants of 19th century immigrants, who are for the most part bilingual, in rural areas of Southern Brazil. These communities speak dialects of Italian, German, Polish or Japanese languages. The most dominant spoken Brazilian German dialect is Riograndenser Hunsrückisch, a Brazilian variation of the Hunsrückisch dialect of German. Talian is the main spoken Italian dialect in Brazil, and is based on the Venetian Language, which has its origin in Northern Italy. Italy]]

Religion

About 3 in 4 people, or 74% of the population in Brazil, are Roman Catholic. The Protestant population has been growing very fast, and is at 15.4%. Other Christian groups make up only 1.3%. African tribal religions are the next largest groups. The Jewish community numbers around 160,000, while Buddhism, Shinto, and other Asian religions are also sizeable. Adherents of Islam number around 28,000, or 0.01%. Brazil is the country with the largest Catholic population in the world, as well the country with the largest number of members of Asian religions in the Western world.

Poverty, illiteracy and income concentration

Western world]] Brazil currently has 25 million people living in conditions of poverty [http://www.pt.org.br/assessor/pobres.htm] [http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/03122002relatorio_onu.shtm]. This is a chronic problem without easy solutions. Two phenomena very relevant to the discussion of poverty and income concentration in Brazil are directly related to each other: the mechanization of agricultural techniques and the focus of Brazilian agribusiness on exports. Poverty in Brazil can be seen in the large metropolitan areas (capitals) and in the "pockets of poverty" (upcountry regions with low rates of economic and social development). The Northeast has chronic problems as a result of its dry climate, with millions of people suffering hunger during the dry seasons. President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva has proposed a programme (Fome Zero) to mitigate this problem but its success is disputed. About 8% of the Brazilian population is technically considered illiterate (analfabetos in Portuguese), although a growing percentage show some writing and computing abilities.[http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/datas/alfabetizacao/alfabetizacao.html]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Brazil
- Brazil Religions
- Brazil Skyscrapers
- Cuisine of Brazil
- List of Brazilians
- Literature of Brazil
- Music of Brazil

Sports

Main Article: Sports in Brazil
- Brazil national football team
- Brazilian Football League Teams Some fight sports with Brazilian origins have become popular around the world:
- Capoeira
- Vale tudo
- Brazilian jiu-jitsu

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Brazil
- Foreign relations of Brazil
- Military of Brazil
- Public holidays in Brazil
- Transportation in Brazil Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.

External links

- ; Government, administration, economy & politics
- [http://www.bcb.gov.br Banco Central do Brasil] - Central Bank of Brazil (in Portuguese/English)
- [http://www.brasil.gov.br Brasil.gov.br] - Official governmental portal (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.camara.gov.br Câmara dos Deputados] - Official Chamber of Deputies site (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.oecd.org/document/60/0,2340,en_2649_34571_34413308_1_1_1_1,00.html Economic Survey of Brazil 2005]
- [http://www.fomezero.gov.br Fome Zero] - Official site of Fome Zero (zero hunger) programme (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.mma.gov.br Ministério do Meio Ambiente] - Ministry of the Environment of Brazil (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.planalto.gov.br Presidência da República] - Official presidential site (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.senado.gov.br Senado Federal] - Official senatorial site (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.stf.gov.br Supremo Tribunal Federal] - Supreme Federal Court (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.stj.gov.br Superior Tribunal de Justiça] - Superior Court of Justice (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.mre.gov.br Ministério das Relações Exteriores] - Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Português/English/Español)
- [http://www.consul.cc/brazil Consular Corps of Brazil] - Official Website of CC Brazil (English) ; Information, statistics
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/brtoc.html Library of Congress: A Country Study: Brazil]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Brazil Open Directory Project - Brazil] directory category
- [http://www.brazilink.org Brazilink] - Selected and updated sources by experts (in English)
- [http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/default.php IBGE] - Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics (English, Español, Português)
- [http://www.mapafacil.com.br Mapa Fácil] - Online maps of more than 5000 Brazilian cities (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.bn.br/ National Library] (in Portuguese and English)
- [http://www.spcvb.com.br São Paulo Convention & Visitors Bureau] (in Portuguese and English) ; news media
- [http://www.brasilpost.com.br Brasil-Post] (in German)
- [http://jbonline.terra.com.br Jornal do Brasil] - Brazilian newspaper (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.oglobo.com.br O Globo]- Online version of a famous Brazilian newspaper (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.estadao.com.br O Estado de São Paulo]- Site of one the most important brazilian newspapers (in portuguese)
- [http://www.folhaonline.com.br Folha de São Paulo]- Another important Brazilian newspaper (in portuguese) ; Brazilian television
- [http://www.redeglobo.com Globo]- The first network in Brazil
- [http://www.sbt.com.br SBT]- The second network in Brazil
- [http://www.rederecord.com.br Record]- Important brazilian channel
- [http://www.band.com.br Band]- Important brazilian channel ; Society, social movements, etc.
- [http://www.mst.org.br Movimento dos trabalhadores rurais sem terra]
- [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/brazil9845.htm Human Rights Watch]
- [http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-bra/index Amnesty International]
- [http://www.oeco.com.br O Eco] - Journalistic website on the environmental issues of Brazil (in Portuguese) ; Art, cooking, culture, history, travel
- [http://www.roadjunky.com/brazil/guide_brazil.shtml Alternative Brazil Travel info] (in English)
- [http://www.destination360.com/south-america/brazil/brazil.php Brazil Travel Guide] (in English)
- [http://www.ceara.com.br Ceará and Fortaleza tourism information] (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.donabrasil.com Dona Brasil] on cooking, culture and travel (in English and Dutch)
- [http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch Portuguese Colonial History] Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
- [http://www.easyportuguese.com EasyPortuguese]-- Learn the Portuguese spoken in Brazil.
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Brazil Ethnologue Languages of the World] - Languages of Brazil
- [http://www.maria-brazil.org Maria-Brazil] - The first Brazilian pop-culture web site produced in the USA. Note: The section Maria's Cookbook is widely praised (site in English)
- [http://www.pernambuco.com.br Recife and Porto de Galinhas tourism information] (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.travel-impressions.de/brazil/mix/baiana.htm Photos of People and Sights]
- [http://www.rioforpartiers.com/ Rio For Partiers] - Award winning travel guide to Rio de Janeiro and [http://www.salvadorforpartiers.com/ Salvador]
- [http://www.sonia-portuguese.com sonia-portuguese] Learning Portuguese
- [http://www.thebraziliansound.com The Brazilian Sound] Brazilian music & culture (in English)
- [http://www.thowra.com/brasil.html Travelling in Brazil] (in English)
- [http://www.portoseguro.tur.br Porto Seguro Bahia tourism information] (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.v-brazil.com Virtual Brazil] - Information about Brazilian culture, economy and tourism (in English)
- [http://www.zmaxmiez-jpn.net/untitled4.html Viva Brasil!] All about Brazilian Culture
- [http://www.brazilbrazil.com/braznam.html Hy-Brazil] Origins of the name Brazil Category:Former Portuguese colonies Category:South American countries Category:CPLP member states zh-min-nan:Pa-se ko:브라질 ms:Brazil ja:ブラジル simple:Brazil th:ประเทศบราซิล fiu-vro:Brasiilia

Portuguese language

Portuguese (Português) is a Romance language predominantly spoken in Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East Timor, Guinea Bissau, Macao Special Administrative Region of China, Mozambique, Portugal, and São Tomé and Príncipe. Many linguists consider that Portuguese and Galician (the native language of Galicia, Spain) are actually varieties of the same language, but with Galician being strongly influenced by Spanish. With more than 200 million native speakers, Portuguese is one of the few languages spoken in such widely-distributed parts of the world, and is the fifth or sixth most-spoken first language in the world. Because Brazil, with 184 million inhabitants, constitutes about 51% of South America's population, Portuguese is the most widely spoken language in South America and it is also one of the key languages in Africa. The language was spread worldwide in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries as Portugal created the first and the longest lived modern-world colonial and commercial empire (1415–1975), spanning from Brazil in the Americas to Macao in China. As a result, Portuguese is now the official language of several independent countries and is widely spoken or studied as a second language in many others. There are also various Portuguese Creole languages spread all over the world. It is an important minority language in Andorra, Luxembourg, Namibia, and Paraguay. The Portuguese language is nicknamed A língua de Camões ("The language of Camões", after Luís de Camões, the author of The Lusiads); A última flor do Lácio ("The last flower of Latium", by Olavo Bilac) or The sweet language (by Cervantes). Portuguese language speakers are known as a Lusophone, after the Roman name for the province of Lusitania.

History

Portuguese developed in the Western Iberian Peninsula from the spoken Latin language brought there by Roman soldiers and colonists starting in the 3rd century BC. The language began to differentiate itself from other Romance languages after the fall of the Roman Empire and the barbarian invasions in the 5th century. It started to be used in written documents around the 9th century, and by the 15th century it had become a mature language with a rich literature. Arriving on the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC, the Romans brought with them the Roman people's language, Vulgar Latin, from which all Romance languages (also known as "New Latin Languages") descend. Already in the 2nd century BC southern Lusitania was Romanized. Strabo, a 1st-century Greek geographer, comments in one of the books of his Geographia "encyclopedia": "they have adopted the Roman customs, and they no longer remember their own language." The language was spread by arriving Roman soldiers, settlers and merchants, who built Roman cities mostly near previous civilizations' settlements. Between 409 A.D. and 711, as the Roman Empire was collapsing, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by peoples of Germanic origin, known to the Romans as Barbarians. The Barbarians (mainly Suevi and Visigoths) largely absorbed the Roman culture and language of the peninsula; however, Lusitania's language and culture were free to evolve on their own during the Early Middle Ages, due to the lack of Roman schools and administration, Lusitania's relative isolation from the rest of Europe, and changes in the political boundaries of the Iberian peninsula. These changes led to the formation of what is now called "Lusitanian Romance". From 711, with the Moorish invasion of the Peninsula, Arabic was adopted as the administrative language in the conquered regions. However, the population continued to speak their Romance dialects so that when the Moors were overthrown, the influence that they had exerted on the language was small. Its main effect was in the lexicon. The earliest surviving records of a distinctively Portuguese language are administrative documents from the ninth century, still interspersed with many phrases in Latin. Today this phase is known as "Proto-Portuguese" (spoken in the period between the 9th to the 12th century). Portugal was formally recognized by the Kingdom of Leon as an independent country in 1143, with King Afonso Henriques. In the first period of "Old Portuguese" - Portuguese-Galician Period (from the 12th to the 14th century) - the language gradually came into general use. Previously it had mostly been used on the Christian Iberian Peninsula as a language for poetry. In 1290, king Denis created the first Portuguese University in Lisbon (the Estudo Geral) and decreed that Portuguese, then simply called the "Vulgar language" should be known as the Portuguese language and should be officially used. In the second period of "Old Portuguese", from the 14th to the 16th century, with the Portuguese discoveries, the Portuguese language spread to many regions of Asia, Africa and The Americas (nowadays, most of the Portuguese speakers live in Brazil, in South America). By the 16th century it had become a lingua franca in Asia and Africa, used not only for colonial administration and trade but also for communication between local officials and Europeans of all nationalities. The spreading of the language was helped by mixed marriages between Portuguese and local people (also very common in other areas of the world) and its association with the Catholic missionary efforts, which led to it being called Cristão ("Christian") in many places in Asia. The Nippo jisho, a Japanese-Portuguese dictionary written in 1603, was a product of Jesuit missionary activity in Japan. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century. Some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The language has largely changed in these communities and has evolved through the centuries into several Portuguese creoles, some still existing today, after hundreds of years of isolation. A considerable number of words of Portuguese origin are also found in Tetum. Portuguese words entered the lexicons of many other languages, such as Japanese, Indonesian, Malay, or Swahili. The end of "Old Portuguese" was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral de Garcia de Resende, in 1516. The period of "Modern Portuguese" (spanning from the 16th century to present day) saw an increase in the number of words of Classical Latin origin and erudite words of Greek origin borrowed into Portuguese during the Renaissance, which augmented the complexity of the language.

Classification and related languages

Indo-European - Italic - Romance - Italo-Western - Western - Gallo-Iberian - Ibero-Romance - West-Iberian - Portuguese-Galician Portuguese is orthographically similar in many ways to Spanish, but it has a very distinctive phonology. A speaker of one of these languages may require some practice to effectively understand a speaker of the other (although generally it is easier for a Portuguese native speaker to understand Spanish than the other way around). Compare, for example: :Ela fecha sempre a janela antes de jantar. (Portuguese) :Ella cierra siempre la ventana antes de cenar. (Spanish) Some less common phrasings and word choices have closer cognates in Spanish because Portuguese has managed to retain a much larger vocabulary, with stronger Latin heritage: :Ela cerra sempre a janela antes de cear. (less common Portuguese) (Which translates as "She always closes the window before having dinner.") In some places, Spanish and Portuguese are spoken almost interchangeably. Portuguese speakers are generally able to read Spanish, and Spanish speakers are generally able to read Portuguese, even if they cannot understand the spoken language. Portuguese also has significant similarities with Mirandese, Catalan, Italian, French and with other Romance languages. Phonetically, Portuguese sometimes appears closer to French and Catalan than Spanish does. The sound set of Portuguese is very similar to the French one, due to the occurrence of nasalization and some palatalization in both languages, and due to certain sound changes (for example, diphthongization of low-mid stressed vowels, aspiration of /f/, devoicing of sibilants, and change of intervocalic [ʎ] to [ʒ]) that set off Spanish from the others. In lexicon, Portuguese bom (masculine word for good) and French or Catalan bon are very similar, while Spanish bueno is somewhat different, and Portuguese filha, French fille and Catalan filla are opposed to Spanish hija. European Portuguese came under additional French influence as a result of the Napoleonic dominion in Lisbon from 1807-1812, and cultural influences after that. Speakers of other Romance languages may find a peculiarity in the conjugating of certain apparently infinitive verbs and of some real infinitives. When constructing a future tense or conditional tense clause involving an indirect object pronoun, the pronoun can be placed between the verb stem and the verb ending. This phenomenon is called mesoclisis, because the clitic is neither before nor after, but in the middle. For example, Dupondt said trazer-vos-emos o vosso ceptro. Translating as literally as possible, this is "bring (stem)-to you (formal)-we (future) the your scepter". In English we would say, "We will bring you your scepter." The form Nós vos traremos o vosso ceptro. is a regionalism used in most Portuguese speaking countries, as well as Portugal.

Geographic distribution

ceptro Portuguese is the first language in Angola, Brazil, Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe, and the most widely used language in Mozambique. Portuguese is also one of the official languages of East Timor (with Tetum) and Macao S.A.R. of China (with Chinese). It is widely spoken, but not official, in Andorra, Luxembourg, Namibia and Paraguay. Portuguese Creoles are the mother tongue of Cape Verde and part of Guinea-Bissau's population. In Cape Verde most also speak standard Portuguese and have a native level language usage. Large Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities exist in many cities around the world, including Montreal and Toronto in Canada; Paris in France; Asunción in Paraguay; and Boston, New Bedford, Cape Cod, Providence, Newark, New York City, Miami, Sacramento, Honolulu and Houston in the United States. Portuguese is spoken by about 187 million people in South America, 17 million Africans, 12 million Europeans, 2 million in North America and 0.34 million in Asia. The CPLP or Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries is an international organization consisting of the eight independent countries which have Portuguese as an official language. Portuguese is also an official language of the European Union, Mercosul and the African Union (one of the working languages) and one of the official languages of other organizations. The Portuguese language is gaining popularity in Africa, Asia, and South America as a second language for study. Portuguese is with Spanish the fastest growing western language, and, following estimates by UNESCO it is the language with the higher potentiality of growth as an international communication language in Africa (south) and South America. The Portuguese speaking African countries are expected to have a combined population of 83 million by 2050. The language is also starting to gain popularity in Asia, mostly due to East Timor's boost in the number of speakers in the last five years, and Macau is becoming the Chinese Mecca for learning Portuguese, where in early 21st century, the language use was in decline, today it is growing as it became a language for opportunity due to Chinese strategical cooperation with the Portuguese speaking countries.

Dialects

Portuguese is a very rich language in terms of dialects, each with its particularity. Most of the differentiation between them are the pronunciation of certain vowels. Between Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese, there are differences in vocabulary, pronunciation and syntax, especially in popular varieties. The dialect of Piauí, in northeastern Brazil is the closest dialect to European Portuguese in Brazil. Other very close dialects are the ones of Belém and Rio de Janeiro. There are several similarities in pronunciation, syntax and simplification in grammar use between vernacular Brazilian Portuguese and vernacular Angolan Portuguese. But there are no differences between standard European and Angolan Portuguese. Coimbra Portuguese is considered the most standardized Portuguese dialect. Some apparent differences between the two varieties in lexicon are not really differences. In Brazil, the common term for carpet is tapete, while in Portugal it's alcatifa. However, many dialectal zones in Portugal use tapete and other areas in Brazil use alcatifa. This applies in several such apparent differences, except in the new terms, such as ônibus in Brazil, which is autocarro in Portugal. A conversation between an Angolan, a Brazilian and a Portuguese from very rural areas flows very easily. The most exotic Portuguese dialect is vernacular São Tomean Portuguese, because of the interaction with local Portuguese Creoles, but even with this one there are no difficulties when talking to a person from another country. Examples of words that are different in Portuguese dialects from three different continents Angola (Africa), Portugal (Europe) and Brazil (South America). Bus
- Angola: machimbombo
- Brazil: ônibus
- Portugal: autocarro slum quarter
- Angola: musseque
- Brazil: favela
- Portugal: bairro de lata or ilha Go away
- Angola: bazar, ir embora
- Brazil: ir embora, (or vazar as a slang - Portuguese "to leak");
- Portugal: ir embora, (or bazar as a slang - from Kimbundu kubaza - to break, leave with rush); Major Portuguese dialects: Brazil Coimbra Brazil # Caipira — Countryside of São Paulo ( Piraquara — caipira from Vale do Paraíba - São Paulo (state) / Minas Gerais) # Cearense — Ceará # Baiano — Region of Bahia # Fluminense — States of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo (the city of Rio de Janeiro has a particular way of speaking) # Gaúcho — Rio Grande do Sul # Mineiro — Minas Gerais # Nordestino — northeastern states of Brazil (the countryside and Recife have particular ways of speaking) # Nortista — Amazon Basin states # Paulistano — city of São Paulo # Sertanejo — States of Goiás and Mato Grosso # Sulista — south of Brazil (the city of Curitiba has a particular way of speaking) Curitiba Portugal # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som69.html Açoreano] — Azores (São Miguel Island and Terceira Island have particular ways of speaking) # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som40.html Alentejano] — Alentejo # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som44.html Algarvio] — Algarve (there is a particular small dialect in the western area) # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som1.html Alto-Minhoto] — North of Braga (interior) # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som49.html Baixo-Beirão; Alto-Alentejano] — Central Portugal (interior) # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som9.html Beirão] — central Portugal # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som22.html Estremenho] — Regions of Coimbra and Lisbon (can be subdivided in Lisbon Portuguese and Coimbra Portuguese) # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som60.html Madeirense] — Madeira # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som14.html Nortenho] — Regions of Braga and Porto # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som6.html Transmontano] — Trás-os-Montes Angola # Benguelense — Benguela province # image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som85.html Luandense] — Luanda province # Sulista — South of Angola Luanda Other areas
- image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som87.html Caboverdiano] — Cape Verde
- image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som88.html Guineense] — Guinea-Bissau
- image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som92.html Macaense] — Macau, China
- image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som89.html Moçambicano] — Mozambique
- image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som83.html Santomense] — São Tomé and Principe
- image:Loudspeaker.png [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/cvc/hlp/geografia/som84.html Timorense] — East Timor
- Damaense — Daman, India
- Goês — State of Goa, India

Creole

Portugal in the period of discoveries and colonization created a linguistic contact with native languages and people of the discovered lands and thus pidgins were formed. Until the 18th century, these Portuguese pidgins were used as Lingua Franca in Asia and Africa. Later, the Portuguese pidgins were expanded grammatically and lexically, as it became a native language. About three million people worldwide speak a Portuguese Creole. These creoles are spoken, mostly, by inter-racial communities (Portuguese people with natives).
- Angolar Spoken in coastal areas of São Tomé Island, São Tomé and Príncipe.
- Annobonnese Language of the island of Annobón, Equatorial Guinea.
- Crioulo do Barlavento (Criol) Spoken in Barlavento islands of Cape Verde. Some divide it into several creoles: São Nicolau Crioulo, Sal Crioulo, Boavista Crioulo, and Santo Antão Crioulo. Some decreolization.
- Crioulo de São Vicente Language of São Vicente Island, Cape Verde. Semi-Creole. Some decreolization.
- Crioulo do Sotavento (Kriolu) Spoken in Sotavento islands of Cape Verde. Some divide it into several creoles: Santiago Crioulo (Bádiu), Maio Crioulo, Fogo Crioulo, and Brava Crioulo. Some decreolization.
- Daman Indo-Portuguese Spoken in Daman, India. Semi-Creole. Decreolization process occurred.
- Diu Indo-Portuguese Spoken in Diu, India. Almost extinct.
- Forro Spoken in São Tomé Island, São Tomé and Príncipe.
- Kristang Spoken in Malaysia.
- Kristi Language of the village of Korlay, India.
- Lunguyê Spoken in Príncipe Island, São Tomé and Príncipe. Almost extinct.
- Macanese Spoken in Macau and Hong Kong, the two special administrative regions of China. Decreolization process occurred.
- Papiamento Spoken in the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. Spanish influenced.
- Saramaccan Portuguese/English Creole. Spoken in Surinam.
- Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole Spoken in coastal cities of Sri Lanka.
- Upper Guinea Creole (Kriol) lingua franca of Guinea-Bissau, also spoken in Casamance, Senegal. In the past, Portuguese creoles were also spoken in Myanmar, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia, possibly in Brazil and in other areas in India, Malaysia and China.

Sounds

As with French, Portuguese is often noted for its contrastive use of nasal vowels and the large number of dipthongs. Most dialects, including the standard languages of Portugal and Brazil, have several vowel phonemes that are distinguished by nasality. Most dialects have 14 vowel phonemes, five of which are nasals which combine to form 10 oral and 4 nasal diphtongs. There are 19 consonant phonemes, none of which are unique to the language. European Portuguese differs from the dialects spoken in Brazil and the former Portuguese colonies by a marked velarization that affects vowels as well as consonants. The vowels are generally lowered and centralized (approaching a schwa) and gives pronunciation a distinctly lax quality that is present in colloquial as well as formal speech and often results in complete reduction of vowels.

Consonants

/b, d, g/ are only pronounced as plosives when they occur at the beginning of the word. Following vowels, they are pronounced as the corresponding fricatives . a process which Portuguese shares with Catalan and Spanish. /l/ is markedly velarized, , which is very close to the standard American English /l/ in words such as "ball". In some Brazilian dialects, especially in the dialects spoken in Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Bahia, /d/ and /t/ tend to become affricated before the unstressed phoneme /i/.

Vowels

Image:Portuguese_vowel_chart.png is by tradition transcribed as a high central vowel , but it's more accurately described as a somewhat centralized high back unrounded vowel, . for some /u/ occurs in the dialects of Portalegre, Castelo Branco, Algarve (Barlavento area) and São Miguel Island. [ø] occurs in São Miguel Island, for example in boi [bø] "ox".

Prosody

Portuguese features lexical stress which often is a distinguishing feature of minimal pairs. Mostly these are of different word classes, such as dúvida "doubt (noun)" and duvida "doubt (verb, third person singular)". Though rarer, there are occasionally words within the same word class that are distinguished only through stress, like [ˈtunel] túnel "tunnel" and [tuˈnel] tonel "wine cask". Stress is usually on the penultimate syllable, though it may vary between any of the three final syllables. A secondary stress falls on syllables with diphtongs when the primary stress is placed elswhere in a word. There are also several different types of intonation in the form of six separate dynamic tones that affect entire phrases, having their nucleus in the stressed syllables. These tones are used to indicate the mood and intention of the speaker such as implication, emphasis, reservation, etc.

Grammar

Portuguese makes a clear distinction between the different word classes, that include verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, articles, conjunctions and interjections. There are also some other determiners and particles. Verbs are divided into three conjugations, which can be identified by looking at the infinitive ending, one of "-ar", "-er", "-ir" and "-or", which is present in a small number of verbs ,like "pôr" (to put). Most verbs end with "-ar", such as cantar (to sing). All verbs with the same ending follow the same pattern, save irregulars. In Portuguese, verbs appear in distinct moods:
- Imperative, used to express wish, command or advice.
- Indicative, used in the main clauses of declarative sentences.
- Subjunctive (conjuntivo). Used to express the content of a wish, a possibility or, in subordinate clauses, something denied in the main clause.
- Conditional, which is described as a distinct mood in some grammars, mostly in Portugal, less frequently in Brazil. Along with moods, there are non-finite verb forms:
- Infinitive
- Gerund
- Past participle (or passive participle) There is no present or active participle in Portuguese, but many adjectives come from Latin present participles and carry more or less the same meaning. Some neologisms are created in the same pattern. Unlike English, these "present participles" are not identical in form with gerund. Portuguese subjunctive mood has almost as many tenses as the indicative, namely present, perfect, imperfect, pluperfect and future, not mentioning periphrastic structures. In regular verbs, subjunctive future, which is uncommon in Indo-European languages, is identical to personal infinitive, but not in irregular verbs. And its role is obviously very different. Portuguese conditional mood is often described as a tense, namely the "future of the preterite". It has two forms, that can be rendered as the "future of the (perfect or imperfect) past" (for instance iria, would go) and the "future of the pluperfect" (for instance teria ido, would have gone). Periphrastic structures provide other tenses. Conditional is found more often in formal than in informal speech, where it is commonly replaced by the imperfect tense. Another interesting feature of Portuguese verbs is the existence of two or three equivalent forms for some past tenses, either in the indicative or in the subjunctive, but something similar happens in French and Spanish perfect tenses. For instance, in the indicative pluperfect it is possible to use either the auxiliary verbs ter (from Latin tenere) and haver (from Latin habere) or a simple form. He had gone could be translated either as Ele tinha ido, Ele havia ido or Ele fora. The two latter options, however, are much less common in oral and informal languages. The simple form (fora) would be sometimes seen as archaic or literary. All Portuguese nouns have one of two genders: masculine or inclusive and feminine or exclusive. Most adjectives and pronouns, and all articles indicate the gender of the noun they reference. The feminine gender in adjectives is formed in a different way from that in nouns. Most adjectives ending in a consonant remain unchanged: homem superior (superior man), mulher superior (superior woman). This is also true for adjectives ending in "e": homem forte (strong man), mulher forte (strong woman). Except for this, the noun and the adjective must always be in agreement: homem alto (tall man), mulher alta (tall woman). See also: Portuguese pronouns, Portuguese verb conjugation

Vocabulary

The Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa, by Antônio Houaiss (1915 – 1999), son of Lebanese immigrants in Brazil and former Brazilian Minister of Culture, was created with the support of almost two hundred lexicographers from several countries and it is the most complete Portuguese dictionary to date (about 228,500 entries, 376,500 acceptations, 415,500 synonyms, 26,400 antonyms and 57,000 historical words) it includes all variations of the Portuguese language (African, Asian, Brazilian and of Portugal). Dedicating his life to the language, Houaiss started his work in 1986, and died one year before the dictionary was completed by his colleagues in the year 2000, without seeing his dream come true. The dictionary is quickly becoming a reference to the language, some classified it as a "monument to the language". Portuguese, both in morphology and syntax, represents an organic transformation of Latin without the direct intervention of any foreign language. The sounds, grammatical forms, and syntactical types, with a few exceptions, are derived from Latin. And almost 90% of the vocabulary is still derived from the language of Rome. Some of the changes began during the Empire, others took place later. In Late Middle Ages, Portuguese was eroding as much as French, but a conservative policy re-approached it to Latin.
- Nasalization — A vowel before [m] and [n] has a tendency to become a nasal vowel. In the case of Portuguese, it happened between the sixth and seventh centuries, possibly influenced by previously spoken Celtic languages. LVNA → l[]a — Lua (moon). In the Latin example, we used all-capitals so as to be in line with how the ancient language was actually written. Note also that the letter V was the vowel we know today as U.
- Progressive Nasalization — Spread of nasalization forward from a nasal consonant, especially [m]. MADRE → made → mae → mãe mother; HAC NOCTE → ãnoite → ãõte → ontem // (yesterday).
- Elision — Vulgar Latin [l], [n], [d] and [g] were deleted between vowels; the vowels then coalesced. DOLORE → door → dor (pain) BONV → bõo → bom (good).
- Palatalization — Another assimilation occurs before the front vowels [i] and [e], or near the palatal semi-vowel [j]. CENTV → [tj]ento → [ts]ento → cento, (hundred) FACERE → fa[tj]ere → fa[ts]er → fa[dz]er → fazer, (to do). A more ancient evolution was FORTIA → for[ts]a → força (strength).
- Voicing — voiceless stops became voiced stops between vowels (and [b] became [v]): :MVTV → mudo (dumb) LACV → lago (lake) FABA → fava (broadbean).
- Simplification of consonant clusters, especially doubled consonants, occurred: GVTTA → gota (drop); PECCARE → pecar (to sin)
- Dissimilation — similar sounds in a word have a tendency to become different over time, so as to ease pronunciation. Vowels: LOCVSTA → lagosta (lobster). Consonants: ANIMA → alma (soul) LOCALE → logar → lugar (place).
- metathesis — a sound change that alters the order of phonemes in a word. Semi-vowel metathesis: PRIMARIV → primeiro (first); Consonant metathesis in [l] and [r]: TENEBRAS → teevras → trevas (darkness); these last ones are rare in Portuguese. Vowel metathesis: GENUCULUM → genoclo → → joelho (knee).
- epenthesis, insertion of a sound to break up a difficult-to-pronounce combination of vowels: GALLINA → Gali~a → Galinha (Chicken); VINO → Vi~o → Vinho (wine) Another specially relevant shift was the loss of the intervocalic /l/ in a very large set of words, already described in the list above as an example of "elision" → e.g: SALIRE → sair; COLARE → coar; NOTVLA → nódoa, with the typical portuguese voicing of /t/ in /d/ (AMATVS → amado). Fewer words remained unchanged, or reevolved to the original word, such as taberna (tavern) or coxa (thigh). Since the Renaissance, Portuguese became subject to the influence of Literary Latin, other than the spoken form from which Portuguese evolved, due to authors love for antiquity. Thus many adjectives in Portuguese have literary origin and the respective substantive has the popular form: ouro (gold) and áureo (golden) both from Latin, AVRV. Other words have popular and erudite synonyms: The Latin LOCALE (place) which evolved to the people's lugar has local as an erudite synonym. Very few traces of the native or pre-Roman settlers like the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Iberians, or Celts lexicon persist in the language, but there are some exceptions, such as Abóbora (pumpkin) and Bezerro (year-old calf) from Iberian languages or Cerveja (beer) and Saco (bag) from Celtic and Phoenician, respectively. Post-Roman influences, before the Discovery age, were also small. The Germanic influence in Portuguese was restricted to warfare and related topics, such has Barão (baron) from Germanic baro or Guerra (war) from Gothic
- �� (
- wirro). Projections indicate 1000 Arabic loan words, including: Aldeia (village) from التجارية (aldaya), Alface (lettuce) from الخس (alkhass), Armazém (warehouse) from المخزن (almahazan), Azeite (olive oil) from زيت (azzait) and most words starting with "al". With the Portuguese discoveries linguistic contact was made, and the Portuguese language became influenced by other languages other than European or Arabic. In Asia, the language gained words such as catana (cutlass) from Japanese 刀 (katana), Corja (rabble) from Malay Kórchchu or chá (tea) from Mandarin Chinese 茶 (cha). In South America, the language gained words such as Ananás, from Tupi-Guarani naná and Abacaxi from Tupi ibá cati both relating to different species of pineapple, or even Tucano (toucan) from Guarani tucan. The African influence in lexicon was made in Brazil and Africa (mostly in Angola) include words such has Bungular (to dance like African wizards) from Kimbundu kubungula or Cafuné (affections made in the head) from Kimbundu kifumate. Many names of places and local animals have Amerindian names in Brazil; in Angola and Mozambique, the same occurring with the local Bantu languages. These influences are also small even in the local variations of Portuguese in Brazil and Africa.

Writing system

Portuguese is written using the Latin alphabet with 26 letters. Three of them (K, W and Y) are only used for non-Portuguese origin words, in terms like darwinismo (Darwinism, from English "Darwin"). It uses ç and acute, grave, circumflex and tilde accents over vowels, as well as, in some forms and only in Brazil, diaeresis on a U as in lingüística (Linguistics, linguística is used in the rest of the Portuguese speaking nations).

Written varieties and Spelling Reform

As of 2005, Portuguese has two major written forms:
- European and African Portuguese
- Brazilian Portuguese In Brazil most first 'c's in 'cc', 'cç' or 'ct'; and 'p's in 'pc', 'pç' or 'pt' were eliminated from the language, since they are not pronounced in the cultivated spoken language, but are remnants from the language's Latin origin (though some continue to exist in cultivated Brazilian Portuguese, others in European Portuguese). An example is "facto" (in Portugal) and "fato" (in Brazil), both meaning fact -- one of the rare words that will continue to be accepted and is pronounced differently in both countries. Also, there are differences in accent marks, due to: # Different pronunciation: Brazil uses closed vowels in words such as "Antônio" (Anthony) or "anônimo" (anonymous), whereas Portugal and Africa use open ones, "António" or "anónimo", respectively. # Easier reading: Because "qu" can be read in two different ways in Portuguese: "kw" or "k", Brazil uses the diaeresis (called 'trema' in Portuguese), instead of "cinquenta" they write "cinqüenta". Currently, some press in Brazil has stopped using this accent mark. It was part of an orthographic agreement but abolished in Portugal. A 1990 Spelling Reform (Port. Reforma Ortográfica), intended to create an International Portuguese Standard, was ratified by Brazil, Cape Verde, and Portugal. East Timor, not an original subscriber, will ratify shortly along with Guinea-Bissau. Brazil and East Timor were the biggest supporters of the reform and pressured the CPLP for a fast implementation, but the implementation date has not yet been set. In East Timor, both orthographies are currently being taught to children. Galiza was also invited to take part in the reform but the Galician government ignored the invitation (note that this government states that Galician and Portuguese are different languages). However, an unofficial commission formed by Galician linguists (supporting the unity of the language) was sent and participated in the reform. ² At first, the Agreement established that its entrance into practice would only occur when all the countries of the CPLP had ratified it. But the Portuguese-speaking African countries have not ratified, possibly due to problems in implementing it. In the CPLP’s summit of 26–27 July 2004, an adjustment will prompt implementation when just three countries ratify it. The agreement will eliminate most first 'c's in 'cc', 'cç' or 'ct'; and 'p's in 'pc', 'pç' or 'pt' from European/ African Portuguese, the dieresis and accent marks in words ending in "éia" in Brazil and add some new spelling rules. And it will allow either orthography for words like anónimo or anônimo, depending on the dialect of the author or person being transcribed. Late in October 2004, Brazil became the first to approve the adjustment and asked its ambassadors in Portugal and Cape Verde to promote the rapid implementation in those countries. The agreement will enter into practice in the first day of the next month when the third country ratifies it. Even if today's orthographies do not harm intelligibility between native speakers, the orthography of one country is considered incorrect in the other, leading to two different translations of the same book written in another language and it can confuse foreigners that are learning the language. One endeavour of this reform is to promote the language internationally, just like the spelling reforms of Spanish by the Real Academia Española helped to promote the Spanish language. The language is not very popular internationally, even if it is the third-most-spoken Western language in the world, after English and Spanish. Another objective is Portugal's aid to Brazil and African countries in education of the Portuguese language to African and Amerindian populations, Brazil's educational aid to Africa and greater cultural and academic exchange. Another agreement was made for the new words that will come into the language.

Examples

:PT. - Standard Pronunciation of Portugal :BR. - Normal Pronunciation of Brazil :: note: The pronunciation of "o" and final "s" in Rio de Janeiro follows the European standard. ;Extract of «The Lusiads» (I, 33)

Literature

To English speakers, the most famous writer in the Portuguese language is the poet Luís Vaz de Camões (also known as Camoens) (1524–1580), author of the epic poem, the Lusiadas. Several other authors and poets are also internationally known, such as: Machado de Assis (1839-1908), the most traditional Brazilian novelist; Eça de Queirós (1845–1900), one of the most famous Portuguese language novelists; Fernando Pessoa (1888—1935), one of the greatest poets in the history of the language; Jorge Amado (1912—2001), a popular novelist; Pepetela (born 1941), a famous Angolan novelist; Mia Couto (1955), the most famous novelist from Mozambique; and José Saramago (born 1922) who was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1998. The 2005 winner of Camoens Prize was Lygia Fagundes Telles (1923). See also: Camoens Prize

Notes

- ¹First and Second with first language speakers, respectively. Only counting figures from countries in the table "Portuguese language countries and Territories". Considering second language speakers those people who are bilingual and use Portuguese as a second language.
- ²[http://www.lusografia.org/ao/index.htm www.lusografia.org]

References

- Poesia e Prosa Medievais Ulisseia 1998 (3rd ed.; ISBN 9789725681244).
- Bases Temáticas - Língua Portuguesa in [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/bases/lingua.htm Instituto Camões]
- A Língua Portuguesa in [http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/ Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil]
- Portuguese Literature in [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12307a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia]
- Bergström, Magnus & Reis, Neves Prontuário Ortográfico Editorial Notícias, 2004.
- Lindley Cintra, Luís F. Nova Proposta de Classificação dos Dialectos Galego-Portugueses Boletim de Filologia, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos Filológicos, 1971.
- Mateus, Maria Helena & d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000) The Phonology of Portuguese ISBN 0-19-823581-X

External links

- [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=por Ethnologue report for Portuguese]
- [http://www.iilp-cplp.cv IILP] International Portuguese Language Institute
- [http://www.iilp-cplp.cv/pdf/iilp/acordoOrtografico.pdf IILP - Ortographic Agreement of 1990]
- [http://www.uea-angola.org/ União de Escritores Angolanos] Angolan authors
- [http://www.academia.org.br/ Academia Brasileira de Letras] Brazilian authors
- [http://www.spautores.pt Sociedade Portuguesa de Autores] Portuguese authors
- [http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/ Instituto Camões] Portuguese language studies
- [http://www.estacaodaluz.org.br/ Estação da Luz da Nossa Língua] Portuguese language studies in Brazil
- [http://www.ipor.org.pt/ Instituto Português do Oriente] - Portuguese language studies in Southeast Asia
- [http://www.observatoriolp.com/ Observatório da Língua Portuguesa] Observatory of Portuguese language
- [http://www.bibvirt.futuro.usp.br/ Biblioteca Virtual do Estudante de Língua Portuguesa] Virtual library for Portuguese language students
- [http://www.escolavirtual.pt/loginPE/comunidpt.do Escola Virtual] Virtual School. Portuguese language classes as taught in Portugal.
- [http://www.aulp.org/ AULP - Associação das Universidades de Língua Portuguesa] Portuguese Language Universities Association.
- [http://www.bn.pt Biblioteca Nacional] National Library of Portugal
- [http://www.bn.br Biblioteca Nacional] National Library of Brazil
- [http://www.dicionarios-online.com Dicionários-Online.com] A directory of Portuguese dictionaries.
- [http://www.priberam.pt/dlpo/dlpo.aspx Portuguese dictionary] A very complete Portuguese dictionary
- [

1965

1965 (MCMLXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link goes to calendar).

Events

January-February

common year starting on Friday
- January 4 - United States President Lyndon Johnson proclaims his "Great Society" during his State of the Union address.
- January 12 - Bodies of two 15 year olds - Christine Sharrock and Marrine Schmidt - found at Wanda Beach, Sydney (Wanda Beach Murders)
- January 14 - Prime Ministers of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland meet for the first time in 43 years
- January 24 - Winston Churchill dies at the age of 90.
- January 26 - Hindi becomes the official language of India.
- January 30 - Winston Churchill's funeral is held in London.
- February 6 - Sir Stanley Matthews plays his final First Division game, at the record age of 50 years and 5 days
- February 7 - US begins regular bombing of North Vietnamese towns and villages
- February 9 - Vietnam War: The first United States combat troops are sent to South Vietnam
- February 15 - A new red and white maple leaf design is adopted as the flag of Canada replacing the Union Flag and the Canadian Red Ensign.
- February 18 - The Gambia becomes independent from the United Kingdom
- February 20 - Ranger 8 crashes into the Moon after a successful mission of photographing possible landing sites for the Apollo program astronauts.
- February 21 - Malcolm X is assassinated on the first day of National Brotherhood Week at the Audubon Ballroom in New York City by Black Muslims

March

- March 7 - Bloody Sunday in Selma, Alabama
- March 8 - Vietnam War: 3,500 United States Marines arrive in South Vietnam becoming the first American combat troops in Vietnam
- March 8 - First US combat forces arrive in Vietnam
- March 9 - Second march from Selma to Montgomery under the leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr. stops at the bridge that was the site of Bloody Sunday to hold a prayer service and return to Selma in obedience to a court restraining order. White supremacists beat up white Unitarian Universalist minister James J. Reeb later that day in Selma, Alabama.
- March 10 - Goldie, a London Zoo golden eagle is recaptured after 13 days of freedom
- March 11 - White Unitarian Universalist minister James J. Reeb, beaten by White Supremacists in Selma, Alabama on March 9 following the second march from Selma, dies in a hospital in Birmingham, Alabama.
- March 18 - Cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov, leaving his spacecraft Voskhod 2 for 12 minutes, becomes the first person to walk in space
- March 21 - Ranger program: NASA launches Ranger 9 which is the last in a series of unmanned lunar space probes
- March 21 - Civil rights activists led by Martin Luther King, Jr. begin march from Selma to the capitol in Montgomery
-

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1965

Events

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