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Peter King, 1st Baron King Of Ockham

Peter King, 1st Baron King of Ockham

Peter King, 1st Baron King (c. 1669–22 July 1734), lord chancellor of England, was born at Exeter in 1669. In his youth he was interested in early church history, and published anonymously in 1691 An Enquiry into the Constitution, Discipline, Unity and Worship of the Primitive Church that flourished within the first Three Hundred Years after Christ. This treatise engaged the interest of his cousin, John Locke, the philosopher, by whose advice his father sent him to the university of Leiden, where he stayed for nearly three years. He entered the Middle Temple in 1694 and was called to the bar in 1698. In 1700 he was returned to parliament for Beer Alston in Devon; he was appointed recorder of Glastonbury in 1705 and recorder of London in 1708. He was chief justice of the common pleas from 1714 to 1725, when he was appointed speaker of the House of Lords and was raised to the peerage. In June of the same year he was made lord chancellor, holding office until compelled by a paralytic stroke to resign in 1733. He died at Ockham, Surrey, on the 22nd of July 1734. Lord King as chancellor failed to sustain the reputation which he had acquired at the common law bar. Nevertheless he left his mark on English law by establishing the principles that a will of immovable property is governed by the lex loci rei sitae, and that where a husband had a legal right to the personal estate of his wife, which must be asserted by a suit in equity, the court would not help him unless he made a provision out of the property for the wife, if she required it. He was also the author of the Act (4 Geo. II. c. 26) by virtue of which English superseded Latin as the language of the courts. Lord King published in 1702 a History of the Apostles' Creed (Leipzig, 1706; Basel, 1750) which went through several editions and was also translated into Latin.

References


- King, Peter King, 1st Baron King, Peter King, 1st Baron King, Peter King, 1st Baron King, Peter King, 1st Baron King, Peter King, 1st Baron

1669

Events


- March 11 - Mount Etna erupts - the eruption destroys the town of Nicolasi and kills 20.000
- June 22 - Roux de Marsilly publicly tortured to death in Paris accused of plotting to assassination of the Louis XIV
- June 25 - Francois de Vendome, Duke of Beaufort, disappears during a battle in a siege of Candia in Crete
- September 23 - Leopold I Habsburg grants the status and privileges of a university to the Jesuit Academy in Zagreb, the precursor to the modern University of Zagreb
- Samuel Pepys stops writing his diary.
- The Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb destroys several Hindu temples and banned the whole religion, so Hindus rebel.
- Antonio Stradivari makes his first violin
- Famine in Bengal kills 3 million people
- The Hanseatic League, formed 400 years ago, holds its final meeting
- Ottoman Turks take Candia, the Venetians lose Crete
- Francois de Beaufort, grandson of Henry IV of France, goes missing at Candia, presumed dead
- The Chinese herbal medicine company Tongrentang, or 同仁堂 in Chinese, is established.

Births


- February 2 - Louis Marchand, French organist and harpsichordist (d. 1732)
- May 26 - Sébastien Vaillant, French botanist (d. 1722)
- August 24 - Alessandro Marcello, Italian composer (d. 1747)

Deaths


- February 23 - Leo Aitzema, Dutch historian and statesman (b. 1600)
- March 10 - John Denham, English poet (b. 1615)
- May 14 - Georges de Scudéry, French writer (b. 1601)
- May 16 - Pietro da Cortona, Italian artist (b. 1596)
- June 25 - François de Vendôme, duc de Beaufort, French soldier (b. 1616)
- September 10 - Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I of England (b. 1609)
- October 4 - Rembrandt, Dutch painter (b. 1606)
- October 14 - Antonio Cesti, Italian composer (b. 1623)
- October 24 - William Prynne, English Puritan leader (b. 1600)
- November 4 - Johannes Cocceius, Dutch theologian (b. 1603)
- December 9 - Pope Clement IX (b. 1600)
- December 16 - Nathaniel Fiennes, English politician

Publications


- Algemeene Verhandeling van de bloedeloose dierkens by Jan Swammerdam, groundbreaking work in microscopy as well as entomology
- Der Abenteuerliche Simplicissimus Teutsch by Hans von Grimmelshausen, the first major German novel
- Tyrannic Love by John Dryden
- Tartuffe by Molière
- Britannicus by Jean Racine Category:1669 ko:1669년

22 July

22 July is the 203rd day (204th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 162 days remaining.

Events


- 1298 - Battle of Falkirk - Edward I (Longshanks) of England and his longbowmen defeat William Wallace and his scottish schiltrons outside the town.
- 1499 - Battle of Dornach - The Swiss decisively defeat the Imperial army of Emperor Maximilian I.
- 1587 - Colony of Roanoke: A second group of English settlers arrive on Roanoke Island off of North Carolina to re-establish the deserted colony.
- 1793 - Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific Ocean becoming the first Euro-American to complete a transcontinental crossing north of Mexico.
- 1796 - Surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company name an area in Ohio "Cleveland" after Gen. Moses Cleaveland, the superintendent of the surveying party.
- 1805 - Napoleonic Wars: War of the Third Coalition - inconclusive battle of Cape Finisterre fought between a combined French and Spanish fleets under Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve of Spain and a British fleet under Admiral Robert Calder.
- 1812 - Napoleonic Wars: Peninsular War - Battle of Salamanca - British forces led by Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) defeat French troops near Salamanca, Spain.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Atlanta - Outside of Atlanta, Georgia, Confederate General John Bell Hood leads an unsuccessful attack on Union troops under General William T. Sherman on Bald Hill.
- 1908 - Albert Fisher establishes the Fisher Body Company to manufacture carriage and automobile bodies.
- 1916 - In San Francisco, California, a bomb explodes on Market Street during a Preparedness Day parade killing 10 and injuring 40.
- 1933 - Wiley Post becomes first person to fly solo around the world traveling 15,596 miles in 7 days, 18 hours and 45 minutes.
- 1934 - Outside Chicago's Biograph Theatre, "Public Enemy No. 1" John Dillinger is mortally wounded by FBI agents.
- 1937 - New Deal: The United States Senate votes down President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposal to add more justices to the Supreme Court of the United States.
- 1942 - The United States government begins compulsory civilian gasoline rationing due to the wartime demands.
- 1942 - Holocaust: The systematic deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto begins.
- 1943 - Allied forces capture the Italian city of Palermo.
- 1944 - The Polish Committee of National Liberation publishes its manifesto, starting the period of Communist rule in Poland
- 1946 - King David Hotel bombing: Irgun bombs King David Hotel in Jerusalem, headquarters of the British civil and military administration, killing 90.
- 1962 - Mariner program: Mariner 1 spacecraft flies erratically several minutes after launch and has to be destroyed.
- 1977 - Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping is restored to power.
- 1991 - Serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer is arrested after the remains of 11 men and boys are found in his Milwaukee apartment.
- 1992 - Near Medellín, Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar escapes from his luxury prison fearing extradition to the United States.
- 1997 - The second Blue Water Bridge opens between Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario.
- 2002 - Israel assasinates Salah Shahade, the Commander-in-Chief of Hamas's military arm, Ezzedeen-al-qassam Brigades, along with 14 civilians.
- 2003 - Members of 101st Airborne of the United States, aided by Special Forces, attack a compound in Iraq, killing Saddam Hussein's sons Uday and Qusay, along with Mustapha Hussein, Qusay's 14-year old son, and a bodyguard.
- 2005 - A man is shot dead by police as the hunt begins for the London Bombers. See 7 July 2005 London bombings and 21 July 2005 London bombings
- 2005 - Microsoft releases the final name for its next-gen operating system, Longhorn. The name will be "Windows Vista".

Births


- 1210 - Joan of England, queen of Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1238)
- 1478 - King Philip I of Castile (d. 1506)
- 1510 - Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence (d. 1537)
- 1519 - Pope Innocent IX (d. 1591)
- 1535 - Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1621)
- 1559 - Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian monk (d. 1619)
- 1621 - Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, English politician (d. 1683)
- 1711 - Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Russian physicist (d. 1753)
- 1713 - Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect (d. 1780)
- 1733 - Mikhail Shcherbatov, Russian philosopher and writer (d. 1790)
- 1784 - Friedrich Bessel, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1846)
- 1822 - Gregor Mendel, Austrian geneticist (d. 1884)
- 1844 - William Archibald Spooner, English priest and scholar (d. 1930)
- 1859 - Emma Lazarus, American poet (d. 1887)
- 1882 - Edward Hopper, American painter (d. 1967)
- 1887 - Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)
- 1888 - Selman Waksman, Ukrainian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1973)
- 1893 - James Whale, English film director (d. 1957)
- 1898 - Stephen Vincent Benét, American author (d. 1943)
- 1898 - Alexander Calder, American artist (d. 1976)
- 1905 - Doc Cramer, baseball player (d. 1990)
- 1908 - Amy Vanderbilt, American author on etiquette (d. 1974)
- 1913 - Gorni Kramer, Italian bandleader and songwriter
- 1916 - Marcel Cerdan, French boxer (d. 1949)
- 1921 - William Roth, U.S. Senator (d. 2003)
- 1923 - Bob Dole, U.S. Senator from Kansas and Presidential candidate
- 1923 - Mukesh, Indian singer (d. 1976)
- 1924 - Margaret Whiting, singer
- 1928 - Orson Bean, American film actor
- 1932 - Oscar De la Renta, Dominican-born fashion designer
- 1934 - Louise Fletcher, American actress
- 1936 - Tom Robbins, American author
- 1939 - Terence Stamp, English actor
- 1940 - Alex Trebek, Canadian-born game show host
- 1941 - George Clinton, American musician
- 1941 - Ron Turcotte, Canadian jockey
- 1943 - Kay Bailey Hutchison, U.S. Senator from Texas
- 1944 - Estelle Bennett, American singer (Ronettes)
- 1944 - Rick Davies, British musician (Supertramp)
- 1944 - Sparky Lyle, baseball player
- 1946 - Mireille Mathieu, French singer
- 1946 - Stephen M. Wolownik, Russian musician (d. 2000)
- 1947 - Albert Brooks, American comedian
- 1947 - Danny Glover, American actor
- 1947 - Don Henley, American drummer, singer, and songwriter (Eagles)
- 1948 - S.E. Hinton, American author
- 1948 - Otto Waalkes, German comedian
- 1949 - Alan Menken, American composer
- 1949 - Lasse Virén, Finnish athlete
- 1954 - Lonette McKee, American actress
- 1954 - Al Di Meola, American guitarist
- 1955 - Willem Dafoe, American actor
- 1961 - Keith Sweat, American singer
- 1964 - Patrick Labyorteaux, American actor
- 1964 - John Leguizamo, Colombian actor
- 1964 - David Spade, American actor, comedian, and producer
- 1965 - Shawn Michaels, American professional wrestler
- 1966 - Tim Brown, American football player
- 1971 - Kristine Lilly, American soccer player
- 1972 - Keyshawn Johnson, American football player
- 1973 - Mike Sweeney, baseball player
- 1973 - Rufus Wainwright, American singer and songwriter
- 1974 - Daddy Kev, American record producer and engineer
- 1974 - Franka Potente, German actress
- 1978 - Dennis Rommedahl, Danish footballer
- 1980 - Scott Dixon, New Zealand race car driver
- 1980 - Dirk Kuyt, Dutch football striker
- 1983 - Shelby Belle, Canadian actress

Deaths


- 1362 - Louis of Durazzo, Italian soldier (poisoned) (b. 1324)
- 1387 - Franz Ackerman, Flemish statesman (b. 1330)
- 1461 - King Charles VII of France (b. 1403)
- 1525 - Richard Wingfield, English diplomat
- 1619 - Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian monk (b. 1559)
- 1645 - Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel, Count-Duke of Olivares, Spanish statesman (b. 1587)
- 1676 - Pope Clement X (b. 1590)
- 1713 - Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect (d. 1780)
- 1734 - Peter King, 1st Baron King, Lord Chancellor of England
- 1789 - Joseph-François Foulon, French administrator (executed) (b. 1715)
- 1802 - Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist (b. 1771)
- 1832 - Emperor Napoleon II of France (b. 1811)
- 1852 - Auguste Marmont, French marshal (b. 1774)
- 1904 - Wilson Barrett, English actor (b. 1846)
- 1908 - William Randal Cremer, English politician and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1828)
- 1916 - James Whitcomb Riley, American author and poet (b. 1849)
- 1922 - Jokichi Takamine, Japanese chemist (b. 1854)
- 1932 - Errico Malatesta, Italian anarchist (b. 1853)
- 1932 - Florenz Ziegfeld, theatrical producer (b. 1867)
- 1934 - John Dillinger, American bank robber (shot) (b. 1903)
- 1950 - William Lyon Mackenzie King, tenth Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1874)
- 1958 - Mikhail Zoshchenko, Russian writer (b. 1895)
- 1967 - Carl Sandburg, American poet (b. 1878)
- 1974 - Wayne Morse, U.S. Senator from Oregon (b. 1900)
- 1979 - Sándor Kocsis, Hungarian footballer (b. 1929)
- 1989 - Martti Talvela, Finnish bass (b. 1935)
- 1990 - Manuel Puig, Argentinian writer (b. 1932)
- 1998 - Hermann Prey, German bass-baritone (b. 1929)
- 2000 - Eric Christmas, British actor (b. 1916)
- 2003 - Qusay Hussein, son of Saddam Hussein (b. 1966)
- 2003 - Uday Hussein, son of Saddam Hussein (b. 1964)
- 2003 - Wahome Muthahi, Kenyan humourist
- 2004 - Sacha Distel, French singer (b. 1933)
- 2004 - George Kidd, Canadian diplomat (b. 1917)
- 2005 - Jean Charles de Menezes, Brazilian electrician (shot) (b. 1978)

Holidays and observances


- Saint Mary Magdalene
- Swaziland - Birthday of former King Sobhuza II
- Pi Approximation Day
- Ratcatcher's Day. See:The Pied Piper of Hamelin.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/22 BBC: On This Day] ---- 21 July - 23 July - 22 June - 22 August -- listing of all days ko:7월 22일 ms:22 Julai ja:7月22日 simple:July 22 th:22 กรกฎาคม

Lord Chancellor

The Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, or Lord Chancellor and in former times Chancellor of England, is one of the most senior and important functionaries in the government of the United Kingdom. He is a Great Officer of State, and is appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister and is, by convention, always a peer, although there is no legal impediment to the appointment of a commoner. The Lord Chancellor's responsibilities are wide-ranging: they include presiding over the House of Lords; participating in the Cabinet; acting as the custodian of the Great Seal; and heading the judiciary. Concerns over these wide-ranging powers have led to Tony Blair's administration proposing the abolition of the office. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 will transfer many of the powers to others. Since 2003, Lord Falconer of Thoroton has served as Lord Chancellor and also Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. A Lord Keeper of the Great Seal may be appointed instead of a Lord Chancellor. The two offices entail exactly the same duties; the only distinction is in the mode of appointment. Furthermore, the office of Lord Chancellor may be exercised by a committee of individuals known as "Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal". Since the 19th century, however, Lord Chancellors have been exclusively appointed, the other offices aforementioned having fallen into disuse.

History

The office of Lord Chancellor may trace its origins to the Carolingian monarchy, in which a Chancellor acted as the keeper of the royal seal. In England, the office dates at least as far back as the Norman Conquest (1066), and possibly earlier. Some give the first Chancellor of England as Angmendus, in 605. Other sources suggest that the first to appoint a Chancellor was Saint Edward the Confessor, who is said to have adopted the practice of sealing documents instead of personally signing them. In any event, the office has been continuously occupied since the Norman Conquest. Formerly, the Lord Chancellor was almost always an ecclesiastic, as during the Middle Ages the clergy were amongst the few literate men of the realm. The Lord Chancellor performed multiple functions—he was the Keeper of the Great Seal, the chief royal chaplain, and advisor in both spiritual and temporal matters. Thus, the position emerged as one of the most important ones in government. He was only outranked in government by the Justiciar (whose post is now obsolete). Justiciar.]] As one of the King's ministers, the Lord Chancellor attended the Curia Regis, or Royal Court. If a bishop, the Lord Chancellor received a writ of summons; if an ecclesiastic of a lower degree, or if a layman, he attended without any summons. The Curia Regis would later evolve into Parliament, the Lord Chancellor becoming the prolocutor of its upper house, the House of Lords. As was confirmed by a statute passed during the reign of Henry VIII, a Lord Chancellor could preside over the House of Lords even if not a Lord himself. The Lord Chancellor's judicial duties also evolved through his role in the Curia Regis. Petitions for justice were normally addressed to the King and the Curia, but in 1280, Edward I instructed his justices to examine and deal with petitions themselves as the Court of King's Bench. Important petitions were to be sent to the Lord Chancellor for his decision; even more significant ones were to be brought to the King's attention. By the reign of Edward III, however, a separate tribunal for the Lord Chancellor had developed. In this body, which became known as the High Court of Chancery, the Lord Chancellor would determine cases according to fairness (or "equity") instead of according to the strict principles of common law. The Lord Chancellor also became known as the "Keeper of the King's Conscience". Ecclesiastics continued to dominate the Chancellorship until the 16th century. In 1529, after Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, who was Lord Chancellor and Archbishop of York, was dismissed for failing to procure the annulment of Henry VIII's first marriage, ecclesiastics fell out of the royal favour, and laymen came to appointed to the office. Ecclesiastics made a brief return during the reign of Mary I, but thereafter, almost all Lord Chancellors have been laymen.

The Office

Formerly, when the office was held by ecclesiastics, a "Keeper of the Great Seal" acted in the Lord Chancellor's absence. Keepers were also appointed when the office of Lord Chancellor fell vacant, and discharged the duties of the office until an appropriate replacement could be found. When Elizabeth I became Queen, Parliament passed an Act providing that a Lord Keeper of the Great Seal would be entitled to "like place, pre-eminence, jurisdiction, execution of laws, and all other customs, commodities, and advantages" as a Lord Chancellor. The only difference between the two offices is the mode of appointment—a Lord Chancellor is appointed by formal letters patent, but a Lord Keeper is appointed by the delivery of the Great Seal into his custody. Formerly, it was customary to appoint commoners to the office of Lord Keeper, and peers to the office of Lord Chancellor. A Lord Keeper who acquired a peerage dignity would subsequently be appointed Lord Chancellor. The last Lord Keeper was Robert Henley, who was created a Baron in 1760 and was appointed Lord Chancellor in 1761. Since then, commoners as well as peers have been appointed to the post of Lord Chancellor; however, a commoner would normally be created a peer shortly after his appointment. It is also possible to put the office of Lord Chancellor into commission (that is to say, to entrust the office to a group of individuals rather than a single person). The individuals who exercise the office become known as "Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal". Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal have not been appointed since 1836. Formerly, there were separate Chancellors of Scotland and Ireland. When England and Scotland united to form Great Britain under the Act of Union 1707, a single Lord Chancellor was appointed for the entire realm. Similar provision was not made when Great Britain and Ireland merged into the United Kingdom under the Act of Union 1800. Thus, the separate office of Lord Chancellor of Ireland continued to exist until the formation of the Irish Free State in 1922. The office of Lord Chancellor of Ireland was abolished, and its duties transferred to the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. Thus, the Lord Chancellor remains "Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain", instead of "Lord High Chancellor of the United Kingdom".

Legislative functions

The Lord Chancellor is the Speaker (presiding officer) of the House of Lords. There is no statute explicitly granting him such a power; rather, he is Speaker by right of prescription. Even a Lord Chancellor who is a commoner may preside over the House of Lords, though in practice the Lord Chancellor is always a peer nowadays. There are, however, certain instances when the Lord Chancellor does not preside: for instance, the Chairman of Committees presides over the Committee of the Whole House. Furthermore, Deputy Speakers appointed by the Sovereign may take the place of an absent Lord Chancellor. A further historical instance may be mentioned: formerly, when peers had the right to be tried for felonies or for high treason by other peers in the House of Lords (instead of commoners on juries), the Lord High Steward, instead of the Lord Chancellor, would preside. (The office of Lord High Steward has generally remained vacant since 1421. Whenever a peer was to be tried in the House of Lords, a Lord High Steward would be appointed pro hac vice (for this occasion). In many cases, the Lord Chancellor would merely be elevated to the office of Lord High Steward temporarily.) This distinction is obsolete, as trials of peers in the House of Lords were abolished in 1948. The Lord Chancellor, when presiding over debates, sits on the Woolsack, wearing a full ceremonial uniform or court dress. The robes are black, with gold lace embroidery. Like other judges, the Lord Chancellor also wears a ceremonial wig. His powers as Speaker are not as broad as those of his counterpart in the House of Commons. Unlike the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor can neither determine who is to speak when two individuals rise at the same time, nor rule on points of order, nor discipline members who violate the rules of the House—all these functions are performed by the House of Lords as a whole. Furthermore, whilst speeches in the House of Commons are addressed to "Mr Speaker", those in the House of Lords are addressed to "My Lords". In practice, the only task of the Lord Chancellor in the Lords Chamber is to formally put the question before a vote, to announce the result of any vote, and to act (where appropriate) as the House's mouthpiece. Furthermore, the Lord Chancellor may end the adjournment of the House (or "recall" the House) during a public emergency. Whenever the Sovereign appoints Lords Commissioners to perform certain actions on his or her behalf (for example, to formally declare in Parliament that the Royal Assent has been granted), the Lord Chancellor serves as the principal or senior Lord Commissioner. The other Lords Commissioners, by convention, are members of the House of Lords who are Privy Counsellors. Instead of wearing the court dress described above, he wears Parliamentary Robes—a full-length scarlet wool gown decorated with miniver fur. The Lord Chancellor wears a tricorne hat, but the other Lords Commissioners wear bicorne hats. Unlike the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor is not expected to remain non-partisan whilst in office. Rather, the Lord Chancellor continues to serve as an active spokesperson for the government in the House of Lords. The Lord Chancellor may participate in debates; he either keeps his full court dress on and speaks from beside the Woolsack, or relinquishes his place to a Deputy Speaker, dons normal clothing and speaks from the Government Front Bench. Whilst the Speaker of the House of Commons cannot cast a vote (except when the other members are equally divided), the Lord Chancellor votes together with the other members. During debates in the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor and former Lord Chancellors are referred to by appellations in the form, "the noble and learned Lord, Lord X". Most other Lords are merely "the noble Lord, Lord X".

Executive functions

The Lord Chancellor is a member of the Privy Council and of the Cabinet. The office he heads was formerly known as the Lord Chancellor's Department. When Lord Falconer of Thoroton was appointed Lord Chancellor in 2003, however, the Department was renamed, becoming the Department for Constitutional Affairs. The Lord Chancellor gained the additional position of Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. Like all other Ministers, the Lord Chancellor must face Question Time, during which he answers the questions of members of his House. The Department headed by the Lord Chancellor has many responsibilities, such as the constitutional reforms (including reforms of the office of Lord Chancellor itself) and the administration of the courts. Furthermore, the Lord Chancellor nominates many judges in the courts of England and Wales, who are then appointed by the Sovereign. The Prime Minister retains the power to nominate senior judges—Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, Lords Justices of Appeal and the Heads of the Divisions of the High Court—but in practice does so after consulting with the Lord Chancellor. Furthermore, for historical reasons, lay magistrates in the Duchy of Lancaster are nominated by the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The Lord Chancellor also determines which barristers are to be raised to the rank of Queen's Counsel. Custody of the Great Seal of the Realm is entrusted to the Lord Chancellor. Documents to which the Great Seal is affixed include letters patent, writs and royal proclamations. The sealing is actually performed under the supervision of the Clerk of the Crown in Chancery (who holds the additional office of Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor). The Lord Chancellor does not maintain custody of the Great Seal of Scotland (which is kept by the First Minister of Scotland) or of the Great Seal of Northern Ireland (which is kept by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland).

Judicial functions

The Lord Chancellor performs several different judicial roles. He may participate in judicial sessions of the House of Lords, and is a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. (Former Lord Chancellors under the age of seventy-five years may do the same.) The Lord Chancellor is the President of the Supreme Court of England and Wales, and therefore supervises the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, the High Court of Justice of England and Wales and the Crown Court of England and Wales. He is also, ex officio, a judge in the Court of Appeal and the President of the Chancery Division. (Formerly, he was the chief judge of the High Court of Chancery, which was replaced by the Chancery Division in 1873.) The Lord Chancellor is not a member of the courts of either Scotland or Northern Ireland. Modern Lord Chancellors have in practice exercised their judicial functions very sparingly. The convention has developed that Lord Chancellors do not sit as judge in a case which involves the Government; in addition, many cases, will be outside the expertise or interest of the Lord Chancellor of the day. His functions in relation to the House of Lords and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council are usually delegated to the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. The task of presiding over the Chancery Division is delegated to the Vice-Chancellor, a senior judge. The present Lord Chancellor, Lord Falconer of Thoroton, has announced that, pending the reform or abolition of the office, he will no longer sit as a judge. Nevertheless, he has taken the judicial oath, and it is often said that the most important job of the Lord Chancellor is to preserve the independence of the judiciary, and to argue for the judiciary in the Cabinet.

Ecclesiastical functions

The Lord Chancellor performs various functions relating to the established Church of England. He appoints clergymen in such of the ecclesiastical livings under the patronage of the Crown as are officially listed as being worth less than £20 per annum. Furthermore, he exercises the same prerogative in regard to the less valuable livings in the Duchy of Cornwall when there is no Duke of Cornwall, or when the Duke of Cornwall is a minor. (The heir-apparent to the Crown, if he is the Sovereign's eldest son, is automatically Duke of Cornwall.) Finally, the Lord Chancellor is in some cases the patron of an ecclesiastical living in his own right. Thus, in total, he appoints clergymen in over four hundred parishes and twelve cathedral canonries. By law, the Lord Chancellor must be consulted before appointments may be made to certain ecclesiastical courts. Judges of Consistory Courts, the Arches Court of Canterbury, the Chancery Court of York and the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved are appointed only after consultation with the Lord Chancellor. The Lord Chancellor is, ex officio, one of the thirty-three Church Commissioners, who manage the assets of the Church of England. Furthermore, in his capacity as Speaker of the House of Lords, he appoints fifteen Lords to the Ecclesiastical Committee of Parliament, which considers Measures passed by the Church's General Synod before they become law. Formerly, Roman Catholics were thought to be ineligible for the office of Lord Chancellor, as the office entailed functions relating to the Church of England. Most legal restrictions on Roman Catholics were lifted by the Catholic Relief Act 1829, which, however, provides, "nothing herein contained shall … enable any Person, otherwise than as he is now by Law enabled, to hold or enjoy the Office of Lord High Chancellor, Lord Keeper or Lord Commissioner of the Great Seal". The words "as he is now by Law enabled", however, caused considerable doubt, as it was unclear if Roman Catholics were disqualified from holding the office in the first place. For the removal of all doubt, Parliament passed an Act in 1974, declaring that there was never any impediment to the appointment of a Roman Catholic. The Act nevertheless provided that, if a Roman Catholic were appointed to the office, then the Sovereign may temporarily transfer the Lord Chancellor's ecclesiastical functions to the Prime Minister or another minister.

Other functions

Under the Regency Act 1937, the Lord Chancellor is one of the five persons who participate in determining the capacity of the Sovereign to discharge his or her royal duties—the other individuals so empowered are the Sovereign's spouse, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales and the Master of the Rolls. If any three or more of these individuals determine that the Sovereign suffers from a mental or physical infirmity, the royal functions may be transferred to a Regent. The Lord Chancellor is also the Keeper of the Queen's Conscience. As Keeper of the Queen's Conscience, the Lord Chancellor was once also the chief judge of the court of Chancery in London, dispensing equity to soften the harshness of the law. The Lord Chancellor acts as the Visitor of many universities, colleges, schools, hospitals and other charitable organisations throughout the United Kingdom. When the rules of the organisation do not designate a Visitor, or when a vacancy in the office arises, the Sovereign serves as Visitor, but delegates the functions to the Lord Chancellor. Furthermore, some organisations explicitly provide that the Lord Chancellor is to act as Visitor; these bodies include St. George's Chapel, Windsor, the Royal Institution, the University of Newcastle upon Tyne and three colleges of Oxford University (namely Oriel College, St. Antony's College and University College). The power to appoint members of certain organisations is vested in the Lord Chancellor. These organisations include the governing bodies of Harrow School, Rugby School and Charterhouse School.

Ceremonies

Like the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor has an official residence within the Palace of Westminster. Before each day's sitting of the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor forms part of a procession that marches from his residence to the Lords Chamber. The Lord Chancellor is preceded by the Deputy Serjeant-at-Arms or Principal Doorkeeper of the House (who bears the Mace) and by the Purse-Bearer (who carries a large purse embroidered and decorated the Royal Arms and cypher.) The Lord Chancellor is followed by his Train-Bearer; the procession is later joined by the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod. The Mace is placed on the Woolsack, where the Lord Chancellor sits after a bishop has led the House in prayers. The Lord Chancellor participates in the ceremony of introduction, which takes place every time a newly created peer joins the House of Lords. Formerly, the ceremony involved an elaborate ritual. First, the new peer would have to kneel before the Lord Chancellor and present his writ of summons (which indicates a peer's right to a seat in the House of Lords). After a clerk read the writ aloud, the new peer would proceed to his seat along with two other peers. All three, after taking their seats, would immediately rise, doff their hats and bow to the Lord Chancellor, and then repeat the practice two more times. The ceremony of kneeling before the Lord Chancellor and of doffing hats was deemed undignified and unnecessary, and was changed in 1998; now, new peers must merely shake hands with the Lord Chancellor during introductions. The Lord Chancellor is also involved in the annual ceremony known as the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign delivers the Speech from the Throne (also known as the King's or Queen's Speech), outlining the agenda of the Government for the upcoming parliamentary session. (The content of the Speech is determined not by the Sovereign, but by the Prime Minister and other ministers.) When all are ready to begin, the Lord Chancellor proceeds up the steps to the Throne, kneels and presents a piece of vellum on which the Speech is written to the Sovereign. As he descends the steps to the Throne, the Lord Chancellor walks backwards, so as to keep from turning his back to the Sovereign. Upon the conclusion of the Speech, the Lord Chancellor once again kneels before the Sovereign to receive the piece of parchment, and once again descends the steps walking backwards. The ceremony of kneeling was dispensed with in the case of Lord Hailsham of St Marylebone, who suffered from arthritis. Lord Irvine of Lairg announced that he would not walk backwards whilst descending the steps to the Throne, but (despite much speculation) his successor, Lord Falconer of Thoroton, restored the tradition. At the most recent Queen's Speech, the Lord Chancellor did however announce that no one would be walking backwards and duly no one did.

Precedence and privileges

The Lord High Chancellor outranks all other Great Officers of State, with the exception of the Lord High Steward, which office, as aforementioned, has generally been vacant since the 15th century. Under modern conventions, the office of Lord High Steward is only filled on the day of a new monarch's coronation; thus, at all other times, the Lord Chancellor remains the highest ranking Great Officer. The importance of the office is reflected by the Statute of Treasons 1351, which makes it high treason to slay the Lord Chancellor. A Lord High Treasurer would be entitled to the same protection—but the office is now held in commission—as would a judge whilst actually in court, determining a case. The Lord Chancellor's position in the modern order of precedence is an extremely high one; generally, he is outranked only by the Royal Family and high ecclesiastics. In England, the Lord Chancellor precedes all non-royal individuals except the Archbishop of Canterbury. In Scotland, he precedes all non-royal individuals except the Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Although Lord Chancellor "of Great Britain", he maintains a position in the order of precedence in Northern Ireland; there, he outranks all non-royal individuals with the exception of the Anglican and Roman Catholic Archbishops of Armagh, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Archbishops of Dublin and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church. Throughout the United Kingdom, the Lord Chancellor technically outranks the Prime Minister, although the latter generally possesses more power. The precedence of a Lord Keeper of the Great Seal is equivalent to that of a Lord Chancellor. The precedence of Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal is much lower (see United Kingdom order of precedence). The Lord Chancellor is entitled to an annual emolument of £207,736 and to an annual pension of £103,868. Approximately fourteen per cent of the salary is paid by the House of Lords for the Lord Chancellor's services as Speaker; the remainder is paid from the Consolidated Fund. The Lord Chancellor's salary is higher than that of any other public official, including even the Prime Minister. Lord Falconer of Thoroton has chosen to claim only £98,899 of his salary—the same amount received by other Cabinet ministers in the House of Lords.

Reform

In recent years the combined executive, legislative and judicial functions of the Lord Chancellor have been seen by some as increasingly untenable. The position of the Lord Chancellor was also undermined by public outcries against the Lord Chancellor's judicial responsibilities, particularly when the previous Lord Chancellor, Lord Irvine of Lairg, refused to rule out sitting judicially (and, in fact, he did sit as a member of the Judicial Committee of the House of Lords). The Blair Government has proposed abolishing the office altogether, but has met with much opposition from those who feel that such an official is necessary to speak on the judiciary's behalf in the Cabinet, as well as from those who oppose a sudden abolition of so ancient an office. In 2003, Tony Blair chose Lord Falconer of Thoroton to be Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. At the same time, he announced his intention to abolish the office of Lord Chancellor and to make many other constitutional reforms. After much surprise and confusion, it became clear that the ancient office of Lord Chancellor could not be abolished without an Act of Parliament. Lord Falconer of Thoroton duly appeared in the House of Lords to preside from the Woolsack on the next day. The Lord Chancellor's Department, however, was renamed the Department for Constitutional Affairs. Lord Falconer of Thoroton, who holds the additional office of Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs, has agreed that he will not sit as a judge in any case. The Government introduced the Constitutional Reform Bill in the House of Lords in February 2004. The Bill sought to abolish the office of Lord Chancellor, and to transfer his functions to other officials: legislative functions to a Speaker of the House of Lords, executive functions to the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs and judicial functions to the Lord Chief Justice. The Bill also made other constitutional reforms, such as transferring the judicial duties of the House of Lords to a Supreme Court. In March 2004, however, the Lords upset the Government's plans by sending the bill to a Select Committee. Although initially seen as a move to kill the bill, the Government and Opposition agreed to permit the Bill to proceed through the parliamentary process, subject to any amendments made by the Committee. Recent media reports suggest that whilst the House of Lords may consent to some reforms, including the Government's plans to create a Supreme Court, it is unlikely to consent to the outright abolition of the Lord Chancellorship. On 13 July, 2004, the House amended the Constitutional Reform Bill such that the title of Lord Chancellor would be retained, although the Government's other proposed reforms were left intact. Then, in November 2004, the Government introduced an amendment in the Lords which wholly removed mentions of the Secretary of State for Constitutional affairs and instead changed them to ones about the Lord Chancellor, with the positions of Secretary of State and Lord Chancellor envisaged to be held by the same person. The final Constitutional Reform Act achieved royal assent on March 24, 2005.

See also


- List of Lord Chancellors and Lord Keepers
- List of Lord Chancellors of Scotland
- Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal
- List of British politicians by wealth at death

References


- Campbell, J., 1st Baron. (1868). Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England From the Earliest Times Till the Reign of King George IV, 5th ed. London: John Murray.
- [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/ctso01.htm Davies, M. (2003). Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the Lords, 19th ed.]
- [http://www.lcd.gov.uk/consult/lcoffice/index.htm Department for Constitutional Affairs. (2003). "Constitutional Reform: Reforming the Office of the Lord Chancellor"]
- [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200304/ldbills/030/2004030.htm House of Lords. (2003–2004). Bill 30 (Constitutional Reform Bill).]
- "Lord High Chancellor" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
- Category:Government of the United Kingdom Category:United Kingdom constitution ja:大法官

Exeter

The city of Exeter is the county town of Devon, in England, UK. It is located at . In the 2001 census its population was recorded at 111,066. The city's motto, Semper fidelis, was suggested by Elizabeth I.

Situation

Until the construction of main road by-passes in the twentieth century, Exeter was the lowest bridging point of the River Exe, and therefore developed as an administrative and route centre. From Saxon times until the nineteenth century, the diocese of Exeter covered the whole of the counties of Devon and Cornwall, and civil administration and services tended to follow the lines of the ecclesiastical. Exeter was also a port: the limit of tides of the River Exe lies below Exeter, and the small town of Topsham on the estuary (nowadays within the city limits) developed as a port for the city, but goods were transported to the city's quays in lighters. Eventually a ship canal was constructed so that ocean-going vessels could reach the city's quays, and this remained in regular use until ships increased in size with the development of steam power. It is still used for leisure boating.

Economy

The city provides strong industries and services to a sizable area. The Met Office, the main weather forecasting organisation for the United Kingdom and one of the most significant in the world, relocated from Bracknell in Berkshire to Exeter in early 2004. It is one of the three largest employers in the area (the others being the University of Exeter and Devon County Council), providing a welcome boost to the local economy. On June 26, 2004, Exeter was granted Fairtrade City status. In June 2005 it was singled out among towns with populations between 5,000 and 150,000 as the worst "clone town" in Great Britain. By "clone town" the New Economics Foundation meant "a place that has had the individuality of its high street shops replaced by a monochrome strip of global and national chains"; by the foundation's metric Exeter is the town most easily "mistaken for dozens of other bland town centres across the country." Exeter's High Street had only one independent shop at the time of the survey (a tobacconist), and the least varied selection of shop types, with "little more than clothing retailers, a few electronics shops and some stationery or bookstores" instead of the independence and diversity seen in towns such as Hebden Bridge, Peebles, and Lewes. Many local residents feel that this was a superficial judgement, and that the Foundation's researchers seem not to have looked very hard; while Exeter's independent shops do mostly eschew the High Street (a characterless example of quick post-war reconstruction following the 1942 bombing), there are plenty of them in the more interesting roads immediately connecting to it, as a recent survey by the Royal Town Planning Institute confirms.

History

The Latin name for Exeter, Isca Dumnoniorum , suggests that the city was originally a Celtic oppidum, or town, on the banks on the River Exe before to the foundation of the Roman city in c. AD 50. Such early towns, or proto-cities, had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by Julius Caesar in his Gallic Commentaries and it is not improbable that they existed in neighbouring Britain as well. Isca is clearly a Celtic generic noun and the Romans felt the need to label the city Isca Dumnoniorum, or the Isca of the Dumnonii, in order to distinguish it from such settlements as Isca Silurum (modern Caerleon-on-Usk in Monmouthshire). Isca Dumnoniorum was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in England. Significant parts of the Roman wall remain, though the present visible structure was largely created on the orders of Alfred the Great to protect the far west of his kingdom following the Viking occupation of 876. Most of its route can be traced on foot. There is a substantial Roman baths complex that was excavated in the 1970s.[http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba65/feat2.shtml], but because of its proximity to the cathedral, it has not been practicable to retain the excavation for public view. Exeter was also the southern starting point for the Fosse Way Roman road. In 876 Exeter was attacked and captured by the Danes. King Alfred drove them out the next year. The city was again besieged by the Danes in 894 however they were not able to take the city, and soon abandoned the siege. In 1067 the city rebelled against William the Conqueror who promptly marched West to besiege the city. The city submitted only after a 18 day siege. Part of the Capulation agreement was that all the nobles in the city would be confirmed in their positions as long as a castle was built. Exeter was held against King Stephen by Baldwin de Redvers in 1140 and submitted only after a three month siege when the supplies of fresh water ran out. In 1537, the city was made a county corporate. The Livery Dole Almshouses and Chapel at Heavitree were founded in March 1591 and finished in 1594. They can still be seen today in the street which bears the name Livery Dole. Exeter was at first a Parliamentary town in the English Civil War in the largely Royalist South West, but it was captured by the Royalists on the 4th of September 1643 and it remained in their control until near the end of the war. Early in the English Industrial revolution, Exeter's industry developed on the basis of locally available agricultural products, since the city's location on a fast-flowing river gave it ready access to water power. However when steam power replaced water in the later nineteenth century, Exeter was too far from sources of coal (or iron) to develop further. As a result the city declined in relative importance, and was spared the rapid nineteenth century development that changed many historic European cities. Exeter was bombed by the German Luftwaffe during WWII, in a 1942 raid that formed part of the Baedeker Blitz. Forty acres (160,000 m²) of the city, particularly adjacent to its central High Street and Sidwell Street, were levelled by incendiary bombing. Many historic buildings were destroyed, and others, including Exeter Cathedral, damaged. The city was rebuilt in the 1950s in an attempt to preserve its ancient heritage, though many feel that the post-war reconstruction was weak and failed to conserve partly-damaged structures that could have been saved, as well as making too many concessions to motor traffic. Currently, despite some local opposition, one rebuilt street, Princesshay, is being redeveloped again in a more modern style. Previously regarded as second only to Bath as an architectural site in southern England, Exeter is now a city with some beautiful buildings rather than a beautiful city. As a result, although there is a significant tourist trade, Exeter is not dominated by tourism.

Politics and administration

Exeter forms a single parliamentary seat. It is relatively marginal, and since the second World War its Member of Parliament has usually been drawn from the governing party. At the United Kingdom general election, 1997, Ben Bradshaw was elected as MP for Exeter, and he retained the seat at the elections of 2001 and 2005. Exeter's city council is a district authority, and shares responsibility for local government with the Devon County Council. In recent years, the city council has been dominated by Labour Party and Liberal Democrat members. Since 2003, no party has had a majority on the council.

Notable Buildings

240px
The front of Exeter Cathedral

Exeter Cathedral
Ruined gatehouse at Rougemont Castle. Note the red sandstone, characteristic of many older Exeter buildings.
Among the notable buildings in Exeter are:
- The cathedral, founded in 1050 when the bishop's seat was moved from the nearby town of Crediton (birthplace of Saint Boniface) because Exeter's Roman walls offered better protection against "pirates", presumably Vikings. A statue of Richard Hooker, the sixteenth century Anglican theologian, who was born in Exeter, has a prominent place in the Cathedral Close.
- The ruins of Rougemont Castle, built soon after the Norman Conquest; later parts of the castle are still in use as an Assize court, though a new courts complex is under construction and the castle will probably become accessible to tourists as a result.
- The Guildhall, the oldest municipal building in England still in use.
- The Guild of Tuckers and Weavers, a fine old building that is still used for smart functions.
- The Custom House in the attractive Quay area
- St Nicholas Priory in Mint Lane.
- A number of medieval churches including St Mary Steps which has an elaborate clock.
- 'The House That Moved', a 14th century Tudor building, earned its name in 1961 when it was moved from its original location on the corner of Edmund Street in order for a new road to be built in its place. Weighing more than twenty-one tonnes, it was strapped together and slowly moved a few inches at a time to its present day home. Many of these are built in the local dark red sandstone, which gives its name to the castle and the park that now surrounds it (Rougemont = red hill). A plaque near the gatehouse recalls that in 1685 Alice Molland the last person executed for witchcraft in England, was executed in Exeter. Northenhay Gardens located just outside the castle, is the oldest public open space in the whole of England, being originally laid out in 1612 as a pleasure walk for Exeter residents. Much of Northernhay gardens now represent Victorian design, with a beautiful display of trees, mature shrubs and bushes and plenty of flower beds. There are also many statues here, most importantly the War Memorial by John Angel and the Deerstalker by E.B.Stephens. The Volunteer Memorial from 1895, also in the gardens commemorates the formation of the 1st Rifle Volunteers in 1852. Other statues include John Dinham, Thomas Dyke Ackland and Stafford Northcote (a local landowner who was a Victorian Chancellor of the Exchequer).

Culture

Literature

The Exeter Book, an original manuscript and one of the most important documents in Anglo-Saxon literature, is kept in the vaults of Exeter Cathedral. The Exeter Book dates back to the tenth century and is one of four manuscripts that between them contain virtually all the surviving poetry in Old English. It includes most of the more highly regarded shorter poems, some religious pieces, and a series of riddles, a handful of which are famously slightly lewd. The Inquisitio Eliensis, the "Exon Domesday" (so called from the preservation of the volume at Exeter), is a volume of Domesday Book that contains the full details which the original returns supplied.

Theatre

The Northcott Theatre is located on the campus of the university and is one of relatively few provincial English theatres to maintain its own repertory company. Its annual open air Shakespeare performance in the grounds of Rougemont Castle is well regarded nationally. There are also two amateur theatre buildings with associated companies. The Barnfield Theatre was converted in 1972 from The Barnfield Hall which was built towards the end of the 19th century by Exeter Literary Society. The theatre is a charity and is used as a venue for amateur and professional theatrical companies.

Music


- The Cavern Club in Queen Street is the place to go for live punk and indie music
- Exeter does not have a resident professional orchestra. The Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra tours to the city regularly.
- The cathedral choir is nationally known, and the cathedral is frequently the venue for concerts by visiting orchestras.
- There is an annual Festival, of all the arts but with a particular concentration of musical events
- Children of the Drone is an improvisational music collective, based in Exeter since 2001

Museums and galleries


- The city museum is the Royal Albert Memorial Museum in Queen Street.
- The Phoenix Arts Centre occupies the former university site in Gandy Street.
- Spacex is a long established modern art gallery

Newspapers


- Express and Echo, daily (current)
- Flying Post, weekly (discontinued 1917, but revived in 1975 as an alternative community magazine)
- The Western Morning News, a Plymouth-printed daily regional paper, is also popular

Twin towns

Exeter is twinned with:
- Rennes in Brittany, France
- Bad Homburg in Germany
- Yaroslavl in Russia
- Terracina in Italy The city also seeks to maintain a relationship with HMS Exeter.

Colleges and Universities


- The University of Exeter has two campuses in the city, both notable for their attractive parkland. It is one of the largest employers in the city.
- Exeter is one of the four main sites of the University of Plymouth
- The Peninsula Medical School, a joint operation of the two universities, has one of its main sites in Exeter
- St Loye's School of Health Studies, well known for training in occupational therapy has now been incorporated into the University of Plymouth.
- Exeter College is a major Further Education college
- Exeter is home to several substantial language schools

Sports


- Exeter's football club, Exeter City F.C., was relegated from the Football League in 2003 after 83 years' membership.
- Rugby Union is popular in the south-west: Exeter's team is the Exeter Chiefs.
- The University of Exeter has a strong reputation in sport and regularly wins or comes close to winning national trophies in inter-university sports

Transport

Road

The M5 motorway to Bristol and Birmingham starts at Exeter, and connects at Bristol with the M4 to London. The older A30 road provides a shorter but sometimes slower route to London. Going west, the A38 connects Exeter to Plymouth and South Cornwall, whilst the A30 continues to Okehampton and North Cornwall.

Rail

There are two main line railway routes from Exeter to London, the faster Great Western Main Line route via Taunton to London Paddington and the slower West of England Main Line via Salisbury to London Waterloo. Another main line, the Cross-Country Route, links Exeter with Bristol, Birmingham, the Midlands, Northern England, and Scotland. Many trains on all three lines continue westwards from Exeter, variously serving Torbay, Plymouth and Cornwall. Local branch lines run to Paignton (see Riviera Line), Exmouth (see Avocet Line) and Barnstaple (see Tarka Line). There is also a summer weekend service to Okehampton for access to Dartmoor. Exeter is served by two main railway stations. Exeter St David's is served by all services, whilst Exeter Central is more convenient for the city centre but served only by local services and the main line route to London Waterloo. There are also five suburban stations, St. James Park, Exeter St. Thomas, Polsloe Bridge, Pinhoe and Digby & Sowton, served only by local services.

Air

There is a small airport near the city and the local airline, previously called Jersey European and British European but now known as Flybe, is a significant local employer. The Airport offers a variety of scheduled and charter flights including a seasonal service to Toronto in Canada.

See also


- Henry Phillpotts
- Exeter Book

External links


- [http://www.thisisexeter.co.uk/ Information site linked to the local newspaper]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Devon/Exeter/ Exeter (DMOZ.org)]
- [http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/z_sys_publicationdetail.aspx?pid=206 Clone Town Britain: The survey results on the bland state of the nation], identifying Exeter as the worst example
- [http://www.rtpi.org.uk/resources/press-releases/2005/pr20050613.pdf Press release from the Royal Town Planning Institute] condemning the NEF's "clone town" research as flawed
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/devon/4610965.stm Devon city tops 'clone town' poll], a June 2005 BBC article about the survey
- Arts
  - [http://www.exeterphoenix.org.uk/ Exeter Phoenix Arts Centre]
  - [http://www.northcott-theatre.co.uk/ Northcott Theatre]
  - [http://cnuk.org/ CNUK Media Foundation] Category:Towns in Devon Category:Cities in Devon Category:Exeter, Devon Category:English county towns Category:Cities in England Category:Local government in Devon Category:Shire districts

John Locke

John Locke (August 29, 1632–October 28, 1704) was a 17th-century English philosopher. He developed the Lockean social contract, which included the ideas of a state of nature, "government with the consent of the governed," and the natural rights of life, liberty, and estate. Locke was also the first to fully develop the idea of tabula rasa. Locke's ideas had an enormous influence on the development of political philosophy, and he is often seen as one of the most influential contributors to liberal theory as well as Enlightenment thinkers. Locke's writings formed the basis for many ideas of American revolutionaries as reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. Locke has often been classified, along with David Hume and George Berkeley, as a British Empiricist. He is perhaps most often contrasted with the contemporary Thomas Hobbes.

Biography

Locke's father, also named John Locke, was a country lawyer who had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War, and his mother Agnes Keene was a tanner's daughter that was reputed to be very beautiful. Locke was born on August 29, 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, 11.42 miles (18.38 km) from Bristol. He was baptized the same day. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and Locke's father's former commander. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to the college of Christ Church at Oxford University. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found reading modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658. Although he never became a medical doctor, Locke obtained a bachelor of medicine in 1674. He studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford, working with such noted virtuosi as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, ostensibly as the household physician. In London Locke resumed his medical studies, under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major impact on Locke's natural philosophical thinking - an impact that resonated deeply in Locke's writing of the Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke's medical knowledge was soon put to the test, since Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. It was in Shaftesbury's household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this period. Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France. He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn. It was around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, that Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. However, Locke fled to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot (though there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme). In the Netherlands Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place after his arrival back in England - the Essay, the Two Treatises and the Letter on Toleration all appearing in quick succession upon his return from exile. He died in 1704 after a prolonged decline in health, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver, east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married or had any children. Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held by the same monarch throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time.

Writings

The influences of Locke's Puritan upbringing and his Whig political affiliation expressed themselves in his published writings. Although widely regarded as an important influence on modern ideas of political liberty, Locke did not always express ideas that match those of the present day. Locke's first major published work was A Letter Concerning Toleration. Religious toleration within Great Britain was a subject of great interest for Locke; he wrote several subsequent essays in its defence prior to his death. Locke's upbringing among non-conformist Protestants made him sensitive to differing theological viewpoints. He recoiled, however, from what he saw as the divisive character of some non-conformist sects. Locke became a strong supporter of the Church of England. By adopting a latitudinarian theological stance, Locke believed, the national church could serve as an instrument for social harmony. Locke is best known for two works, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises of Government. The Essay was commenced in 1671, and as Locke himself described, was written in fits and starts over the next 18 years. It was finally published in December 1689. Though the exact dates of the composition of the Two Treatises are a matter of dispute, it is clear that the bulk of the writing took place in the period from 1679-1682. It was therefore much more of a commentary on the exclusion crisis than it was a justification of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, though no one doubts that Locke substantively revised it to serve this latter purpose.

A Letter Concerning Toleration

Locke originally published the Letter anonymously, in Latin, in Amsterdam, though it was almost immediately translated into English. He distinguishes a church from a civil government by the ends each pursues and by the means most appropriate to those ends. Government exists for the sake of peace, and must use force to achieve it; a church is a voluntary community for the salvation of souls, and must therefore use persuasion. Individuals cannot alienate control over their own souls, and so cannot make the government responsible for their salvation; force cannot bring about the changes necessary for salvation; and even if it could, there is no certainty that the religion doing the oppressing is the true religion. As a result, even were the government inclined to support a particular church, it could not do so without disturbing civil peace. Government may, however, regulate religion for political reasons, e.g., to forbid the public slaughter of all animals for health reasons, even if this prevents certain religious practices. Religious sects that refuse to accept Locke's doctrine of toleration of necessity seek a change in the government, and so may be suppressed as revolutionary. As there is no reason to keep promises without fear of God, and as civil peace requires that men keep their promises, the government may take an interest in promoting some form of religion.

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding

In the Essay, Locke critiques the philosophy of innate ideas and builds a theory of the mind and knowledge that gives priority to the senses and experience. His adherence to this doctrine is what marks him out as an empiricist rather than a rationalist such as his critic Leibniz, who wrote the New Essays on Human Understanding. Book II of the Essay sets out Locke's theory of ideas, including his distinction between passively acquired simple ideas, such as "red," "sweet," "round," etc., and actively built complex ideas, such as numbers, causes and effects, abstract ideas, ideas of substances, identity, and diversity. Locke also distinguishes between the truly existing primary qualities of bodies, like shape, motion and the arrangement of minute particles, and the secondary qualities that are "powers to produce various sensations in us" (Essay, II.viii.10) such as "red" and "sweet." These secondary qualities, Locke claims, are dependent on the primary qualities. In Chapter xxvii of Book II Locke discusses personal identity, and the idea of a person. What he says here has shaped our thoughts and provoked debate ever since. Book III is concerned with language, and Book IV with knowledge, including intuition, mathematics, moral philosophy, natural philosophy ("science"), faith and opinion.

Two Treatises of Government

The First Treatise attacks Sir Robert Filmer, who was the author of the first criticism of Thomas Hobbes and of a peculiar theory of the Divine Right of Kings. The Second Treatise, or True End of Civil Government, purports to justify the Glorious Revolution by 1) developing a theory of legitimate government and 2) arguing that the people may remove a regime that violates that theory; Locke leaves it to his readers to understand that James II of England had done so. He is therefore best known as the popularizer of natural rights and the right of revolution. Locke posits a state of nature as the proper starting point for examining politics. Individuals have rights, and their duties are defined in terms of protecting their own rights and respecting those of others. Through the law of nature, which Locke describes as "reason," we are able to understand why we must respect the natural rights of others (including the right to property for which one has labo