Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Atom

Atom

Atom je osnovna građevna jedinica tvari. Atom se sastoji od jezgre (koju čine protoni i neutroni) i elektrona koji se nalaze u ljuskama oko jezgre. Jezgra čini 99.98% mase atoma. Promjer jezgre (10-15 m) je 100 000 puta manji od promjera atoma (10-10 m). Prve ideje o atomu su dali grčki filozofi Leukip i njegov učenik Demokrit u 4. i 5. st. p.n.e. Oni su govorili da je svijet građen od beskonačnog broja nevidljivih i nedjeljivih čestica- atoma (atomos- nedjeljiv). Govorili su da su atomi vječni i da se razlikuju po obliku, težini, tvrdoći i veličini. Takođe, tvrdili su da se atomi kreću u praznom prostoru, pravolinijski- odozgo prema dole. Teži se brže kreću, sustižu lakše, grupišu i tako grade sve stvari. Demokrit je tvrdio da su prava svojstva atoma: oblik, veličina, težina, pokret i tvrdoća. Sekundarna svojstva su: boje, mirisi i okusi. ja:原子 ko:원자 ms:Atom simple:Atom th:อะตอม

Proton

Proton je subatomska, nukleonska pozitivna čestica. Subatomska znači da izgrađuje atom. Nukleonska je jer je sastavni dio jezgre (nukleus). Kopirano sa stranice na srpskom jeziku

Neutron

Neutroni su meutralno naelektrisane cestice unutar atoma.Nalazi se u atomskom jezgru.

Elektron

Elektron (također nazvan negatron) je subatomska čestica (satavni dio atoma). Predstavlja se notacijom e−. U atomu su pored elektrona nalaze protoni i neutroni. Elektron je negativno naelektrisan elementarnim nabojem koji iznosi -1.6 × 10;-19 kulona, sa masom oko 9,10 × 10-31 kg (0.51 MeV/c2), koja je 1/1800 dio mase protona. Elektron spada u klasu subatomskih čestica nazvanih leptoni za koje vjerujemo da su fundamentalne čestice (tj. da nemaju manje sastavne dijelove). Elektron ima spin 1/2, sto znači da je fermion, tj. podliježe Fermi-Dirakovoj statistici. U kvantnoj mehanici elektron se opisuje Dirakovom jednačinom. U Standardnom modelu je u formi dubleta u SU(2) zajedno sa elektronskim neutrinom sa kojim međudjeluje kroz slabu interakciju. Eelektron ima dva masivnija partnera istog naelektrisanja, različitih masa: mion i tau. Vjerovatan broj elektrona u svemiru je onaj sa 130 nula u nizu. Neki teoretičari smatraju da je elektron vrlo sličan maloj crnoj rupi.

Historija

G. Johnstone Stoney je odredio elektron jedinicom naboja u elektrohemiji, ali Thompson je prvi shvatio da se radi o elementarnoj čestici. Elektron je otkrio J. J. Thomson, 1897. u Cavendish Laboratory pri Cambridge univerzitetu, kratko studirajući "katodne zrake". Pod uticajem radova Maxwell-a, i otkrcia X-zraka, on je zaključio da katodni zraci sadrže negativno naelektrisane čestice koje on naziva "korpuskule".

Elektricitet

Usmjereno kretanje elektrona koji su oslobođeni uticaja atomskog jezgra nazivamo električnom strujom. Električni naboj direktno mjerimo elektrometrom. Električnu struju mjerimo galvanometrom. Neutralan atom ima jednaku količinu pozitivnog i negativnog naboja tj. broj protona u jezgru je jednak broju elektrona u omotaču. Za tijelo sa viškom elektrona kažemo da je "negativno naelektrisano", dok za tijelo sa manjkom elektrona kažemo da je "pozitivno naelektrisano".

Relevantni članci


- Standardni model
- Subatomske čestice
- Fotoelektrični efekat
- Svjetlost
- Lista čestica

Vanjski linkovi


- [http://pdg.lbl.gov/pdg.html Particle Data Group (eng.)]

Grčka

Historija

Najstariji stanovnici Grčke bili su Ahejci i Dorani.

Političke podjele

Geografija

Privreda

Stanovništvo

Kultura

Relevantni članci

Vanjski linkovi

Category:Države Svijeta Category:Mediteran ja:ギリシャ ko:그리스 ms:Yunani roa-rup:Gârţii simple:Greece th:ประเทศกรีซ zh-min-nan:Hi-lia̍p

Filozofija

Filozofija se može definisati kao pokušaj razumjevanja misterija egzistencije i stvarnosti. Također, filozofija pokušava razumjeti prirodu istine i znanja ali i pronaći osnovne ljudske vrijednosti u životu. Odnos između ljudskog društva i prirode je isto bitan dio filozofije koja pokušava iskoristiti ljudsku sklonost ka čuđenju, zanimanju i želji za razumjevanjem, kako bi se došlo do bitnog, kako bi se došlo do istine. Dakle, filozofija je proces analiziranja, kritiziranja, interpretacije i špekuliranja. Filozofija počinje od riječi fila - prijatelj i sofija - mudrost, dakle možemo reći da je to ljubav prema mudrosti. Ona pokušava spoznati istinu i svijet. Javlja se u VI stoljeću p.n.e. u staroj Grčkoj. To što se javlja imalo je svoje razloge jer je vladalo robovlasničko društvo i demokratija koji su omogućavali dokolicu. Pored toga Grčka je imala povoljan geografski položaj i eknomski razvoj. Robovi su omogučavali robovlasnicima da se bave umovanjem jer su robovi obavljali sve fizičke poslove.

Periodizacija


- ANTIČKA FILOZOFIJA
- SREDNJOVJEKOVNA FILOZOFIJA
- NOVOVJEKOVNA FILOZOFIJA
- SAVREMENA FILOZOFIJA

Filozofske discipline

1.Metafizika i ontologija (opća metafizika) Pravci:
- Materijalizam, idealizam
- Monizam, dualizam, pluralizam 2.Gnoseologija Pravci:
- Empirizam
- Senzualizam
- Racionalizam
- Intuicionalizam
- Kriticizam
- Iracionalizam (i drugi) 3.Etika 4.Estetika 5.Antropologija 6.Logika i metodologija

Metodologija


- Analiza
- Sinteza
- Apstrakcija
- Generalizacija
- Specifikacija
- Definicija
- Divizija
- Dedukcija
- Indukcija
- Analogija
- Eksperiment
- Dekonstrukcija (i drugo)

Relevantni članci


- Miletska škola
- Pitagorejski savez
- Elejska škola
- Posrednici
- Sofisti
- Atomisti
- Paradoks
- Dobro Category:Filozofija ja:哲学 ko:철학 ms:Falsafah simple:Philosophy th:ปรัชญา

Leukip

Leukip (5.st. p.n.e.) bio je začetnik atomizma, filozofskog mišljenja da je sve sastavljeno od raznih neuništivih, nedjeljivih (atomos-nedjeljiv) elemenata zvanih atomi. Nisu sačuvana nikakva pisana djela koja bi se mogla pripisati Leukipu, jer su njegova pisanja sadržana u djelima njegovog poznatog učenika Demokrita. U principu, ne moguće je pronaći mišljenja o kojima se Leukip i Demokrit nisu slagali. Leukip je rođen u Miletu (ili neki kažu u Eleji, jer se njegova filozofija može dovesti u vezu sa elejskom filozofijom), bio je suvremenik Zenona, Empedokla, Anaksagore koji su pripadali jonskoj školi filozofije. Njegova slava je tako zasjenjena Demokritovom, koji je sistematizovao svoje poglede o atomima, da je Epikurej sumnjao u njegovo postojanje, prema Diogenu Laertiju. Ali, Aristotel i neki drugi filozofi su mu pripisali otkriće atomizma.

Relevantni članci


- Filozofija
- Demokrit
- Atom Category:Filozofija

Demokrit

Demokrit je bio predsokratovski grčki filozof (rođen u Abderi-Trakiji 460-370. p.n.e.). Bio je Leukipov učenik i zajedno sa njim je začetnik ideje da su sve stvari sačinjene od raznih neunuštivih i nedjeljivih elemenata koje su zvali "atomi". Ne moguće je znati koje su ideje prvobitno bile Demokritove a koje Leukipove. Demokrit je i prvi poznati filozof koji je shvatio da je ono što mi nazivamo Mliječni Put ustvari svjetlost dalekih zvijezda. Drugi filozofi, uključujući kasnije i Aristotela, su debatovali protiv tih tvrdnji. Demokrit je bio jedan od prvih ljudi koji je predpostavio da je svemir sačinjen od mnogo svjetova, od kojih su neki naseljeni: "U nekim svetovima nema Sunca i Mjeseca, u nekim su veći nego u našem svijetu, a u drugim ih ima više. U nekim dijelovima ima više svjetova, a u nekim manje (...); u nekim se rađaju, u drugim umiru. Neki svjetovi su lišeni živih bića ili bilo kakvih mirisa." Mjeseca On je bio pionir matematike i geometrije. Ovo znamo radi citata u njegovih djela (O prirodi, O geometriji, O tangentama, O mapama, O iracionalnim brojevima) u drugim djelima, jer većima njegovih djela nije preživila Srednji Vijek. Aristotel nam kaže da je njegova teorija o materiji, često nazivama atomizam, bila reakcija na Parmenida, koji je opovrgavao postojanje kretanja, primijene, ili praznine. Parmenid je govorio da postojanje stvari dovodi do zaključka da one nisu nastale, jer ništa ne može nastati iz ničega (sve postoji oduvijek). Govorio je da je i kretanje ne moguće, jer nešto mora otići u prazninu a (pošto je identifikovao prazninu sa ništa) pošto praznina ne postoji ne može se u nju otići.

Gnoseologija

Parmenida Demokrit tvrdi da postoje dvije vrste spoznaje: mračna (čulna) i prava (razumska). Opažajima spoznajemo samo pojavne, promijenljive stvari, dok razumom spoznajemo trajnu istinu (atome i prostor). Demokrit je govorio da sve što postoji mora da je vječno, ali je opovrgavao tvrdnju da se praznina može izjednačiti sa ništa. Po tome je prvi poznati mislilac koji je potvrdio postojanje potpuno praznog prostora. Da bi objasnio promijene oko nas, od ne promijenljivih substanci tvrdio je da postoje razni osnovni elementi koji su uvijek postojali i koji se mogu grupisati da daju različite forme. Mislio je da atomi imaju samo neke osobine kao: veličina, oblik i masa; sve druge osobine, koje im dajemo, kao boja i okus, su samo rezultat kompleksnih djelovanja između atoma u našem tjelu i atoma koje posmatramo. Dalje, vjerovao je da prave osobine atoma uvjetuju i osobine materija- na primjer, nešto što je gorkog okusa je sastavljeno od malih, šiljatih atoma, kod nešto što je slatko je sastavljeno od velikih, okruglih atoma; odnosi tih atoma sa atomima jezika daju osječaj okusa. Neke materije su jako čvrste zato što njihovi atomi imaju kuke sa kojima se zakače za druge atome; neki su masni jer su jako glatki i mali pa mogu skliznuti između drugih atoma. u Demokratovim riječima, "Prema konvenciji slatko, prema konvenciji gorko, prema konvenciji vruće, prema konvenciji hladno, prema konvenciji boja: ali u stvarnosti atomi i prostor."

Etičko učenje

Demokrit je govorio da treba prevladati čulna zadovoljstva, jer sa njima spoznajemo samo pojavne, promijenljive stvari. Treba težiti trajnim vrijednostima.

Citati


- Prema konvenciji slatko, prema konvenciji gorko, prema konvenciji vruće, prema konvenciji hladno, prema konvenciji boja: ali u stvarnosti atomi i prostor
- Čovjek se treba više brinuti za dušu nego za tijelo

Relevantni članci


- Filozofija
- Leukip
- Atom

Vanjski linkovi


- [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Democritus.html Demokrit]
- [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/democrit.htm Demokrit iz internetske enciklopedije filozofije]
- [http://www.thebigview.com/greeks/democritus.html Leukip i Demokrit] ko:데모크리토스 ja:デモクリトス Category:Filozofija

Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses include activities common to many churches, such as evangelism, gathering for group worship and study, and donating money to support their religious activities. This article discusses how the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses as well as non-doctrinal organizational and cultural arrangements manifest themselves in the practices and stances of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Funding

Jehovah's Witnesses fund their activities, such as publishing, constructing and operating facilities, evangelism, and disaster relief via donations. There is no tithing or collection, but all are encouraged to donate to the organization; Witnesses typically provide an opportunity for members of the public to make such donations as they encounter them in their preaching work. Donation boxes labeled for several specific purposes, are located in Kingdom Halls and other meeting facilities. Generally there is a Kingdom Hall fund for operating expenses locally, and a general fund for the "Worldwide Work", which includes the printing of literature, organization of conventions, supporting missionaries and disaster relief. The accounts (including donations) and the financial operation of the local congregation are reviewed monthly with the entire congregation at the Service Meeting. (This meeting is open to the public.) Donations are also accepted via mail, and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society can be named as a beneficiary to an estate, and also accepts donations in the form of life insurance policies, pension plans, bank accounts, certificates of deposit, retirement accounts, stocks and bonds, real estate, annuities and trusts.

Evangelism

As their name implies, Jehovah's Witnesses are well known for their intensive witnessing, or, proselytizing, efforts. Witnesses generally refer to their evangelizing activities by terms such as: "preaching," "disciple-making", "service," "the ministry," and, more formally, but less frequently, "evangelizing." All members who are healthy enough are strongly encouraged to go from door to door, participating in this activity to the extent that their circumstances allow, every week if at all possible. Even children are encouraged to partipate, accompanied by their parents. Witnesses who spend at least 840 hours of witnessing during a year (an average of 70 hours per month) are known as 'regular pioneers'. Witnesses have, in the past, used a wide variety of methods to spread their faith, including information marches, where members wore sign boards and handed out leaflets, to sound cars, and syndicated newspaper columns and radio spots devoted to sermons. Between 1924 and 1957, the organization operated a radio station, WBBR, from New York. Currently, door-to-door evangelizing for the Witnesses involves endeavouring to engage persons in discussion of religious matters and offering literature about their faith, with the goal of starting a Bible study with anyone who shows an interest. The production of literature is supported by donations. No financial or material rewards are offered for conversion.

Kingdom Halls and Assembly Halls

Jehovah's Witnesses call their meeting places "Kingdom Halls" instead of churches, to indicate that the gathering of the congregation is what is important, not the physical location itself. In general, the buildings are functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. In many countries, the Witnesses have "Assembly Halls" where about twenty congregations meet two or three times a year for one-day or two-day Assemblies. In countries and areas without such Assembly Halls, or when attendance is expected to exceed seating capacity, the annual assemblies are held in borrowed or rented facilities suitable for the purpose, such as public auditoriums. The Assembly Halls are typically too small to accommodate the larger "District Conventions" and "International Conventions." Once a year Jehovah's Witnesses come together at larger assemblies called "District Conventions" which are usually three days long. Every fifth year "International Conventions", with visiting delegates from a number of foreign countries usually lasting three to four days, are held in selected cities. The attendance of some "International Conventions" number into the hundreds of thousands with the largest-ever gathering held in New York in 1958 at the Yankee Stadium and Polo Grounds with a peak attendance exceeding 250,000. The great majority of the Kingdom Halls and Assembly Halls, as well as the Watchtower Society's headquarters and branch office facilities around the world, have been constructed by the Witnesses themselves freely contributing their own time. The needed finances come from voluntary contributions made by Jehovah's Witness members according to each one's means and inclination.

Meetings

Congregation meetings are held three times a week. All meetings are generally synchronous, so that all congregations are studying the same material at the same meeting. Meetings of Jehovah's Witnesses open and close with prayer. Hymns called Kingdom songs are usually sung at meetings held in the Kingdom Hall, as well as at assemblies and conventions. Dress for meetings is local formal attire. For instance in most Western countries this would consist of a suit and tie for males, and conservative dresses/skirts for females (pants are considered inappropriate). Meetings are free to attend, and are open to the public.

The Theocratic Ministry School

On a weekday evening, the 'Theocratic Ministry School' is held. The School is designed to train Publishers to be more effective in their ministry. The publishers are trained in how to use the Bible. Over the course of a few years, the entire Bible is discussed and part of it is read aloud. The publishers are encouraged to read the rest personally. Then practical training is given on how to give a short public talk, doing Bible research, and presenting material to people one might meet in the public ministry. Enrollment is voluntary and open to all congregation members in good standing. Students in the school receive assignments on a rotating basis. At each meeting, six students give brief speeches on pre-selected Bible topics, and an instructor comments on the speech and offers commendation on specific points of delivery. Additional constructive critism is sometimes given privately. The Theocratic Ministry School is an hour in length.

The Service Meeting

This is followed by the 'Service Meeting', a training program for their preaching work. This forty-five minute meeting gives the publishers practical instructions that will help them to become better-qualified ministers, and more efficient in carrying on their house-to-house ministry (Luke 10:1-16; Acts 4:23-31). The program provides a variety of methods for instructing and teaching. There are talks, demonstrations, question-and-answer parts, interviews and discussions between two or more persons. Our Kingdom Ministry, a monthly publication of Jehovah's Witnesses, outlines the material to be covered during the Service Meeting.

The Public Talk

A qualified elder or ministerial servant delivers a discourse on a Bible-based subject. The speaker may be from the local congregation or from another congregation, usually nearby. This Public Meeting is generally held on Sundays, but can be on another day if that is more convenient for the congregation (this is most usual when more than 4 congregations share a Kingdom Hall). This talk is particularly directed toward interested members of the public who are not Jehovah's Witnesses.

The Watchtower Study

Generally following the Public Talk, after the intermission of a Kingdom Song, is the Watchtower Study. The Bible is studied with the aid of an article in the Watchtower magazine. An experienced elder (the Watchtower Study Conductor) leads the discussion from the platform. Each paragraph is read by a fluent reader who is a 'brother in good standing' and is assigned by the conductor for that week. Questions included in the article for that question are then posed to the audience. After calling on one or more in attendence to express themselves on that question, the conductor will often ask follow-up questions of his own or offer comments himself before moving to the next paragraph. Many of the numerous scriptures cited in the study article will be read aloud by called-on members of the audience. Four or five review questions are typically asked at the end of an article. These meetings usually last 2 hours from opening prayer to closing prayer.

The Book Study

At a separate time during the week the 'Congregation Book Study' is held, for which Witnesses meet in small groups of about 10 to 15, usually in the private homes of members, and typically lasting an hour. Spiritual topics are covered using a study book or a brochure prepared by Jehovah's Witnesses and Bible. The material usually has some questions prepared, and a discussion is encouraged starting with these questions. The Q&A format and conductor-reader arrangement is similar to the Watchtower study, but the meeting format is smaller, less formal, and more interactive. The elder who serves as conductor for a book study group is generally loosely responsible for 'shepherding' those publishers who attend it and for organizing field service meetings and arrangements for them.

Memorial of Christ's Death

Jehovah's Witnesses commemorate Christ's death as a ransom or propitiatory sacrifice by observing The Lord's Evening Meal, or Memorial, each year on Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish calendar. They believe that this is the only celebration commanded for Christians in the Bible. In support, they often quote Jesus' words: "'Keep doing this ... in remembrance of me.' For as often as YOU eat this loaf and drink this cup, YOU keep proclaiming the death of the Lord, until he arrives." (1 Corinthians 11:25, 26, NWT) Of those who attend the Memorial a small minority worldwide will partake of the eating of the unleavened bread and the drinking of the wine. (For statistics of the number of partakers in relationship to non-partakers, see Jehovah's Witnesses (Membership)) Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only a small minority, called the "anointed," can partake of the bread and wine. (see Jehovah's Witnesses (Salvation)) The persons who actually partake, are in general considered of the "anointed," though Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some of them may be in error. The celebration of the Memorial of Christ's Death proceeds as follows: In advance of the Memorial, Jehovah's Witnesses invite anyone that may be interested to attend this special night. The week of the Memorial is generally filled with special activity in the ministry (e.g. door-to-door work). A suitable hall, for example a Kingdom Hall, is prepared for the occasion. The Memorial begins with a song and a prayer. The prayer is followed by a discourse on the importance of the evening. A table is set with wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread stands for Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine stands for his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Hence, the wine and the bread are merely symbols (sometimes referred to as "emblems"), but they have a very deep and profound meaning for Jehovah's Witnesses. A prayer is offered and the bread is circulated among the audience. Only those who are "anointed" partake. Then another prayer is offered, and the wine is circulated in the same manner. After that, the evening concludes with a final song and prayer. It is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers.

Neutrality

Although in general respecting the law of the land, Jehovah's Witnesses do not salute flags, sing national anthems, or pledge allegiance to states or nations. This is not intended as disrespect for any particular nation or for governments; Witnesses recognize the legitimacy of political leaders, believing that they are the 'superior authorities' referred to by the Apostle Paul in Romans 13:1, and are therefore to be respected. Indeed, in many places, the Witnesses have been commended for their law-abiding stance. They make a distinction, however, between a show of respect and what they consider to be a manifestation of worship. Jehovah's Witnesses feel that saluting a flag or singing a national anthem crosses the dividing line between the two. This is because they believe they owe allegiance solely to Jehovah (God), that he alone may be worshipped. There are many scriptures that have had a bearing on the attitude of Jehovah's Witnesses toward involvement in political issues and activities. One key scripture is Jesus' statement: :
- John 17:16: "They are no part of the world, just as I am no part of the world." For Jehovah's Witnesses, Neutrality is defined as: :"The position of those who do not take sides with, or give support to, any of two or more contending parties. It is a fact of ancient and modern-day history that in every nation and under all circumstances true Christians have endeavored to maintain complete neutrality as to conflicts between factions of the world. They do not interfere with what others do about sharing in patriotic ceremonies, serving in the armed forces, joining a political party, running for a political office, or voting." - (Reasoning from the Scriptures, pages 269-270) In this regard, Jehovah's Witnesses feel that their position is similar to that of the early Christians, who refused to sacrifice a few drops of wine or a few grains of incense to the Roman emperors even when faced with execution.

Saluting flags

Among the results of this belief in the United States are several cases of Constitutional law regarding the Pledge of Allegiance. The early cases establishing that government schools cannot mandate the Pledge, or the salute to the flag, all involved Witness students punished or threatened for their refusal. Some courts in other countries have also protected the Witnesses' right to abstain from patriotic ceremonies. For example, in 1986, the Supreme Court of India held that no one can be forced to join in the singing of the national anthem if the person has a genuine, conscientious religious objection. In a decision handed down on 1 March 1993, the Philippine Supreme Court ruled unanimously in favor of Jehovah's Witnesses in a case involving Witness youths who were expelled from school because they respectfully declined to salute the flag.

Military service

Additionally, Jehovah's Witnesses refuse to serve in military organizations, citing the principle they call Christian Neutrality. They understand Jesus' words , "They are no part of the world, just as I am no part of the world," to mean that they should take a neutral stand concerning political and military controversies. They further cite Jesus' words that "all those who take the sword will perish by the sword" (Matthew 26:52) and the prophecy of Isaiah (chapter 2, verse 4): "Nation will not lift up sword against nation, neither will they learn war any more." Historically, this refusal to join the military has created serious difficulties for Jehovah's Witnesses, particularly in war time. During World War II, young Witnesses in a number of countries were executed for their conscientious objection to war; even in more democratic countries they were generally refused exemption from conscription and have often been imprisoned. Currently, there is less conflict between Witnesses and most governments over this matter, as many countries have abolished conscription, whereas others have recognized the views of conscientious objectors and thus instituted the right to alternative civilian service, which Witnesses generally accept. In certain republics of the former Soviet Union, however, as well as in South Korea, Singapore, and some countries in Africa, young Witness males continue to serve prison terms in connection with this issue. At the end of 2004 there were 758 Witnesses imprisoned over this issue in South Korea. During World War II Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted by the Allies and the Axis powers for refusing to participate in these powers' respective war efforts. (See Jehovah's Witnesses and the Holocaust). Jehovah's Witnesses are not pacifists, that is to say, they are not opposed to the use of violence in all circumstances. They recognize, for instance, the legitimacy of the wars between the ancient nation of Israel and surrounding nations, and point out that passages in both the Old and New Testaments refer to God using warlike methods at times.

Political activity

In harmony with the principle of Christian neutrality, referred to above, Jehovah's Witnesses are discouraged from voting in elections, but not prohibited from voting. (Watchtower 1 Nov 1999. p.28) They do not however run for any political office. On the other hand, they do not seek to prevent or discourage others (non-Witnesses) from doing so, if they so desire.

Association

Jehovah's Witnesses are a close-knit community (members address each other as Brother and Sister) and take seriously the Scriptural injunction to "be no part of the world," thus many are not inclined to socialize with non-members, whom they consider "bad association." Since a Witness has social interactions while on the job or at school, he is encouraged to use these times for witnessing to non-members. Such contacts are often used as opportunities for starting conversations about their beliefs, "informal witnessing," as they call it. Some of the training and study that goes on during the three weekly meetings involves the proper way to witness to a non-member. It must be noted, though, that even though Witnesses are looking for opportunities to speak about their faith, they are ordinary people with other everyday interests and concerns. However, most of them hold their religion to be the most important thing in their life. Each congregation operates under the oversight of a body of elders. Social events deemed to be wholesome are encouraged, since they strengthen the bonds of the congregation. However, if elders deem a social event to be inappropriate then it is likely that some action would be taken to preserve the group's identity and values, likely bringing a scripture or elsewhere-published spiritual information to the attention of those in need of it. It is not, however, the role of elders to make decisions for the congregation's members. In 1995, The Watchtower gave the following direction to elders: "In matters of conscience, therefore, elders do not make decisions for those under their care. They explain the Bible principles involved in a matter and then allow the individuals involved to use their own powers of reason to make a decision. This is a serious responsibility, yet it is one that the individual himself must bear." (6/15, page 22.) Coming from different backgrounds and living different lives, Christians highlight different things. Things that are not directly regulated in the Bible are matters that each person himself must decide on. Some have a very hard view with a conscience that can allow for almost nothing, while some have a more forgiving attitude. Paul brought up this discussion in Romans 14:1-9: "Welcome the man having weaknesses in his faith, but not to make decisions on inward questionings. One man has faith to eat everything, but the man who is weak eats vegetables. Let the one eating not look down on the one not eating, and let the one not eating not judge the one eating, for God has welcomed that one. Who are you to judge the house servant of another? To his own master he stands or falls. Indeed, he will be made to stand, for Jehovah can make him stand. One man judges one day as above another; another man judges one day as all others; let each man be fully convinced in his own mind. He who observes the day observes it to Jehovah. Also, he who eats, eats to Jehovah, for he gives thanks to God; and he who does not eat does not eat to Jehovah, and yet gives thanks to God. None of us, in fact, lives with regard to himself only, and no one dies with regard to himself only; for both if we live, we live to Jehovah, and if we die, we die to Jehovah. Therefore both if we live and if we die, we belong to Jehovah. For to this end Christ died and came to life again, that he might be Lord over both the dead and the living." Sociologist Rodney Stark notes: "Jehovah's Witnesses are expected to conform to rather strict standards, [but] enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group. That is, while Witness elders can impose rather severe sanctions (such as expulsion and shunning) on deviant members, they seldom need to do so -- and when they do, the reasons for their actions will be widely-known and understood within the group. Moreover, even if leaders are not always very democratic, the path to leadership is. As a result, Witnesses tend to see themselves as part of the power structure, rather than subjected to it. It is this, not 'blind fanaticism' (as is so often claimed by outsiders and defectors), that is the real basis of authority among Witnesses." [http://lsb.scu.edu/econrel/Downloads/JWGrow-O.pdf (Journal of Contemporary Religion)] (A note on Jehovah's Witnesses and democracy: As of 1932, Jehovah's Witnesses are not a democratic, but a theocratic organization. Appointment of elders and overseers in the congregation is a decision made by the elders already serving there, in conjunction with regional overseers and the national branch office, there is no election process and no vote of members is taken. However, in some situations, where local law requires the congregation to be an incorporated society or similar legal entity, congregation members may be asked to confirm their approval of a decision, often involving the spending of (donated) congregation funds.) Although many young Witnesses do engage in casual recreational sports, the association discourages its members from extensively participating in athletic activities to avoid giving undue importance to sports or recreation. Members are discouraged (but not prohibited) from watching or participating in violent sports. Members not of marriageable age are strongly discouraged from courting, which, the Witnesses believe, is for those considering marriage only and should be avoided until both members are prepared for marriage. Little research has been done on the average age at which Witnesses marry, but former and current members agree that witnesses are more likely to marry at an early age - often between their late teens and early twenties. A 1994 survey in which all Jehovah's Witnesses in the Federal Republic of Germany were invited to participate, revealed that only 4.9% of them are divorced or separated, and many of these were already in this state before becoming Witnesses. The 2001 academic study ARIS identified an above average number of single, never-married adults in the U.S. among those self-identifying as Witnesses (27%), as well as below average numbers of unmarried cohabiting adults and separated or divorced adults. The same study noted that 71% of adults self-identifying as Witnesses were female.

Disfellowshipping (excommunication)

All members are expected to abide by Bible requirements as understood by Jehovah's Witnesses, and serious violations of these requirements can result in disfellowshipping, or excommunication. There are number of offenses, which can result in disfellowshipping. These include:
- abortion
- adultery
- apostasy
- bestiality
- blood transfusions
- drug abuse (non-medical)
- drunkenness
- extortion
- fornication
- fraud
- gambling
- heresy
- homosexual activity
- incest
- idolatry
- loose conduct
- manslaughter
- murder
- perverted sex relations
- polygamy
- sexual abuse of children
- spiritism
- theft
- use of tobacco Until at least 1968, organ transplant was also a disfellowshipping offence, viewed by the Watchtower Society as cannibalism. No individual arbitrarily determines that the practice of a particular sin requires disfellowshipping. Rather, this action is Scripturally required only when a member of the congregation unrepentantly engages in gross sins, such as those enumerated in the 5th chapter of First Corinthians. Thus, while a Christian may be disfellowshipped for practicing fornication, this occurs only if the individual refuses to accept the spiritual assistance of the elders and repent (evidenced by discontinuing the wrong conduct or their attitude toward it). A judicial committee (usually 3 elders) meets with the alleged offender, assesses whether a serious sin has been committed, and then decides whether the individual seems genuinely repentant. Elders are directed to take into account the personality of the individual rather than applying rigid determining factors for repentance. Some reasons for disfellowshipping are not explicitly listed in the Bible, and are the Governing Body's interpretation of Bible-based principles (not rules or laws) for Christians. Gambling is one such area. The Bible does not contain an explicit condemnation of gambling even though it was a common practice in Christian times; however there are principles that apply for those who claim to worship him. For example, the prophet Isaiah wrote about those who are "setting in order a table for the god of Good Luck" as something detestable to Jehovah. (Isaiah 65:11) Such conduct is equivalent in the Governing Body's eyes to idolatry, something that is explicitly prohibited in the Bible. Therefore, the Witnesses believe that God hates practices that "promote a superstitious belief in luck" [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2002/7/22/article_03.htm], or greediness, though it is difficult to see how many forms of forbidden gambling fall under these categories, such as using a free lottery ticket. Many Witnesses will nevertheless 'err on the side of caution,' choosing not to appear to approve of any practice which tacitly or actively promotes, or fails to condemn, gambling. If a baptised Witness begins to teach doctrines contrary to the organisation's interpretation of the Bible it is grounds for disfellowshipping for apostasy. Far more extreme, however, is that, according to a letter dated 1 September 1980 from the Watchtower Society to all Circuit and District overseers, anyone who "merely disagrees in thought with any of the Watch Tower Society's teachings is committing apostasy and is liable for disfellowshipping." (See Franz, Raymond. Crisis of Conscience. 4th ed. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 2004. pp. 341-2. ISBN 0-914675-24-9) Jehovah's Witnesses, particularly their leadership, believe that in becoming a member, a person voluntarily accepts to be perpetually bound to accept whatever is taught, including new or changed teachings that occur after their baptism, as well as information that they later, through further research, believe to be inconsistent. Immediately before baptism, baptismal candidates are asked the question, "Do you understand that your dedication and baptism identify you as one of Jehovah’s Witnesses in association with God’s spirit-directed organization?" Following this, it is suggested that any deviation from accepting Jehovah's Witness teachings may be viewed as apostasy, and subject to disfellowshipping. (However, it is disputed whether such voluntary acceptance of all future or further-researched teachings is valid, as the baptismal question relies on the assertion that the organization is indeed "spirit-directed", which specifically becomes subject to doubt if the doctrines on which the belief of "spirit-direction" is based come under question.) One needs to make oneself familiar with the Witnesses' application of Bible principles to understand whether or not they may be subject to disfellowshipping or reproval. As the understanding changes over time things that have been reasons at one time are no longer reasons at another time, such as organ transplants. The congregation elders try to help erring ones be restored to spiritual health. They recognize that "all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God." (Romans 3:23). Repentant wrongdoers can often remain in the congregation. Elders also believe they have a scriptural obligation to uphold Jehovah's reputation and keep the congregation clean of wrong conduct. Individuals that continue to practice such things show by their conduct that they do not really want to be a part of the congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses. Disfellowshipping is not automatic, even when a person is accused of one of the above transgressions. In serious judicial matters, Jehovah's Witnesses apply the biblical principle from Deuteronomy 17:6 that accusations must be substantiated by at least two witnesses, unless the person confesses voluntarily (which has sometimes created serious difficulties in regards to cases involving child abuse and has been a cause for negative publicity). In these cases, a committee of elders examines the evidence and seeks to determine whether the person has ceased the questionable activity and repented. If that is not the case, the person is likely to be disfellowshipped. A person can appeal a decision to disfellowship him if he believes that a serious error in judgment has been made. Requests for appeal must be made in writing and within seven days of the decision of the judicial committee. Sometimes Jehovah's Witnesses will class someone as "disassociated" if they have practiced the conduct mentioned and a judicial hearing is not possible. In the past, unbaptized active members of Jehovah's Witnesses were disciplined in a practice similar to disfellowshipping which was termed disassociation. This practice has changed and shunning is no longer practiced towards such persons, though the normal standard of 'bad association' still applies.

Shunning

Jehovah's Witnesses practice shunning (ignoring) after disfellowshipping and disassociation because they believe that:
- to tolerate violations of the Bible's standards in their ranks would bring reproach on God’s name and organization.
- shunning keeps the congregation free of possible corrosive influences (leaven, as the Apostle Paul calls it in 1 Corinthians 5:6-8,10-13; 2 John 10,11)
- there is hope that such a serious measure will motivate the person in question to re-evaluate his course of action, repent and rejoin the organisation. (2 Corinthians 2:6,7) Shunning is also practised when written letters of disassociation have been submitted by an individual, or if it is believed that a person has disassociated by their actions, such as by attending another religion's services; thus Jehovah’s Witnesses refer to these as "disassociated". In either case ("disfellowshipping" or "disassociating"), an announcement is made at the Kingdom Hall that "[name] is no longer one of Jehovah’s Witnesses." Congregation members are not informed whether a person is being shunned due to "disfellowshipping" or "disassociation", or on what grounds. Formerly, the congregation was informed that a former member was either "disassociated" or "disfellowshipped". There has been speculation by former members that this change was introduced to make it less apparent that many are "disassociating" due to doctrinal inconsistencies, in an effort to minimize further members questioning Witness doctrines. Shunning, as practiced by the Witnesses, takes a less extreme form than that of the Old Order Amish. Because Witnesses' social life generally revolves around association with fellow believers, being shunned can isolate a member in a very powerful way. Being disfellowshipped can be devastating if everyone in a member's social circle participates in the shunning. Witnesses are expected to shun family members, except those living in the same household. In this case, social contact and normal family ties continue as before, with the exception that the remaining Witness members of the family will not share in Bible study, prayer, or discussions of faith-related matters with the disfellowshipped member. Once the person has moved out from home shunning is generally practiced. The organization discourages association with disfellowshipped family members living outside the home, but recognizes the need for a certain degree of contact, for instance, to discuss necessary family business, or to provide care for aged parents who are disfellowshipped. In practice, most disfellowshipped persons continue to have a limited degree of association with family members who remain in the organization. A Witness can even be disfellowshipped for certain kinds of association with close relatives, as described in the guidebook given to elders, "Pay Attention to Yourselves and all the Flock" p.103, "Normally, a close relative would not be disfellowshipped for associating with a disfellowshipped person unless there is spiritual association or an effort made to justify or excuse the wrongful course." The September 15, 1981 Watchtower provides the basis for Judicial practices regarding communication with family members. If the family member lives outside the home, this Watchtower limits such communication to "care of necessary family matters" and states that family members "should strive to avoid needless association." Pay Attention references this 1981 Watchtower as its only source, outside the Bible, for guidance on this matter ("Watchtower September 1, 1981 pages 20-31"; Pay Attention p. 103) Elder are instructed to "remove unrepentant wrongdoers." (Pay Attention Unit 5(a) p. 92) Failure to adhere to the guidelines on shunning is considered wrongdoing. It is the practice of Jehovah's Witnesses to disfellowship individuals who do not repent after associating with an expelled person. It is believed that such persons, by "speaking to or associating with a disfellowshipped or disassociated person," have made themselves "a sharer in his wicked works." (Pay Attention Unit 5(a) p. 103)

Reinstatement after disfellowshipping

Disfellowshipping is not necessarily permanent. If a disfellowshipped person repents of his former conduct, he may be reinstated into the congregation. No specific period of time is prescribed before this can happen; in most cases, at least six months pass, in many cases, considerably longer. Statistics appear to show that about one third of those disfellowshipped eventually return to the group. Note that if Witness policy changes result in previously forbidden acts no longer being cause for disfellowshipping, those individuals disfellowshipped for the act are not automatically reinstated. An individual is disfellowshipped because his or her actions and/or attitude demonstrate that he or she is unrepentant, not simply because the individual has been found by the congregation to have committed a serious sin. Their repentance (or the lack thereof) is the real issue, not a change in policy. Because of the intangibleness of this stance, members must acquiesce with any rule about any particular act being classed as a 'serious sin' or face a judicial committee.

Legal opinion of the practice

In February 1987, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Witnesses' right to disfellowship those who fail to live by the group's standards and doctrines. In so deciding, it upheld the ruling of a lower court that: "Shunning is a practice engaged in by Jehovah’s Witnesses pursuant to their interpretation of canonical text, and we are not free to reinterpret that text . . . The defendants are entitled to the free exercise of their religious beliefs . . . The members of the Church [she] decided to abandon have concluded that they no longer want to associate with her. We hold that they are free to make that choice." For a detailed explanation of the practise from a Witness viewpoint, see the [http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/1988/4/15/article_01.htm Official Watchtower Website.]

Medicine and health

The Witnesses' teachings in general promote a healthy lifestyle. Magazine articles in the Awake! oftentimes discuss ways of maintaining both mental and physical health. In general, they encourage standard medical practices such as regular checkups, reliance on modern medical techniques to treat illnesses, etc. except when they consider certain techinques to violate Bible principles. They believe that smoking and recreational drug use is incompatible with Christian principles. (2 Corinthians 7:1) Mostly due to the legality, the addictive nature, and established health risks associated with those activities. Drinking alcohol is viewed as permissible, since there is precedence in the Bible. If one of Jehovah's Witnesses does drink, it should only be "a little." (Psalm 104:15; 1 Timothy 5:23) Drunkenness is not permitted. (1 Corinthians 6:9,10; Ephesians 5:18)

Overview of blood-based treatments

Jehovah's Witnesses view of blood has been a common source of controversy. Though Jehovah's Witnesses view "Abstinence from blood" to have health benefits, it cannot be overemphasized that the basis for the belief is a spiritual one, not a medical one. The current stand on blood is to reject whole blood transfusions and four of the major components of blood, these being, red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma and platelets. Since 1945, Jehovah's Witnesses have refused to receive homologous or autologous blood transfusions. This is because they consider blood to be sacred, representing life, and that the proper treatment of blood once it leaves the body is for it to be "poured out" or disposed of. This is an inconsistency in the teaching as blood fractions may be transfused and blood samples given for blood tests. Further, they point to Bible texts such as Acts 15:29, which admonish Christians to "abstain from ... blood." (See official position see: [http://watchtower.org/library/hb/ How Can Blood Save Your Life?]) The blood doctrine has had major changes over time. Originally Bible Students followed the generally accepted Christian understanding that to eat or transfuse blood was acceptable. The statement at Acts 15:29 to abstain from blood was taken to apply only to congregations that had a mix of Jews and Gentiles. (Watchtower 1909 April 15 pp.116-117) Blood was not forbidden to be eaten until 1927. (Watchtower 1927 December p.371) In 1945 blood transfusions were also forbidden (Watchtower 1945 July 1 p.198-201) and in 1961 to have a blood transfusion would result in being disfellowshipped (Watchtower 1961 January 15 pp. 63-64). This included transfusing whole blood, haemoglobin and minor blood fractions. Since the 1980’s there has been an easing of the blood policy. The Awake 1982 June 22 p.25 contained a list of minor blood components that were now allowable to be transfused by a Jehovah’s Witness. In the Watchtower 1995 August 1 p.30 Acute Normovolemic Hemodilution (ANH) and autologous blood salvage procedure (Cell Saver) were stated as acceptable despite being briefly stored outside the blood. Major changes to blood policy occurred in 2000 with blood fractions of the primary components becoming a conscience matter. (Watchtower 2000 June 15 pp.29-31) In the Watchtower 2004 June 15 transfusing haemoglobin, one of the major components of blood became permitted. Non blood substitutes such as PolyHeme and Hemopure, despite being made from human and cow’s blood respectively are also permissible. Immunoglobulin injections are another conscience matter, even though requiring 3 litres of blood to manufacture and often coming from pooled blood sources containing the blood of up to 60,000 people. There are two inconsistencies in the current policy that groups such as “Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood” are attempting to have addressed. Accepting a blood component does not adhere to the principle that blood be poured out. Furthermore, if blood fractions are accepted then Jehovah’s Witnesses should also be allowed to donate blood. If a person has previously been disfellowshipped for accepting a blood fraction that is now permissible they are not automatically reinstated, as the disfellowshipping is considered to be a result of showing disrespect for the leadership of the Organisation as much as the issue of blood. Regardless of the medical considerations, Jehovah Witnesses advocate that physicians should uphold the right of a patient to choose what treatments they accept or do not accept.[http://www.ivanhoe.com/channels/p_channelstory.cfm?storyid=10342] Accordingly, US courts tend not to hold physicians responsible for adverse health effects that a patient incurred out of his or her own requests.[http://www.watchtower.org/library/hb/index.htm?article=article_07.htm] However, the point of view that physicians must, in all circumstances, abide by the religious wishes of the patients is not acknowledged by all jurisdictions (for one example, see France). The situation has been controversial, particularly in the case of minor children. In the United States, many physicians will agree to explore and exhaust all non-blood alternatives in the treatment of children at the request of their legal guardians. However, some state laws require physicians to administer blood-based treatment to minors if it is their professional opinion that it is necessary to prevent immediate death or severe permanent damage.

Blood transfusions

It is well-known in the medical community that Jehovah's Witnesses catagorically refuse all blood transfusions of whole blood, and plasma. To facilitate surgery without violating their belief against transfusions, the Governing Body has set up "Hospital Liaison Committees" to enroll doctors and surgeons who will practice "bloodless surgery" for Witness patients. Currently there are some 1600 such committees in 200 different countries of the world, and over 110,000 doctors and surgeons who have agreed to treat Jehovah's Witnesses without making an issue of blood transfusions. "Hospital Information Services", a department of the World Headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses researches medical literature on the subject and translates medical-journal articles into dozens of languages. This department provides information to the local Hospital Liaison Committees. The Watch Tower Society has published information about the medical matters in general and blood transfusion in particular in order to both provide an explination of their view, and also promote the idea that the practice violates God's laws.
- [http://www.watchtower.org/medical_care_and_blood.htm Medical Care and Blood - Jehovah's Witnesses Official Website]
- [http://www.watchtower.org/library/hb/ How Can Blood Save Your Life?] Many Witnesses carry a "Hospital Care Card" or an "Advance Medical Directive/Release card" ("No Blood" card) and, in some countries, a health-care durable power of attorney (DPA) form, outlining their wishes in case of emergencies. They also give this information to medical personnel prior to surgeries or other medical procedures that might involve the blood issue, organ transplants, or a decision whether or not to sustain their lives under any circumstances. Minor children have an "Identity Card" outlining the wishes of the parents or guardians, and including information on how to contact a parent, relative, or somebody responsible for the child.

Bloodless surgery

While Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood for religious reasons, there are non-Witness patients who also choose to avoid blood on non-religious grounds such as concern about AIDS, non-A non-B hepatitis, and immunologic reactions. As a result, bloodless surgery and transfusion alternatives are more commonplace than in the past. For example, Pennsylvania Hospital has a bloodless medicine program [http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/bloodless/ PennHealth - Bloodless Medicine]. Worldwide there are 106 medical centers to date that provide bloodless medicine programs, with 99 in the United States alone [http://www.noblood.org/forum/_leDirBMC.php]. Thousands of physicians around the world are now successfully treating patients without using blood transfusions. Many medical facilities offer bloodless medicine and surgery as a special service for adult and pediatric patients who wish to avoid blood transfusions, whatever the reasons for their choice, even in such invasive operations such as open-heart surgery and total hip replacements [http://www.rwjuh.edu/medserv/bloodless.html], [http://www.theuniversityhospital.com/bloodless/], [http://www.theuniversityhospital.com/bloodless/html/aboutthecenter/casestudies.htm], [http://www.noblood.org/forum/index.php] For example, a major study published in both the Journal of the American Medical Association and the British Medical Journal The Lancet showed that in many cases transfusions were actually not as necessary as healthcare providers often believe. A summary of the study states: ::[E]xamining the case records of nearly 2,000 adult Jehovah's Witnesses who underwent surgery without transfusions at 12 hospitals, including [http://www.rwjuh.edu/medserv/bloodless.html Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital], Dr. Carson reported that most patients did very well. In another study comparing patients who did and did not receive blood across a data base of 8,787 hip surgery patients, Dr. Carson and his colleagues reported that transfusions increased the rate of complications, but did not improve survival rates. [Emphasis added] Jehovah's Witnesses have produced several video documentaries showing the benefits of nonblood techniques. These feature interviews with many leading surgeons and prominent physicians in this field of medicine from around the globe. [http://www.watchtower.org/library/vcae/article_01.htm] However, in cases of certain medical emergencies when bloodless medicine is not available, blood transfusions may seem to be the only available way to save a life. Such situations are obviously very serious. However, the Jehovah's Witness patient still must not accept blood. In those instances, Witnesses ask conscientious doctors to provide the best alternative care possible under the circumstances, respecting the beliefs and consciences of their Witness patients. This has led to the death of members, as stated in the May 22, 1994 issue of Awake, p. 2: "In former times thousands of youths died for putting God first. They are still doing it, only today the drama is played out in hospitals and courtrooms, with blood transfusions the issue."

Other medical treatments with blood-derived components

Although Witnesses refuse transfusions of stored autologous blood, the use of minor blood fractions, such as Factor VIII, is considered to be a matter for personal choice, as is the use of dialysis machines and cell salvage, a procedure which recycles blood during operations.

Vaccinations

The Witnesses' position on vaccination has changed over the years. Witness literature first mentions vaccination in 1921, and stated in 1923: "Vaccination, summed up, is the most unnatural, unhygienic, barbaric, filthy, abhorrent, and most dangerous system of infection known. Its vile poison taints, corrupts, and pollutes the blood of the healthy, resulting in ulcers, syphilis, scrofula, erysipelas, tuberculosis, cancer, tetanus, insanity, and death."—The Golden Age magazine, 3 January 1923 p.214. Later, the Watchtower Society's position changed. In 1952, it stated: "The matter of vaccination is one for the individual that has to face it to decide for himself. Each individual has to take the consequences for whatever position and action he takes toward a case of compulsory vaccination, doing so according to his own conscience and his appreciation of what is for good health and the interests of advancing God's work. And our Society cannot afford to be drawn into the affair legally or take the responsibility for the way the case turns out."—Watchtower magazine, 15 December 1952 p.764

Organ transplants

The Witnesses' position on organ transplants has also changed over time. Concerning organ transplants and autopsies, The Watchtower of 15 November 1967, page 702, stated: "Is there any Scriptural objection to . . . accepting organs for transplant from such a source? Humans were allowed by God to eat animal flesh and to sustain their human lives by taking the lives of animals, though they were not permitted to eat blood. Did this include eating human flesh, sustaining one's life by means of the body or part of the body of another human, alive or dead? No! That would be cannibalism, a practice abhorrent to all civilized people. . . Those who submit to such operations are thus living off the flesh of another human. That is cannibalistic. However, in allowing man to eat animal flesh Jehovah God did not grant permission for humans to try to perpetuate their lives by cannibalistically taking into their bodies human flesh, whether chewed or in the form of whole organs or body parts taken from others." In 1980, the same magazine wrote that some "sincere Christians" felt that the Bible did not rule out medical transplants of human organs. It said: "Clearly, personal views and conscientious feelings vary on this issue of transplantation. It is well known that the use of human materials for human consumption varies all the way from minor items, such as hormones and corneas, to major organs, such as kidneys and hearts. While the Bible specifically forbids consuming blood, there is no Biblical command pointedly forbidding the taking in of other human tissue. For this reason, each individual faced with making a decision on this matter should carefully and prayerfully weigh matters and then decide conscientiously what he or she could or could not do before God. It is a matter for personal decision. (Gal. 6:5) The congregation judicial committee would not take disciplinary action if someone accepted an organ transplant." (15 March 1980, page 31.) It is interesting to note how this and similar changes affect individuals. Some are upset by the changes, while others see it as evidence of a progressive organization.

Abortion

Abortions are forbidden by their faith, on the basis of the belief that human life starts at conception. (Exodus 21:22,23; Psalms 139:1,16) "There might be a situation in which, at the time of childbirth, a choice has to be made between the life of the mother and that of the child. It would be up to the individuals concerned to make that choice. In many lands, however, advances in medical procedures have made this situation very rare." (Awake! 1987, 9/8, page 28.) They are not against contraception, as long as the contraceptive method works by preventing conception, as opposed to being an early abortifacient abortion.

Alternative Medicine and related health practices

Alternative forms of medical treatment are basically an area for personal decision. Aside from such things as discussed above, the Watch Tower Society's official position on medical and health issues is that it "does not make recommendations or decisions for individuals on medical and diagnostic practices. If certain practices have aspects that are questionable in the light of Bible principles, however, attention may be called to these. Then each person can weigh what is involved and decide what to do." (w94 12/15 p. 19). This would include a wide variety of practices such as tantra, shamanism, yoga, crystals, acupuncture, herbology, etc. Each issue should be examined on its own. For example: :
- Yoga: Jehovah's Witnesses' position on Yoga is that it is a "detestable thing" similar to what God called the practices of Canaan in the times of Ancient Israel (Deuteronomy 18:9, 10), and "works of demons." (Galatians 5:19-21) Quoting religious practitioners of Yoga who state that it is the act of "yoking" the self with a supernatural spirit, the Watchtower Society has concluded that it is not an acceptable activity for Christians even if done under a non-religious setting (such as for exercise). [http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2002/8/1a/article_01.htm] :
- Traditional Chinese Medicine: Jehovah's Witnesses' have no official position on whether or not Traditional Chinese Medicine including Acupuncture and Herbology are acceptable or unacceptable for Christians. Based on a recent Awake! magazine, it states "Awake! does not endorse any particular treatment for health problems. Christians should be certain that any treatment they pursue does not conflict with Bible principles." [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2000/11/8/article_01.htm] In that article, they simply describe the different remedies, and leave it open to whether a Christian could utilize any of the techniques listed.

Disaster relief

Disaster relief to those within the organization is an important aspect of organizational activities. The organization of such relief is taken care of by the president of the governing body in collaboration with a committee headed by him. (James 2:15-17) One of the Society's branch offices may be asked to take care of the need. The prime focus is on helping fellow believers, although others also receive assistance to some degree. Assistance often consists of both material and spiritual forms. Samples of relief work include the French Branch Office of Jehovah's Witnesses which operates a non-governmental organization known as AidAfrique providing material help to Witnesses experiencing disasters in Africa. During the war in the former Yugoslavia, Witnesses from Austria and Germany provided material assistance to fellow believers in Sarajevo. Until not long ago, the Swedish branch specifically provided assistance to Congo-Kinshasa. Witness literature occasionally publishes reports covering relief work, and the Society also will issue press releases as well.

Literacy programs

Jehovah's Witnesses offer literacy programs in countries where there is a need. For example, Witness literacy classes in Nigeria between 1962 and 1994 were attended by upwards of 25,000 persons. In the same country, the literacy rate among Witnesses is over 90%, in contrast to the average of 68% for the population in general. For this purpose, two booklets have been produced: Learn to Read and Write (1958 in Spanish) and Apply Yourself to Reading and Writing (1983 in French; 1997 in English). For those with limited reading ability and comprehension, the magazine You Can Be God's Friend offers the ability for prepare for baptism without the standard literacy-intensive process.

See also


- Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses
- Organizational Structure of Jehovah's Witnesses

Notes and references


- "One might assume that [loose conduct] (from the Greek word a·sel´gei·a) refers to conduct that is immoral but in a minor or not so serious way. This, however, is not the case according to the available evidence in Scripture and also in the ancient secular Greek writings in which this word appears. It is not limited to acts of sexual immorality. And, rather than relating to bad conduct of a somewhat petty or minor nature, it apparently describes acts that reflect a brazen attitude, one that betrays disrespect, disregard or even contempt for standards, laws and authority. The ‘looseness’ of the conduct, therefore, is not due principally to weakness but results from an attitude of disrespect, insolence or shamelessness." ("Questions from Readers: What does the expression 'loose conduct' as found at Galatians 5:19 mean?". (September 15, 1973). Watchtower, p. 574)
- Loose Conduct - "The expression comes from the Greek term a·sel´gei·a and may also be rendered 'licentiousness; wantonness; shameless conduct; lewdness of conduct.' (Ga 5:19, NWT reference edition ftn; 2Pe 2:7, NWT reference edition ftn) Neither term is restricted to sexual immorality. The Scriptures classify as loose conduct such things as gang rape (Jg 19:25; 20:6), prostitution (Jer 13:27; Eze 23:44), and bloodshed (Ps 26:9, 10; Eze 22:9; Hos 6:9). 'The unprincipled man' is the one who is said to scheme loose conduct, and those to whom such conduct is 'like sport' are classed as stupid, or morally worthless.-Isa 32:7; Pr 10:23." (Insight on the Scriptures, Volume 2, page 264, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. Brooklyn, USA, 1988)
- Perverted sex relations - "[I]t is not for elders to 'police' the private marital matters of couples in the congregation. However, if it becomes known that a member of the congregation is practicing or openly advocating perverted sex relations [such as oral or anal sex] within the marriage bond, that one certainly would not be irreprehensible, and so would not be acceptable for special privileges, such as serving as an elder, a ministerial servant or a pioneer. Such practice and advocacy could even lead to expulsion from the congregation." (Emphasis added) - "Honor Godly Marriage!", The Watchtower, March 15, 1983, p. 31 Category:Jehovah's Witnesses

tablice House kreatyna Black-Breath Hotele w Warszawie










































:: RELATED NEWS ::


All Rights Reserved 2005 wikimiki.org