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Bosnian Serb Army

Bosnian Serb Army

Bosnian Serb Army, officially Army of the Republika Srpska (Serbian Војска Републике Српске/Vojska Republike Srpske, ВРС/VRS) is the military of the Bosnian Serb political entity of Republika Srpska. The Bosnian Serb Army was founded in 1992 from the forces of the old Yugoslav People's Army, the army of former Communist Yugoslavia from which Bosnia and Herzegovina had seceded the same year. The army counted some 80,000 personnel during the Bosnian War (1992-1995). It was officially composed only of officers and recruits born on the territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina, predominantly of Serb Orthodox cadre. There were also a few Muslims part of it who were sympathetic to the Serbs' cause, mostly from the area of Teslić and Derventa (major Ismet Đuherić and 'Meša Selimović' brigade) in the north of the country. The army formations that fought for Republika Srpska also included various military and paramilitary units from Serbia and Montenegro. The military leader of BSA was general Ratko Mladić, who is now indicted at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) of war crimes but is not apprehended.

External links

- [http://www.vojska.net/military/bih/vrs/ Army of Republic of Srpska/Vojska Republike Srpske]
- [http://www.geocities.com/ljubomladjenov/RS_army.html Badges and patches]
- [http://www.un.org/icty/indictment/english/mla-ai021010e.htm ICTY indictment against Ratko Mladic] Category:History of Bosnia and Herzegovina Category:Military of Republika Srpska

Serbian language

The Serbian language is one of the standard versions of the Štokavian dialect (former standard was known as Serbo-Croatian language). Serbian is used primarily in Serbia and Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina and by Serbs everywhere. The Serbian alphabet is very consistent: one letter per sound with an insignificant number of exceptions. This phonetic principle is represented in the saying: "Write as you speak and read as it is written", the principle used (though not invented) by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić when reforming the Cyrillic spelling of Serbian in the 19th century. Another rare feature of Serbian language is the presence of two alphabets: Cyrillic and Latin. The two alphabets are almost equivalent; the only difference is in the glyphs used. This is due to historical reasons; Serbian once being a part of the Serbo-Croat unification brought Latinic usage into Serbia.

Alphabets

glyph, 1841]] The following compares Српска Ћирилица (Serbian Cyrillic script) or Aзбука (Azbuka) with Srpska Latinica (Serbian Latin script) or Abeceda.

Notes

- The letters Lj, Nj and Dž are represented by two characters in the Latin alphabet. Also, the letter Đ is sometimes written as Dj.
- The sort order of the two alphabets is different. Azbuka: А Б В Г Д Ђ Е Ж З И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С Т Ћ У Ф Х Ц Ч Џ Ш Abeceda: A B C Č Ć D Dž Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š T U V Z Ž
- Many e-mail and even web documents written in Serbian use basic ASCII, where Serbian Latin letters that use diacritics (Ž Ć Č Š) are replaced with the base, undiacritised forms (Z C C S). The original words are then "recognized" from the context. This is not an official alphabet, and is considered a bad practice, but there are some documents in Serbian that use this simplified alphabet. This is common practice in other languages that use letters with diacritics.

Phonology

Vowels

The Serbian vowel system is simple, with only five vowels. All vowels are monophthongs. The oral vowels are as follows:

Consonants

The consonant system is more complicated, and its characteristic features are series of affricate and palatal consonants. As in English, voicedness is phonemic, but aspiration is not. In consonant clusters all consonants are either voiced or voiceless. All the consonants are voiced (if the last consonant is normally voiced) or voiceless (if the last consonant is normally voiceless). This rule does not apply to approximants — a consonant cluster may contain voiced approximants and voiceless consonants; as well as to foreign words (Washington would be transcribed as VašinGton/ВашинГтон), personal names and when consonants are not inside of one syllable. R can be syllabic, playing the role of a vowel in certain words (occasionally, it can even have a long accent). For example, the tongue-twister na vrh brda vrba mrda involves four words with syllabic r. A similar feature exists in Czech, Slovak and Macedonian. Very rare, l can be syllabic (in the name for the river "Vltava", 'l' is syllabic) as well as lj, m, n and nj in jargon.

Serbian literature

jargon]] Main article: Serbian literature Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevandjelje (The Gospel of Miroslav) in 1192 and Dušanov zakonik (Dušan's Code) in 1349. Little secular mediæval literature has been preserved, but what there is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, Serbian Alexandride, a book about Alexander the Great, and a translation of Tristan and Isolde into Serbian. In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and, for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature. However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being Serbian epic poetry. It is known that Goethe learned the Serbian language in order to read Serbian epic poetry in the original. Written literature was produced only for religious use in churches and monasteries, and held to Old Church Slavonic. By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from the spoken language. In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian. In the early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, following the work of Sava Mrkalj, reformed the Cyrillic alphabet by introducing the phonetic principle, as well as promoting the spoken language of the people as a literary norm. The first printed book in Serbian, Oktoih was produced in Cetinje in 1494, only 40 years after Gutenberg's invention of movable type.

Demographics

Figures of speakers according to countries:
- Serbia-Montenegro: 7,170,000
- Serbia: 6,770,000
- Vojvodina: 1,557,020 (2002)
- Central Serbia: 5,063,679 (2002)
- Kosovo: 150,000
- Montenegro: 401,382 (2003)
- Bosnia-Herzegovina: 1,500,000
- USA: around 500,000
- Canada: 55,545 ([http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/ETO/Table1.cfm?Lang=E&T=501&GV=1&GID=0 2001 census], 40,580 of that in Ontario)
- Croatia: 44,629 (2001)
- Republic of Macedonia: 33,315 (2001)
- Romania: 20,377 (2001)
- Australia: 50,000 (2001)

Trivia

Two Serbian words that are used in many of the world's languages are vampire and slivovitz (though the etymology and origin of the word vampire is disputed [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=vampire&searchmode=none]).

External links

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina (locally: Bosna i Hercegovina/Босна и Херцеговина, most commonly abbreviated as BiH) is a country in south-east Europe with an estimated population of between three and four million people. The country is the homeland of its three ethnic constituent peoples: Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. Other communities that live there are not given the status of being "constituent"[http://www.oscebih.org/documents/54-eng.pdf]. A citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is usually identified as a Bosnian. The country borders with Croatia in the west and Serbia and Montenegro in the east. It is virtually landlocked save for a small strip of land (about 20km) on the Adriatic sea, centered around the city of Neum. The interior of the country is heavily mountainous and divided by various rivers, most of which are nonnavigable. The nation's capital is Sarajevo, which is also its largest city. Bosnia was formerly one of the six federal units constituting Yugoslavia. The republic gained its independence in the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s and, due to the Dayton Accords, is currently administered in a supervisory role by a High Representative selected by the UN Security Council. It is also decentralized and administratively divided into two entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska.

Etymology

The first preserved mention of the name "Bosnia" lies in the De Administrando Imperio, a politico-geographical handbook written by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in 958. The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from 1172-1196 also names Bosnia, and references an earlier source from the year 753. The exact meaning and origin of the word is unclear. The most popular theory holds that Bosnia comes from the name of the Bosna river around which it has been historically based. Philologist Anton Mayer proposed a connection with the indo-european root bos or bogh, meaning "running water". Certain Roman sources similarly mention Bathinus flumen, or the Illyrian word Bassinus, both of which would mean "running water" as well. Other theories involve the rare Latin term Bosina, meaning boundary, and possible slavic origins. The origins of the word "Herzegovina" can be identified with more precision and certainty. During the Early Middle Ages the region was known as Hum or Zahumlje, named after the Zachlumoi tribe of Slavs which inhabited it. In the 1440s, the region was ruled by powerful nobleman Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. In a document sent to Friedrich III on January 20, 1448, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača called himself Herzog of Saint Sava, lord of Hum and Primorje, great duke of the Bosnian kingdom (Herzog means duke in German) and so the lands he controlled would later become known as Herzog's lands or Herzegovina.

History

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Pre-Slavic Period

Bosnia has been inhabited at least since Neolithic times. In the early Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyres or Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th and 3rd century BCE displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BCE, but Rome wouldn't complete its annexation of the region until 9 CE. In the Roman period, latin-speaking settlers from all over the Roman empire settled among the Illyrians and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region. Christianity had already arrived in the region by the end of the 1st century, and numerous artifacts and objects from the time testify to this. Following events from the years 337 and 395 when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the Western Roman Empire. The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455, and further exchanged hands between the Alans and Huns in the years to follow. By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had re-conquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Slavs, a migratory people from northeastern Europe, were subjugated by the Eurasian Avars in the 6th century, and together they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th and 7th centuries, settling in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina and the surrounding lands. The Serbs and Croats came in a second wave, invited by Emperor Heraclius to drive the Avars from Dalmatia.

Medieval Bosnia

Heraclius Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the dark ages is patchy and confusing. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure, which probably fell apart and gave way to feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late 9th century. It was also around this time that the south Slavs were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. The kingdoms of Serbia and Croatia split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and 10th century, but by the high middle ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the late 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans. The first notable Bosnian monarch, Ban Kulin, presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with Dubrovnik and Venice. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromanić became ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he had succeeded in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in 1377. Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia oficially fell in 1463. Herzegovina would follow in 1482, with western remnants of the Bosnian state being the last to succumb in the initial decades of the 16th century.

Ottoman Bosnia

16th century The Ottomans under sultan Mehmed Fatih conquered the region in 1463, although parts of the country held out until late 15th century. The Ottoman rule introduced a number of key changes in political and social administration of the country, namely a new landholding system (see timar), a reorganization of administrative units (see sandžak and vilayet, and a complex system of social differentiation by class (see askeri and reaya) and religious affiliation. Over four centuries of Ottoman rule, the population make-up of Bosnia drastically changed several times as a result of Ottoman conquests, frequent wars with the Habsburgs, migrations, and epidemics. Furthermore, a native Serbo-Croatian-speaking Bosnian Muslim community emerged during the long Ottoman rule mainly as a result of gradually rising number of conversions to Islam, while a significant number of Sephardi Jews settled in Sarajevo after their expulsion from Spain in late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, but on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded; the Orthodox community in Bosnia initially prospered under Ottoman rule, but was later dominated by the Greek Orthodox patriarchs; and the little-known Bosnian Church disappeared altogether. The agrarian unrest in the province in the 19th century eventually sparked a widespread peasant uprising in 1875; the conflict rapidly spread and involved several Balkan states and Great Powers, which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary in 1878, thus ending over four centuries of Ottoman rule over Bosnia.

Modern Bosnia

From 1878 to 1918, Bosnia was administered and from the 1908 annexation directly ruled by Austria-Hungary. Habsburg rule over the region did much to codify laws and introduce new political practices and modernization measures in hopes of keeping Bosnia a stable and model South Slav province that would resist the forces of nationalism. However, World War I began with the assassination in Sarajevo of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne; the assassin was Gavrilo Princip, a member of the "Mlada Bosna" organization. Following the war, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed to kingdom of Yugoslavia). When the kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded in World War II, all of BH was ceded to the Nazi-puppet state Croatia. On 25 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Marshall Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Ottoman borders. The conference's conclusions were later confirmed by the Yugoslavian constitution. The 25th of November is considered a day of national statehood in Bosnia today. From 1945 to 1948, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was established under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito. The Bosnian-Herzegovinian declaration of sovereignty in October of 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia in February 1992 boycotted by the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Serbs. 1992 Serbia and Bosnian Serbs responded shortly thereafter with armed attacks on Bosnian-Herzegovinian Croats and Bosniaks aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas. The UNPROFOR (UN Protection Force) was deployed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in mid-1992. 1992 and 1993 saw the greatest bloodshed in Europe after 1945. Following the peace agreement proposal by Lord Owen in 1993, which practically intended to divide the country into three ethnically pure parts, an armed conflict developed between Bosniak and Croat units in a virtual territorial grab. It was later established that Croat military actions were directly supported by the government of Croatia which made this also an international conflict [http://www.un.org/icty/rajic/plea.pdf]. At that time about 70% of the country was in Serb control, about 20% in Croat and 10% in Bosniak (which represented 44% of the population before the war). Croatia In March 1994, Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1994 Each nation reported many casualties in the three sided conflict, in which the Bosniaks reported the highest number of deaths and casualties. However, the only case officially ruled by the U.N. Hague tribunal as genocide was the Srebrenica massacre of 1995. At the end of the war approximately 102,000 people had been killed according to the ICTY [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1291965/posts] and more than 2 million people fled their homes (including over 1 million to neighboring nations and the west). On November 21, 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegović), Croatia (Franjo Tuđman), and Serbia (Slobodan Milošević) signed a peace agreement that brought a halt to the three years of war in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement succeeded in ending the bloodshed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it institutionalized the division between the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Muslim and Croat entity - Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (51% of the territory), and the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Serb entity - Republika Srpska (49%). The enforcement of the implementation of the Dayton Agreement was through a UN mandate using various multinational forces: NATO-led IFOR (Implementation Force), which transitioned to the SFOR (Stabilisation Force) the next year, which in turn transitioned to the EU-led EUFOR at end of 2004. The civil administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina is headed by the High Representative of the international community. Today the Dayton agreement is considered by many as one of the most controversial pieces of legislature that resulted from the Bosnian War. According to most experts while on one hand Dayton agreement did successfully end the war on the other it legitimized territorial gains achieved through ethnic cleansing and genocide, and it created enormous bureaucratic obstacles for Bosnian Herzegovinian tendencies for European integration. As a result many reforms are taking place in Bosnia and Herzegovina today as part of the revisions to the Dayton agreement such as unifying of army and police forces and enforcing of state level institutions. However, the most controversial part and the main clause of the Dayton agreement that stipulated territorial and administrative division of the country still remains in force and unchanged.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina The Chair of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat), each elected as the Chair for a 8-month term within their 4-year term as a member. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, Republika Srpska for the Serb). The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate. The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the Presidency.

Political divisions

Main article: Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. The district of Brčko is part of both entities. The Federation is further divided into ten cantons (each subdivided into municipalities):
- Una-Sana
- Posavina
- Tuzla
- Zenica-Doboj
- Bosnian Podrinje
- Central Bosnia
- Herzegovina-Neretva
- West Herzegovina
- Sarajevo
- Canton 10 The RS is divided into municipalities which are grouped into seven regions:
- Banja Luka
- Bijeljina
- Doboj
- Foča
- Sarajevo-Romanija (or Sokolac)
- Trebinje
- Vlasenica

Geography

Vlasenica Vlasenica Vlasenica Main article: Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and south-west, and Serbia and Montenegro to the east. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it almost borders the Adriatic. The country has only 23 Km of coastline, around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, although it's enclosed within Croatian territory and territorial waters. The country's name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country. The major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Tuzla in the northeast and Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina. See also: List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Economy

Main article: Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina For the most part, agriculture has been in private hands, but farms have been small and inefficient, and food has traditionally been a net import for the republic. The centrally planned economy has resulted in some legacies in the economy. Industry is greatly overstaffed, reflecting the rigidity of the planned economy. Under Josip Broz Tito, military industries were pushed in the republic; Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. Two major export companies in former Yugoslavia had theirs headquarters in the capital Sarajevo; UNIS holding and Energoinvest. During times of the former Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina financed many large construction projects in former Yugoslavia and in other former Yugoslav republics. An example of this was the Bratstvo i jedinstvo highway, which linked Ljubljana (Slovenia) - Zagreb (Croatia) - Belgrade (Serbia) - Skoplje (Macedonia). Even though Bosnia did not have anything to gain from this investment, as not a single kilometer of the highway went through Bosnia and Herzegovina. Further projects, such as the construction of the so-called town of New Belgrade (Serbia), Kosovo financing, and railway tracks near Belgrade - Bar in Serbia and Montenegro. This was due to the fact that the economy of the time was communist; with directives instead of a free economy like that in the West. In 1984, the capital, Sarajevo, was the host of the XIV Winter Olympic Games. A notable fact was that the games were the first 'profitable' games in terms of retrieving investment via profits. Three years of war destroyed a large part of the economy and infrastructure in Bosnia and Herzegovina, causing unemployment to soar and production to fall. The war caused a death toll of approximately 102,000 people based on current information from researchers at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) at The Hague. Furthermore, it displaced half of the population. Other sources place the figure between 150,000 - 278,000. With an uneasy peace in place (under the Dayton Accord), the economy has started to slowly recover, but the GDP remains below the 1990 level. Today Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the best banking sectors in former Yugoslavia. The currency Konvertibilna marka KM or Bosnian Mark BAM, fixed to the euro (1:0.51) is also very stable. Yearly inflation is the lowest compared to other countries which were a part of former Yugoslavia. The inflation rate was 1.9% in 2004, and international debt was approx. $2 billion; making it the smallest amount of debt owed from the former Yugoslav countries (Serbia and Montenegro's international debt is $15.2 billion). Real GDP growth rate is 5.0% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Top Foreign company investors in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994-2004): LNM Holding / KCIC Holland Antilles / Kuwait / Metal processing Hypo Alpe Adria Bank / Austria / Banking Unicredito / Transmadrid Italia / Spain / Banking Petrol / Slovenia / Trade Coca Cola Beverages Holdings / Holland / Food industry Deutsche Telekom / Germany / Telecommunication Heidelberger Zement / Germany / Construction materials Dubai I.B., A.I.B. and Islamic Development Bank / UAE and Saudi Arabia / Banking Alpha Baumanergement Gesellschaft / Austria / Tourism Bosmal / Malaysia-Bosnia and Herzegovina

References

CIA WFB B&H Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations (2005)

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina Large population migrations durings the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused a large demographic shift. No census was held since 1991 and is not planned for the near future due to political disagreements. Since censuses are the only statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze demographics, almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate. Most sources, however, estimate the population at roughly 4 million (representing a decrease of 350,000 since 1991). According to the 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,354,911. Ethnically, 43.7% were Muslims (now almost all them declare as Bosniaks), 31.3% Serbs, and 17.3% Croats, with 5.5% declaring themselves Yugoslavs. There is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion: 88% of Croats are Roman Catholics, 90% of Bosniaks practice Islam, and 93% of Serbs are Orthodox Christians. According to 2000 data from the CIA World Factbook, Bosnia and Herzegovina is ethnically 48% Bosniak, 37.1% Serb, 14.3% Croat, 0.6% other. Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high in Bosnia and often provoke political disagreements. Each of the three peoples are influential to roughly a same degree in Bosnia with Bosniaks being the most numerous, Serbs having their own entity and Croats being the wealthiest and economically the strongest.

Education

Main article: Education of Bosnia and Herzegovina As part of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia enjoyed a highly-developed educational system. This system not only encouraged study and higher education, but it also respected academic achievements. Two of Bosnia’s natives were awarded Nobel Prizes from this era: Vladimir Prelog, for chemistry in 1975, and Ivo Andrić, for literature in 1961. This concentration of talent is remarkable in a country whose total population was severely depleted due to the diaspora of individuals fleeing during the recent war years. Bosnian college students abroad are good and recognized students; most of them attend universities in North America and other European countries. The recent war created a “brain drain” and resulted in many Bosnians working in high-tech, academic and professional occupations in North America, Europe and Australia. Such situation is viewed as an economic opportunity for building a vibrant economy in today’s Bosnia. However, only few of Bosnia’s diaspora are returning to Bosnia and Herzegovina with their experience, western education and exposure to modern business practices. Most still lack professional incentives to justify widespread and permanent return to their homeland. Bosnia’s current educational system—with seven universities, one in every major city, plus satellite campuses—continues to turn out highly-educated graduates in math, science and literature. However, they have not been modernized in last 15 years due to war, various political and economic reasons and as a result do not meet Western educational standards which are part of criteria for EU membership. The need for reform of current Bosnian education system is generally aknowledged although specific methods for its change have still not been formulated.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina See also:
- Bosnian Cyrillic
- Comedy in Bosnia and Hercegovina
- Council of Scout Associations in Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Holidays of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina
- List of national parks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Bosnian architecture

External links

- [http://www.balkanforums.com Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Balkans] Discussion Forum
- [http://www.ohr.int/ Office of the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina]
- [http://www.predsjednistvobih.ba/index.aspx?lang=en Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]
- [http://bosnia.europe-countries.com Bosnia & Herzegovina Economy]
- [http://www.europe-atlas.com/bosnia-herzegovina.htm Bosnia and Herzegovina Map]
- [http://www.oscebih.org/ OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina]
- [http://www.bosnia.org.uk Bosnian Institute, London]
- [http://zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=560058 About 300 categorised and profiled websites about Bosnia & Herzegovina]
- [http://www.iwpr.net/index.pl?archive/bcr3/bcr3_200303_415_3_eng.txt# Bosnia: Sex Slave Recounts Her Ordeal - Institute for War & Peace Reporting]
- [http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#bosnia_and_hercegovina Rulers.org —Bosnia and Hercegovina] List of rulers for Bosnia and Hercegovina
- [http://www.balkanbaby.blogspot.com/ Balkan Baby: English Language blog about a students real experiences in the Balkans]

Countries of the world | Council of Europe zh-min-nan:Bosna kap Hercegovina ko:보스니아 헤르체고비나 ms:Bosnia dan Herzegovina ja:ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ th:ประเทศบอสเนียและเฮอร์เซโกวีนา fiu-vro:Bosnia ja Hertsegoviina

Republika Srpska

Republika Srpska (RS) (Serbian/Bosnian/ Croatian: Република Српска[РС]/Republika Srpska) is one of the two political entities that compose the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina (the other entity is the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina).

Population

Republika Srpska comprises 49% of the land area of Bosnia, but is home to only about 40% of the population. All data dealing with population, including ethnic distributions, are subject to considerable error because of the lack of official census figures. In 2005, the population of Republika Srpska was estimated to stand at about 1.5 million people, of whom Serbs constituted 90% of the overall population, followed by Bosniaks at 7%, Croats at 2% and others (Roma, Jews) at 1%.

Name

"Republika Srpska" can be translated into English as Serb Republic or Republic of Srpska. The word "srpska" can be interpreted as an adjective ("Serbian"), and, bearing in mind language rules for the creation of names of countries in Serbian and other Slavic languages, also as a proper noun. The Serbian name for several countries is analogous: France — Republika Francuska; Croatia — Republika Hrvatska; Bulgaria — Republika Bugarska, and so on. However, in these cases there has long existed an appropriate Latinized translation of the name to English. Because of the potential for confusion between "Serb Republic"/"Republic of Srpska" (Republika Srpska) and the "Republic of Serbia" (Republika Srbija), the name "Republika Srpska" is often used in its untranslated form in non-Slavic countries. This article follows that convention. (The government of Republika Srpska uses the term "Republic of Srpska" in English translations of official documents.)

History

- Main article: History of Republika Srpska

Creation of Republika Srpska

The creation of Republika Srpska was sparked by the political crisis that followed the secession of Slovenia and Croatia from the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in June 1991. Most Bosnian Serbs opposed any suggestion that Bosnia should also leave Yugoslavia. At this point, Serbs constituted about 33% of the population of Bosnia, with Croats and Muslims making up the rest of the population. The leading Serb political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serb Democratic Party, led by Radovan Karadžić, organized the creation of "Serb autonomous provinces" (SAOs) within Bosnia and the establishment of an assembly to represent them. In November 1991, the Bosnian Serbs held a referendum which resulted in an overwhelming vote in favour of staying in a common state with Serbia and Montenegro. On January 9, 1992 the Bosnian Serb assembly proclaimed a separate "Republic of the Serb people of Bosnia and Herzegovina". The referendum and creation of SARs were unconstitutional, and was declared to be illegal and invalid by the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, in February-March 1992 the government held a national referendum on Bosnian independence from Yugoslavia. This referendum was also unconstitutional, and in addition unconstitutional in the Constitution of Yugoslavia; it was largely boycotted by the Bosnian Serbs. It is unclear whether it was successful, estimates ranging at 64%-67% support for independence (2/3 of the population was needed). Despite this, an independent Bosnia was proclaimed in March, by which time the country had already plunged into war.

Republika Srpska and the Bosnian War

During the next three years, Republika Srpska was one of the three warring sides in the Bosnian War (the others being the Bosniak-dominated Bosnian government and the Bosnian Croat statelet of Herceg-Bosna. The RS started the war in a much stronger military position than its rivals. Its army, the VRS, was created from Bosnian Serb members of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and was armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia. It also had the support of volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia. In addition, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia provided extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support for the Republika Srpska and its military. Finally, by nature of Serbian ethnic distribution, it had a better initial strategic position. In 1995, Republika Srpska came close to collapse in the face of Muslim/Croat military offensives and a concerted two-week campaign of NATO air strikes. It lost about a third of its territory and acceded to the Dayton Peace Agreement, accepted on its behalf by President Milošević. Under this accord, it was recognized as one of the two entities that compose the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The borders of Republika Srpska were fixed at 49% of Bosnia's territory, with the Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina constituting the other 51%.

The post-war Republika Srpska

Since the war, Republika Srpska has undergone many changes. Several of its wartime leaders were arrested or went into hiding following war crimes indictments, although in practice Radovan Karadžić continued to exert a degree of influence for years after the war's end. Some of the non-Serbs expelled during the war have returned to their former homes in Republika Srpska; the non-Serb population has increased to about 10% of the total. However, as in many other former communist countries, both of Bosnia's entities have experienced severe economic problems and widespread corruption during the transition to a market economy. This has seriously hampered Bosnia's recovery from the conflict. The UN-appointed High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina has greatly influenced the post-war development of Republika Srpska. Several of its wartime aspects of independence, such as a separate currency, have been abolished. A number of senior Republika Srpska officials have been removed from their posts by the High Representative after being accused of corruption and blocking the process of reform and reconstruction. It is likely that the powers of the republic will be further reduced in future, along with those of its Muslim/Croat counterpart, as a unified Bosnian state is further re-established by the international community.

Territory

currency] currency

Borders

The borders of Republika Srpska were not determined on the basis of the natural geographical features of the region. Rather, the Inter-Entity Boundary Line (IEBL) that divides Bosnia and Herzegonina into two entities runs essentially along the military front lines as they existed at the end of the war, with adjustments (most importantly in the western part of the country and around Sarajevo) made at the Dayton peace conference. The total length of the borders of the Republika Srpska is approximtely 2170 km, of which the Inter-Entity Boundary Line accounts for 1080 km. (If the territory of Republika Srpska were in the shape of a circle, the total length of its borders would be only 561 km.) The border between Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is no longer controlled by the military and is not policed.

Municipalities

- Main article: Municipalities of Republika Srpska Under the Law on Territorial Organization and Local Self-Government adopted in 1994, Republika Srpska was divided into 80 municipalities. After the conclusion of the Dayton Peace Agreement, the law was amended in 1996 to reflect the changes to the country's borders and now provides for the division of Republika Srpska into 63 municipalities.

Politics

Under its constitution, Republika Srpska has its own president, parliament (Народна Скупштина Републике Српске/Narodna Skupština Republike Srpske), government (with a prime minister and several ministries), supreme court and lower courts, customs service (under the state-level customs service), and postal service. It also has its own coat of arms, flag (the Serbian tricolour), and national anthem. Its flag airline, Air Srpska, ceased operations in 2003. After the war, Republika Srpska retained its army, but in August 2005, under considerable foreign pressure (acting primarily through the Office of the High Representative), the parliament consented to transfer control of Army of Republika Srpska to a state-level ministry and abolish the republic's defense ministry and army by January 1, 2006. These reforms were required by NATO as a precondition of Bosnia and Herzegovina's admission to the Partnership for Peace. Republika Srpska has its own police force, but in October 2005, again under pressure, the parliament consented to the creation over a five-year period of a single integrated police service at the state level, with local police areas that may cross the Inter-Entity Boundary Line if required based on technical considerations. These reforms were insisted upon by the European Union as a condition for the negotiation of a Stabilisation and Association Agreement with Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although the constitution names Sarajevo as the capital of Republika Srpska, the northwestern city of Banja Luka is the headquarters of most of the institutions of government — including the parliament — and is the de facto capital.

Presidents

- Radovan Karadžić (7 April 1992 to 19 July 1996) (SDS)
- Biljana Plavšić (19 July 1996 to 4 November 1998) (SDS/SNS RS) (expelled from SDS in July 1997 and formed SNS RS)
- Nikola Poplašen (4 November 1998 to 26 January 2000) (SRS RS) (removed by High Representative on 5 March 1999; removal enforced on 2 September 1999)
- Mirko Šarović (26 January 2000 to 28 November 2002 (SDS) (not recognized as president by High Representative until 16 December 2000)
- Dragan Čavić (28 November 2002 to present) (SDS)

Government

The government of Republika Srpska is composed of the prime minister and the heads of the sixteen ministries. The National Assembly also selects two deputy prime ministers from among the ministers from different constituent peoples (Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks) on the recommendation of the prime minister. The law requires that eight ministers be elected from the Serb population, five from the Bosniak population, and three from the Croat population. The prime minister may also appoint one minister from among the "others" population (out of the largest constituent ethnic group). Under the Law on Ministries adopted in October 2002, the "tasks of the administration" of Republika Srpska are carried out by ministries, republican administrative units, and republican administrative organizations.

Governments

The following is a list of the governments of Republika Srpska with the name of the prime minister, the date on which the government was formed by the National Assembly, and the political party of the prime minister:
- Branko Đerić (22 April 1992) (SDS)
- Vladimir Lukić (20 January 1993) (SDS)
- Dušan Kozić (18 August 1994) (SDS)
- Rajko Kasagić (17 December 1995) (SDS)
- Gojko Kličković I (18 May 1996) (SDS)
- Gojko Kličković II (27 November 1996) (SDS)
- Milorad Dodik (18 January 1998) (SNSD)
- Mladen Ivanić (12 January 2001) (PDP)
- Dragan Mikerević (17 January 2003) (PDP)
- Pero Bukejlović (17 February 2005) (SDS)

Ministries

The following are the sixteen ministries:
- Ministry for Economy, Energy and Development
- Ministry of Finance
- Ministry of Education and Culture
- Ministry of Justice
- Ministry of Defense
- Ministry of Internal Affairs
- Ministry of Administration and Local Self-Governance
- Ministry of Health and Social Protection
- Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Resources
- Ministry of Transport and Communications
- Ministry of Trade and Tourism
- Ministry of Urban Planning, Civil Engineering and Ecology
- Ministry of Labor and Soldiers and Invalid Protection
- Ministry for Economic Relations and Coordination
- Ministry for Refugees and Displaced Persons
- Ministry of Science and Technology

Administrative Units in RS

Administrative units in RS are administrative bodies within the ministries, and are established for the purpose of performing certain activities from within the sphere of activity of the administration, which, due to their nature, entirety and way of performing, require independence and special organization (administration, inspectorates, and other forms). Administrative units are under the direct supervision of the ministry to which they belong. The following are the administrative units and the ministries to which they belong:
- Administrative Unit for Geodetic and Legal-Property Issues (responsible to the Government of Republika Srpska)
- Administrative Unit for the RS Customs (Ministry of Finance)
- Tax Administration (Ministry of Finance)
- Foreign Currency Inspectorate (Ministry of Finance)
- Unit for Civil Defense (Ministry of Administration and Local Self-Governance)

Administrative Organizations in RS

Administrative organizations in RS are established for the purpose of performing professional duties and duties of the republican administration (institutions, directorates, secretariats, agencies, commissariats, funds, centers and other forms). Administrative organizations may have the attributes of a legal entity. The following are the republican administrative organizations and the ministries to which they belong:
- Institute for Statistics (Ministry of Finance)
- Institute for Protection of Cultural, Historical and Natural Heritage (Ministry of Education and Culture)
- Hydro Meteorological Institute (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Resources)
- Institute for Geological Research (Ministry for Economy, Energy and Development)
- Institute for Prices (Ministry of Trade and Tourism)
- Pedagogic Institute (Ministry of Education and Culture)
- Institute for Planning (Ministry for Economy, Energy and Mining)
- Institute for Standardization and Metrology (Ministry for Economy, Energy and Development)
- Secretariat for Sport and Youth (Ministry of Education and Culture)
- Secretariat for Religions (Ministry of Education and Culture)
- Secretariat for Legislation (responsible to the Government of Republika Srpska)
- Secretariat for Relationships with ICT in The Hague and Investigation of War Crimes (responsible to the Government of Republika Srpska)
- Archive of Republika Srpska (Ministry of Education and Culture)
- Civil Service Agency (responsible to the Government of Republika Srpska)
- RS Agency for Medicines (Ministry of Health and Social Protection)
- Agency for Recognizing and Improvement of Quality of Health Protection in Republika Srpska (Ministry of Health and Social Protection)
- Commissioners Office for Refugees and Humanitarian Aid (Ministry for Refugees and Displaced Persons)
- Directorate for Commodity Reserves (Ministry of Trade and Tourism)
- Directorate for Roads (Ministry of Transport and Communications)
- Directorate for Water (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Resources)
- Directorate for Civilian Air Traffic (Ministry of Transport and Communications)
- Directorate for Production and Trade of Military Equipment (Ministry of Defense)
- Directorate for Reconstruction and Construction (Ministry for Urban Planning, Civil Engineering and Ecology)
- Directorate for Privatization (responsible to the Government of Republika Srpska)
- Fund for Development and Employment of Republika Srpska (responsible to the Government of Republika Srpska)
- Republika Srpska Habitation Fund (responsible to the Government of Republika Srpska)

Economy

Republika Srpska uses the convertible mark currency along with the rest of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina – and therefore also Republika Srpska as one of its two entities, has been marked as a country which achieved the major improvement in implementation of the transitional reforms, and therefore has switched from the post conflict phase, to the group of countries in transition. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, in its report for 2004, confirmed the accomplishment of the microeconomic stability. The positive dynamic of development in Republika Srpska is also illustrated by the microeconomic indicators. Inflation that amounted up to 16% at the end of 2000, has reduced significantly since that time and it ranges between 1–2%, industrial production is increasing and the unemployment rate is declining slowly. Inflow of foreign investment doubled from 2000 to 2003, when it amounted to nearly 5% of GDP. In 2004, Republika Srpska received more foreign investment than in all previous years. An agreement on strategic partnership was concluded between the Iron Ore Mine Ljubija Prijedor and the British company LNM, a leading world steel producer. The Russian company Južuralzoloto also signed a strategic partnership with the Lead and Zinc Mine Sase Srebrenica. Since 2001, Republika Srpska initiated significant reforms in the sector of the tax system, which lowered the tax burden to 28.6%, one of the lowest in the region. The 10% rate of capital gains tax and income tax are the lowest in Europe and highly stimulating for foreign investment, and there are no limits on the amount of earnings. Increasing the number of taxpayers and budgeted incomes, and creating a stable fiscal system, were necessary for further reforms in the fields of taxation and duties; this area is a priority goal of the RS authorities. Introduction of the VAT, expected in 2005, is one of the most demanding projects for the government. The average salary in August 2004 was 660KM (around 340 EUR). From 1998-2003, the average salary in Republika Srpska increased from 280 to 660KM, according to the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Hercegovina.

Miscellaneous

Zinc Zinc] Zinc] In 1992, the new government of Republika Srpska issued postage stamps and currency -- prized abroad by collectors. From 1992-94 Republika Srpska had its own currency, the Republika Srpska dinar. Republika Srpska does not have its own Internet domain name (nor does the Federation), but its institutions do not prefer the Bosnia-Herzegovina TLD (.BA) or indeed any other single TLD. Third parties offer the subdomain .RS under either one of the top level domains .BA (Bosnia & Herzegovina) [http://www.rs.ba/] or .SR (Suriname, but resembling Serbia, which actually uses .YU) [http://www.rs.sr/].

Official pages

- [http://www.vladars.net/en/ Government page]
- [http://www.predsjednikrs.net/engleski/ President page]
- [http://www.narodnaskupstinars.net/ National Assembly page]
- [http://www.ustavnisud.org/ Constitutional Court page]
- [http://www.tuzilastvo-rs.org/ Office of the Public Prosecutor page]
- [http://www.mup.vladars.net/ Ministry of Interior page]
- [http://www.mirl.org/ Ministry for Refugees and Displaced Persons page]
- [http://www.nestalirs.com/ The Office for Tracing Detained and Missing Persons page]
- [http://www.poreskaupravars.org/ Tax Administration page]
- [http://www.rucrs.com/ Customs Directorate page]
- [http://www.adu.vladars.net/ Civil Services Agency page]
- [http://www.rsprivatizacija.com/ Directorate for Privatization page]
- [http://www.pkrs.inecco.net/ Chamber of Commerce page]
- [http://www.rzs.rs.ba/ Institute of Statistics page]
- [http://www.rs-icty.org/ Secretariat for Relations with ICTY page]
- [http://www.srpskeposte.com/ Republika Srpska Post page]
- [http://www.rtrs.tv/ RTRS - Entity Government Run Television Station page]
- [http://www.vladars.net/en/zakoni/ustav.html Constitution of Republika Srpska]

External links

- [http://www.vladars.net/cr/ Republika Srpska government]
- [http://www.srpska.com/english/index.php Srpska Online]
- [http://www.unssa.rs.ba/ The University of East Sarajevo]
- [http://www.uni.bl.ac.yu/ Banja Luka University]
- [http://www.blberza.com/ Banja Luka Stock Exchange]
- [http://www.filatelija.rs.sr/index.jsp Collection of Postal Stamps issued by Republika Srpska]
- [http://www.slobodnasrpska.org/en/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1 Free Srpska]
- [http://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/bosnia2/ Human Rights Watch: 1994 Ethnic cleansing in Banja Luka]
- ja:スルプスカ共和国

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was the Yugoslav state that existed from the end of World War II to the Yugoslav wars. It was a communist republic that comprised the area of the present-day states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Republic of Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro and Slovenia. The country was formed in 1945 from remains of the pre-war Kingdom of Yugoslavia under the name Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, in 1946 it changed its name to Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia and again in 1963 to Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Throughout the Cold War, Yugoslavia was an important member of the Non-Aligned Movement. The Economy of SFRY is known for the organization of that country, and its particular brand of workers' self-management system.

History

Democratic Federative Yugoslavia was reconstituted at the AVNOJ or the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia conference in Jajce (November 29 - December 4 1943) while negotiations with the royal government in exile continued. On November 29 1945 the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia was established as a socialist state (also by AVNOJ in Jajce). On January 31, 1946, the new constitution of FPR Yugoslavia established the six constituent republics. The first president was Ivan Ribar and prime minister Josip Broz Tito. In 1953, Tito was elected as president and later in 1963 named "President for life". Like the Kingdom of Yugoslavia that preceded it, the SFRY bordered Italy and Austria to the northwest, Hungary and Romania to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece and Albania to the south, and the Adriatic Sea to the west. Yugoslavia, unlike other Eastern and Central European communist countries, chose a course independent of the Soviet Union (see Informbiro), and was not a member of the Warsaw pact nor NATO, but rather than that initiated a Non-Aligned Movement in 1956. The most significant change to the borders of the SFRY occurred in 1954, when the adjacent Free Territory of Trieste was dissolved by the Treaty of Osimo. The Yugoslavian Zone B, which covered 515.5 km², became part of the SFRY. Zone B was already occupied by the Yugoslav National Army. After Tito's death in 1980, tensions between the various peoples grew, and in 1991 its constituent republics Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina started breaking away. After the initial Yugoslav wars, the process ended in 1992 when the remainder of Yugoslavia, now having only two republics, Serbia and Montenegro, formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which in 2002 was reformed and renamed to Serbia and Montenegro.

Administrative divisions

Serbia and Montenegro Internally, the state was divided into six Socialist Republics, and two Socialist Autonomous Provinces that were part of SR Serbia. The federal capital was Belgrade. Republics and provinces were (in alphabetical order): # Socialist republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with capital in Sarajevo, # Socialist republic of Croatia, with capital in Zagreb, # Socialist republic of Macedonia, with capital in Skopje, # Socialist republic of Montenegro, with capital in Titograd, # Socialist republic of Serbia, with capital in Belgrade, which also contained:
5a. Socialist autonomous province of Kosovo, with capital in Priština
5b. Socialist autonomous province of Vojvodina, with capital in Novi Sad # Socialist republic of Slovenia, with capital in Ljubljana.

Demographics

SFRY recognised "nations" (narodi) and "nationalities" (narodnosti) separately; the former being reserved for the main and indigenous peoples, and the latter for the minorities and immigrants. The country consisted of six republics, most of which had its own clear national majority:
- Slovenes in Slovenia
- Croats in Croatia
- Serbs in Serbia
- Montenegrins in Montenegro
- Macedonians in Macedonia The notable exception was Bosnia and Herzegovina, where there were Serbs, Muslims by nationality and Croats and none of them were in a majority. There was a separate nationality called the Yugoslavs but it was limited to a small minority of population. The diversity of nations was a major factor for the dissolution of the federation. Nationalism during Tito's rule was cracked down upon wherever it sprung up. Nationalism had sprung up after the death of Tito and fuelled by the then leaders of the federation. Tito's successors chose a different way towards the nationalists, instead promoting their ideas and taking their side on some issues, claiming they will defend them and fight, even war, for their cause. Nationalists from other nationalities responded with arguments such as "During your [Tito's] rule, our culture had been cracked down upon, our people oppressed ... but now you won't anymore" and so forth, initiating hatred towards the different nationalities. The process towards war in order for the leaders to create "ethnically clean" nations had begun, with state-owned media propagating nationalistic ideas, this later led to nationalism seen previously in World War II, the dissolution of the federation and the war that followed.

Economy

Despite common origins, the economy of socialist Yugoslavia was much different from economies of the Soviet Union and other Eastern European socialist countries, especially after the Yugoslav-Soviet break-up of 1948. Rather then being owned by the state, companies were socially owned and managed with workers' self-management. The occupation and liberation struggle in World War II left Yugoslavia's infrastructure devastated. Even the most developed parts of the country were largely rural and the little industry the country had was largely damaged or destroyed. With the exception of a recession in mid-1960s, the country's economy prospered formidably. Unemployment was low and the education level of the working force steadily increased. Due to Yugoslavia's neutrality and a leading role in the Non-aligned Movement, Yugoslav companies exported to both Western and Eastern markets. Yugoslav companies carried out construction of numerous major infrastructural and industrial projects in Africa, Europe and Asia. In 1970s, the economy was reorganized according to Edvard Kardelj's theory of associated labour, in which the right to decision making and a share in profits of socially owned companies is based on the investment of labour. All companies were transformed into organizations of associated labour. The smallest, basic organizations of associated labour, roughly corresponded to a small company or a department in a large company. These were organized into enterprises which in turn associated into composite organizations of associated labour, which could be large companies or even whole industry branches in a certain area. Most executive decision making was based in enterprises, so that these continued to compete to an extent even when they were part of a same composite organization. The appointment of managers and strategic policy of composite organizations were, depending on their size and importance, in practice often subject to political and personal influence-peddling. In order to give all employees the same access to decision making, the basic organisations of associated labour were also introduced into public services, including health and education. The basic organizations were usually made up of just dozens of people and had their own workers councils, whose assent was needed for strategic decisions and appointment of managers in enterprises or public institutions. The Yugoslav wars, consequent loss of market, as well as mismanagement and/or non-transparent privatization brought further economic trouble for all former republics of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Only Slovenia's economy grew steadily after the initial shock and slump. Croatia reached its 1990 GDP in 2003, a feat yet to be accomplished by other former Yugoslav republics. The money of SFRY was the Yugoslav dinar.

Military

Much like the Kingdom of Yugoslavia that preceded it, the socialist Yugoslavia maintained a strong military force. It was an oft-mentioned claim that SFRY had the third strongest army in Europe at its heyday. The Yugoslav People's Army or JNA/JLA was the main organization of the military forces. It was composed of the ground army, navy and aviation. The regular army mostly originated from the Yugoslav Partisans of the Second World War. Each of the six Republics had their own "territorial defense", a National Guard of a sort, which were established in the frame of a new doctrine called “general people’s resistance” as an answer to the brutal end of the Prague Spring by the Warsaw Pact in Czechoslovakia.

Politics

The defining document of the state was the Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was amended in 1963 and 1974. The Communist Party of Yugoslavia had won the first elections, and remained in power throughout the state's existence. It was also called League of Communists of Yugoslavia, and it was composed of individual parties from each constituent republic. The primary political leader of the state was Josip Broz Tito, but there were several other important politicians, particularly after Tito's death: see the list of leaders of communist Yugoslavia. When the individual republics organized multi-party elections in the 1990s, the Communist Parties mostly failed to win re-election.

Bosnian Serb Army

External links

Serbian language

Alphabets

Notes

Phonology

Vowels

Consonants

Serbian literature

Demographics

Trivia

See also

External links

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Etymology

History

Pre-Slavic Period

Medieval Bosnia

Ottoman Bosnia

Modern Bosnia

Politics

Political divisions

Geography

Economy

References

Demographics

Education

Culture

Related topics

External links

Republika Srpska

Population

Name

History

Creation of Republika Srpska

Republika Srpska and the Bosnian War

The post-war Republika Srpska

Territory

Borders

Municipalities

Politics

Presidents

Government

Governments

Ministries

Administrative Units in RS

Administrative Organizations in RS

Economy

Miscellaneous

See also

Official pages

External links

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

History

Administrative divisions

Demographics

Economy

Military

Politics

Culture

Miscellaneous

See also

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Etymology

History

Pre-Slavic Period

Medieval Bosnia

Ottoman Bosnia

Modern Bosnia