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Chocoan

Chocoan

The Choco languages (also Chocoan, Chocó, Chokó) are a small family of Native American languages spread across Colombia and Panama. They consist of the following groups:
- Emberan languages, with over 60,000 speakers mainly in Colombia (a fairly mutually intelligible set divided into 6 languages by the Ethnologue)
- Woun Meu language, or Wounaan, with some 6000 speakers on the Panama-Colombia border
- Anserma language (extinct)
- Runa language (extinct)
- Arma language (extinct)
- Cenu language (extinct)
- Cauca language (extinct) They are classified by Joseph Greenberg as Nuclear Paezan languages - most closely related to the Paezan and Barbacoan families - while others, seeing his conclusions as over-hasty, prefer to consider them an isolated group.

Bibliography


- Loewen Jacob, 1963. "Choco I & Choco II ", IJAL 29.
- Mortensen, Charles A. A Reference Grammar of the Northern Embera Languages. Studies in the Languages of Colombia 7. SIL Publications in Linguistics 134, 1999
- Licht, Daniel Aguirre. Embera. Languages of the World/Materials 208. LINCOM 1999.

External links


- [http://www.sil.org/americas/colombia/Language/engl_lang.htm SIL in Colombia] (includes bibliographies for several) Category:Language families Category:Indigenous languages of the South American Northwest

Native American Languages

Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made by some linguists, but several of these have not been generally accepted.

Background

Archeological and DNA evidence suggests that the Americas were peopled by migrants from Siberia about 17,000-10,000 years ago. A persistent minority opinion believes instead that humans first spread through the Americas about 30,000 years ago. From Alaska, the descendants of the first migrants went on to people the rest of North and South America. The language or languages spoken by these early migrants, and the process by which the current diversity of indigenous languages in the Americas emerged, are a matter of speculation. Some evidence suggests that the ancestors of the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut speakers arrived separately from Siberia some time after the earliest settlers. Several indigenous languages of the Americas have developed their own writing systems, including the Mayan languages and Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. These and many other indigenous languages later adapted the Roman alphabet or Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. Aleut and Tlingit were first written by missionaries in the Cyrillic Alphabet, and later in the Roman alphabet. Subsequent to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas in 1492, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch were brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, and constitute the official languages of the independent states of the Americas, although Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru have one or more indigenous languages as an official language in addition to Spanish. Several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas from European languages. The attitudes of the most of the European colonizers and their successor states toward Native American languages ranged from benign neglect to active suppression. However, the Spanish missionaries preached to the natives in local languages. They actually spread Quechua beyond its original geographic area. Indigenous languages vary greatly in the number of speakers, from Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl with millions of active speakers to a number of languages with only a handful of elderly speakers. Many indigenous languages of the Americas are endangered, and many others are extinct, with no living native speakers.

Language families & isolates by region

Notes:
- Extinct languages or families are indicated by: (†).
- The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (e.g. Alacalufan family consists of 2 languages).

South America

Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well-studied in many areas). Therefore many relationships between languages and language families have not determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground. The list of language families and isolates below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below.

Families (south)

# Arauan (8) (a.k.a. Arahuan, Arawán, Arauanas) (†) # Arawakan (South America & Caribbean) (60) (a.k.a. Arahuacan, Arawakanas, Maipurean, Maipuran, Maipúrean, Maipureano) # Arutani-Sape (2) (a.k.a. Arutani-sapé) # Aymaran (3) (a.k.a. Jaqi, Aru, Aymara, Jaqaru) # Barbacoan (8) (a.k.a. Barbacoanas) # Bororoan (a.k.a. Boróroan) # Botocudoan (3) (a.k.a. Aimoré) # Cahuapanan (2) (a.k.a. Jebero, Kawapánan, Cahuapananas) # Cariban (29) (a.k.a. Caribe, Carib) # Catacaoan (a.k.a. Katakáoan) (†) # Chapacura-Wanham (9) (a.k.a. Chapacuran, Txapakúran, Chapakúran) # Charruan (a.k.a. Charrúan) (†) # Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22) # Chimuan (†) # Chipaya-Uru languages (a.k.a. Uru-Chipaya) # Choco (10) (a.k.a. Chocoan) # Cholonan (†) # Chon (2) (a.k.a. Patagonian) # Guajiboan (4) (a.k.a. Wahívoan) (†) # Guaykuruan (a.k.a. Waikurúan) # Harákmbut (2) (a.k.a. Tuyoneri) # Huarpe (a.k.a. Warpe) (†) # Jirajaran (3) (a.k.a. Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) (†) # Jabutian (a.k.a. Jabutían) # Jê (13) (a.k.a. Gê, Jean, Jêan, Gêan, Je, Ye) # Jivaroan (4) (a.k.a. Hívaro) # Kamakanan (a.k.a. Kamakánan) (†) # Karajá # Katukinan (3) (a.k.a. Catuquinan) # Maku (6) # Mascoyan (5) (a.k.a. Maskóian, Mascoian) # Mataco-Guaicuru (11) # Maxakalían (a.k.a. Mashakalían) # Mosetenan (a.k.a. Mosetén) # Muran (4) (a.k.a. Mura) # Nambiquaran (5) # Otomacoan (2) (a.k.a. Otomákoan) (†) # Paezan (4) # Panoan (a.k.a. Pánoan) # Peba-Yaguan (2) (a.k.a. Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban) (†) # Puinavean (a.k.a. Makú) # Purian (a.k.a. Purían) (†) # Quechuan (46) # Salivan (2) (a.k.a. Sálivan) # Tacanan (a.k.a. Takánan) # Timotean (2) (a.k.a. Timoteano, Timoteana, Timótean) (†) # Tiniguan (2) (a.k.a. Tiníwan) (†) # Tucanoan (25) (a.k.a. Tukánoan) # Tupian (70) # Witotoan (6) (a.k.a. Huitotoan, Bora-Witótoan) # Yanomaman (4) # Zamucoan (2) # Zaparoan (7) (a.k.a. Sáparoan)

Isolates or unclassified (south)

# Aguano (†) # Ahuaqué (a.k.a. Auaké, Uruak, Awaké) # Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) # Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (a.k.a. Andoke) # Andoquero (†) # Aushiri (a.k.a. Auxira) # Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (a.k.a. Baenán, Baenã) (†) # Betoi (Columbia) (a.k.a. Betoy, Jirara) (†) # Candoshi (a.k.a. Maina, Kandoshi) # Canichana (Bolivia) (a.k.a. Canesi, Kanichana) # Carabayo # Cayubaba (Bolivia) # Chiquitano # Coeruna (Brazil) (†) # Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador) (a.k.a. Kofán) # Cueva # Culle (Peru) (a.k.a. Culli, Linga, Kulyi) # Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (a.k.a. Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) (†) # Esmeralda language (a.k.a. Takame) (†) # Fulnió # Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) (†) # Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) (†) # Guamo (Venezuela) (a.k.a. Wamo) (†) # Guató # Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†) # Huarpe (Warpe) # Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso) # Itonama (Bolivia) (a.k.a. Saramo, Machoto) # Jeikó (†) # Jotí (Venezuela) (a.k.a. Hotí, Waruwaru) # Kaimbe # Kaliana (a.k.a. Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano) # Kamsá (Colombia) (a.k.a. Sibundoy, Coche, Camsá) # Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (a.k.a. Kanoé, Kapishaná) # Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) (†) # Katembrí (†) # Kawésqar (Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine) # Koihoma (Peru) (†) # Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia) (†) # Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso) (†) # Leco language (Lapalapa, Leko) (†) # Lule (†) # Maku language (a.k.a. Macu) # Malibú (a.k.a. Malibu) # Mapudungu (a.k.a. Araucanian, Mapuche, Huillice) # Matanawí (†) # Mocana # Movima (Bolivia) # Munichi (Peru) (a.k.a. Muniche) # Mutú (a.k.a. Loco) # Muzo (†) # Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†) # Nonuya (Peru) # Ofayé # Old Catío-Nutabe (Colombia) (†) # Omurano (Peru) (a.k.a. Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) (†) # Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) (†) # Pakarara (†) # Palta # Panche (†) # Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†) # Pantagora (†) # Panzaleo (Ecuador) (a.k.a. Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo) # Patagón # Pijao # Puelche (a.k.a. Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) (†) # Puquina (Bolivia) (†) # Resígaro (Colombia-Peru border area) # Rikbaktsá # Sabela (Ecuador, Peru) (a.k.a. Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka) # Sechura language (Atalan, Sec) (†) # Salumã (Brazil) # Tairona (Colombia) (†) # Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) (†) # Taruma (†) # Taushiro (Peru) (a.k.a. Pinchi, Pinche) # Tequiraca (Peru) (a.k.a. Tekiraka, Avishiri) (†) # Teushen (†) (Patagonia, Argentina) # Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (a.k.a. Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna) # Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso) # Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) (†) # Urarina (a.k.a. Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku) # Vilela # Wakona (†) # Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (a.k.a. Guarao) # Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (a.k.a. Shokó) (†) # Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) (†) # Yaghan (Chile) (a.k.a. Yámana) # Yaruro (a.k.a. Jaruro) # Yuracare (Bolivia) # Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (a.k.a. Jurí) (†) # Yurumanguí (Colombia) (a.k.a. Yurimangui, Yurimangi) (†)

Mexico and Central America

Families (central)

# Algic (North America & Mexico) (29) # Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22) # Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3) # Guaicurian (8) (a.k.a. Waikurian) # Jicaquean # Lencan # Mayan (31) # Misumalpan # Mixe-Zoquean (19) # Na-Dené (North America & Mexico) (40) # Oto-Manguean (27) # Tequistlatecan (3) # Totonacan (2) # Uto-Aztecan (North America & Mexico) (33) # Xincan # Yuman-Cochimí (North America & Mexico) (11)

Isolates or unclassified (central)

# Alagüilac (Guatemala) # Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico) # Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) # Huetar (Costa Rica) # Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca) # Maratino (northeastern Mexico) # Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas) # Quinigua (northeast Mexico) # Seri (Mexico: Sonora) # Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Tarascan (Mexico: Michoacán) (a.k.a. Purépecha, Tarasco)

Greenland, Canada & USA

USA There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified). The Nadene, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Nadene comes in second with approximately 180,200 speakers (148,500 of these are speakers of Navajo). Nadene and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Nadene spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the US Southwest and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships have proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two family proposals, Penutian and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families and isolates remain. North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California state where it alone has 18 genetic units consisting of 74 languages (compare to the just 3 genetic units in all of Europe: Indo-European, Uralic, and Basque). Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeast; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from historical record. This diversity has been and continues to be very influential in the development of linguistic thought in the US. Due to the diversity of this area, it is difficult to make generalizations that adequately characterize the entire region. Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. The languages of the Pacific Northwest are notable for large consonant inventories and complex phonotactics (for example, some languages have words that lack vowels). The languages of the Plateau area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to Afro-Asiatic and Caucasian languages). Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (Eskimo-Aleut languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of Kiowa-Tanoan, the lexical affixes of Wakashan, Salishan and Chimakuan, and the unusual verb structure of Nadene.

Families (north)

# Algic (30) # Alsean (2) # Caddoan (5) # Chimakuan (2) # Chinookan (3) # Chumashan (6) # Comecrudan (North America & Mexico) (3) # Coosan (2) # Eskimo-Aleut (7) # Iroquoian (11) # Kalapuyan (3) # Keresan (2) # Kiowa-Tanoan (7) # Maiduan (4) # Muskogean (9) # Na-Dené (North America & Mexico) (39) # Palaihnihan (2) # Plateau Penutian (4) (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan) # Pomoan (7) # Salishan (23) # Shastan (4) # Siouan-Catawban (19) # Tsimshianic (2) # Utian (15) # Uto-Aztecan (33) # Wakashan (7) # Wintuan (4) # Yokutsan (3) # Yuman-Cochimí (11)

Isolates or unclassified (north)

# Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas) # Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas) # Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland) # Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington) # Chimariko (US: California) # Chitimacha (US: Louisiania) # Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico) # Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Esselen (US: California) # Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska) # Karankawa (US: Texas) # Karuk (a.k.a. Karok) (US: California) # Kootenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana) # Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana) # Salinan (US: California) # Siuslaw (US: Oregon) # Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Takelma (US: Oregon) # Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia) # Tonkawa (US: Texas) # Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas) # Wappo (US: California) # Washo (US: California, Nevada) # Yana (US: California) # Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma) # Yuki (US: California) # Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)

Language stock proposals

Many hypothetical language phylum proposals concerning American languages are often cited as uncontroversially demonstrated in more popular writings. However, many of these proposals have, in fact, not been fully demonstrated if even at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (e.g. the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (e.g. Hokan, which, incidentally, Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock"). Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (e.g. Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals: # Ahuaque-Kalianan # Algonkian-Gulf   (= Algic + Beothuk + Gulf) # Almosan   (= Algic + Kutenai + Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan) # Almosan-Keresiouan (= Almosan + Keresiouan) # Amerind   (= all languages excepting Eskimo-Aleut & Nadene) # Aztec-Tanoan   (= Uto-Aztecan + Kiowa-Tanoan) # Chibchan stock # Chibchan-Paezan # Chikitano-Boróroan # Coahuiltecan   (= Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa) # Cunza-Kapixanan # Dene-Caucasian # Esmeralda-Yaruroan # Guamo-Chapacuran # Gulf   (= Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica) # Hokan   (= Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman-Cochimí + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan) # Hokan-Siouan   (= Hokan + Subtiaba-Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Keresan + Tunican + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Siouan-Catawba + Yuchi + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua) # Javaroan-Cahuapanan # Je-Tupi-Carib # Kalianan # Kaweskar language area # Keresiouan   (= Keres + Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Yuchi) # Lule-Vilelan # Macro-Andean # Macro-Arawakan # Macro-Carib # Macro-Jê (a.k.a. Macro-Ge) # Macro-Katembrí-Taruma # Macro-Kulyi-Cholónan # Macro-Lekoan # Macro-Mayan # Macro-Otomákoan # Macro-Paesan # Macro-Panoan # Macro-Puinávean # Macro-Siouan   (= Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan) # Macro-Tekiraka-Kanichana # Macro-Tucanoan # Macro-Tupí-Karibe # Macro-Waikurúan # Macro-Warpean # Mosan   (= Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan) # Mosetén-Chonan # Mura-Matanawian # (Sapir's) Nadene (including Haida)   (= Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan) # Nostratic-Amerind # Paezan-Barbacoan # Pano-Tacanan # Penutian   (= many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico) ## California Penutian   (= Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian) ## Oregon Penutian   (= Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean) ## Mexican Penutian   (= Mixe-Zoque + Huave) # Quechumaran # Takelman   (= Takelma + Kalapuyan) # Tunican   (= Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha) # Wappo-Yukian   (= Wappo + Yukian) # Yok-Utian   (= Yokutsan + Utian) # Yuri-Ticunan # Zaparoan-Yaguan Good discussions of past proposals are found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979).

Pidgins, mixed languages, & trade languages

# Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (a.k.a. Labrador Inuit Pidgin) # Hudson Strait Pidgin # Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin # Eskimo Trade Jargon (a.k.a. Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon) # Mednyj Aleut (a.k.a. Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA) # Haida Jargon # Chinook Jargon # Nootka Jargon # Broken Slavey (a.k.a. Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé) # Kutenai Jargon # Loucheux Jargon (a.k.a. Jargon Loucheux) # Inuktitut-English Pidgin # Michif (a.k.a. French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif) # Bungee (a.k.a. Bungi) (?) # Broken Oghibbeway (a.k.a. Broken Ojibwa) # Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (a.k.a. Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois) # Montagnais Pidgin Basque (a.k.a. Pidgin Basque-Montagnais) # American Indian Pidgin English # Delaware Jargon (a.k.a. Pidgin Delaware) # Pidgin Massachusett # Jargonized Powhatan # Ocaneechi # Lingua Franca Creek # Lingua Franca Apalachee # Mobilian Jargon (a.k.a. Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá) # Güegüence-Nicarao # Carib Pidgin (a.k.a. Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio) # Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language # Guajiro-Spanish # Media Lengua # Catalangu # Callahuaya (a.k.a. Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya jargon) # Nheengatú (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Amazônica, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte) # Lingua Geral do Sul (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)

Unattested languages

Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below. Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.

Linguistic areas

The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or Sprachbunds (also known as convergence areas). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity, and also to help differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The following tentative list of linguistic areas is based on primarily Campbell (1997):
- Northern Northwest Coast
- Northwest Coast
- Plateau
- Northern California
- Clear Lake
- South Coast Range
- Southern California-Western Arizona
- Great Basin
- Pueblo
- Plains
- Northeast
- Southeast
- Mesoamerican
- Colombian-Central American
- Venezuelan-Antillean
- Andean
  - Ecduadoran-Columbian (subarea)
- Orinoco-Amazon
- Amazonas (a.k.a. Amazonia)
- Lowland South America
- Southern Cone

See also


- Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas
- Mesoamerican languages
- Language families and languages
- Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Indigenous peoples of the Americas
- :Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas (division into geocultural areas)

External links


- [http://www.sil.org/mexico/museo/0i-Index.htm Virtual museum of the indigineous languages of Mexico]
- [http://www.proel.org/ Promotora Española de Lingüística] (Proel)
- [http://www.uni-lueneburg.de/fb3/suk/akpam/ Documentation Center of the Linguistic Minorities of Panama]
  - [http://www.uni-lueneburg.de/fb3/suk/akpam/sprache_und_stimmen/13-7-05en.html Linguistic map] (DCLMP)
- [http://www.ailla.utexas.org/site/welcome.html The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America]
- [http://www.yvwiiusdinvnohii.net/language.html First People's Language Resources] (Online, Offline, Commercial & Non-Commercial)
- [http://www.ssila.org/ The Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas] (SSILA)
- [http://www.ydli.org/ydindex.htm The Yinka Déné Language Institute] (YDLI)
- [http://www.ydli.org/fnlgsbc.htm The First Nations Languages of British Columbia] (YDLI)
  - [http://www.ydli.org/synindex.htm Index of Variant Language Names (in British Columbia)] (YDLI)
- [http://soda.sou.edu/tribal.html Southern Oregon Digital Archives First Nations Tribal Collection] (beautiful collection of ethnographic, linguistic, & historical material)
- [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/anthro/handbook.htm Handbook of the North American Indians]
- [http://stripe.colorado.edu/~linguist/cesnalps.html Center for the Study of the Native Languages of the Plains and Southwest]
- [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/ Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica]
- [http://www.proeibandes.org/ Programa de Formación en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe para los Países Andinos]
- [http://www.yukoncollege.yk.ca/ynlc/ Yukon Native Language Centre]
- [http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc/bibs/toc.html Bibliographies of Northern and Central California Indians]
- [http://nas.ucdavis.edu/NALC/home.html Native American Language Center] (University of California at Davis)
- Map of languages in the US - William C. Sturtevant. (1967). Early Indian tribes, culture areas, and linguistic stocks.:
  - [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_alaska.jpg Alaska & Hawai‘i]
  - [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_west.jpg Western US]
  - [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_east.jpg Eastern US]
- [http://www.native-languages.org/ Native Languages of the Americas]
- [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/IJAL/home.html International Journal of American Linguistics] (one of the best scholarly journals devoted mostly to Native American linguistics)
- [http://www.sicc.sk.ca/heritage/sils/ourlanguages/index.html Our Languages] (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre)

Bibilography


- Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. Language, 5, 1-7.
- Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
- Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 1, pp. 713-726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton.
- Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3-29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
- Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-1100-9846-6.
- Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
- Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13-67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-2927-0414-3.
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46-76). London: Routledge.
- Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
- Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.
- Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (Vol. 6, pp. 157-317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1-142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska).
- Powell, John W. (1915). Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen.
- Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics (pp. 10-26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138-141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd.
- Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
- Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). Native languages of the Americas. New York: Plenum.
- Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 749-795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976).
- Sherzer, Joel. (1976). An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
- Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. Languages of the world, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (7): 121-150.
- Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-4440-0155-7.
-

Panama

Panama (Spanish: Panamá) is the southernmost country of North America. A transcontinental country, its isthmus constitutes the last part of a natural land bridge between the North American and South American continents. It borders Costa Rica to the west and Colombia to the east, and the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south.

History

Main article: History of Panama Much of Panama's domestic politics and international diplomacy in the 20th century were tied to the Panama Canal and the foreign policy of the United States. At the turn of the 20th century, Theodore Roosevelt pursued United States diplomatic efforts to facilitate a deal with Colombia that would allow it to take over French canal operations started by Ferdinand de Lesseps. In November 1903, a small number of wealthy Panamanian landowners lead by a covert Separatist Junta presided by Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, were encouraged to secede from Colombia with support from the United States. On November 3, Panama declared its independence from Colombia after controlling the Colombian army. The President of the Municipal Council, Demetrio H. Brid[http://www.demetriohbrid.com/Biografia.html], highest authority at the time, became its de facto President, appointing on November 4 a Provisional Government to run the affairs of the new republic. The United States was the first country to recognize the new Republic of Panama and sent troops to protect the nation. The 1904 Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, a prominent member of the Conservative political party, as the first constitutional President of the Republic of Panama. In December 1903 representatives of the republic signed the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty which granted rights to the United States to build and administer indefinitely the Panama Canal, which was opened in 1914. This treaty became a contentious diplomatic issue between the United States and Panama until the signing of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties in 1977. Although the original intent of the founding fathers was to bring harmony amongst the two major political parties (Conservatives and Liberals), the Panamanian government went through periods of political instability and corruption and at various times in its history, the mandate of an elected president terminated prematurely. In 1968, Gen. Omar Torrijos toppled the government of the recently elected Arnulfo Arias Madrid and became the virtual uncontested leader of Panama until his death in an airplane accident in 1981. After Torrijos's death, power eventually became concentrated in the hands of Gen. Manuel Noriega, a former head of Panama's secret police and a former CIA operative. Relations with the United States government soured by the end of the 1980s, with Noriega being accused of drug trafficking. In December 1989, the United States invaded Panama in a large military operation codenamed Operation Just Cause involving 25,000 United States troops. Ostensibly, the death of an unarmed U.S. soldier in plain clothes in Panama at a Panamanian Defence Forces roadblock was one of the precipitating causes for the invasion along with drugtrafficking charges and Noriega's refusal to hand over power after being defeated in elections. However, according to the Panamanian government at the time, the officer's vehicle attempted to drive through the roadblock which was located near a sensitive military location. A few hours after the invasion, in a ceremony that took place inside a US military base in the former Panama Canal Zone, Guillermo Endara was sworn in as the new president of Panama. The invasion occurred just days before the Panama Canal administration was to be turned over to Panamanian control, according to the timetable set up by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. After the invasion, Noriega sought asylum in the Vatican diplomatic mission represented by Monsignior Jose S. Laboa, but after a few days turned himself in to the American military. Noriega was immediately taken to Florida where he was formally charged and arrested by United States federal authorities. He is eligible for parole in 2007. Under the Torrijos-Carter Treaty, on December 31, 1999, the United States returned all canal-related lands to Panama, but reserves the right to military intervention in the interest of its national security. Panama also gained control of canal-related buildings and infrastructure as well as full administration of the canal.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Panama Panama is a republic with three branches of government: executive and legislative branches elected by direct vote for 5-year terms, and an independently appointed judiciary. The executive branch includes a president and two vice presidents (second vice presidential seat will be eliminated in May 2009 elections). The legislative branch consists of a 78-member unicameral Legislative Assembly (legislative branch will decrease to 71 members in May 2009 elections). The judicial branch is organized under a nine-member Supreme Court and includes all tribunals and municipal courts. An autonomous Electoral Tribunal supervises voter registration, the election process, and the activities of political parties. Everyone over the age of 18 is required to vote, although those who fail to do so are not penalized. General elections were held on May 2, 2004; the presidential contest was won by Martín Torrijos, son of the former strongman Omar Torrijos. Martín Torrijos assumed the presidency on September 1, 2004. The former president had been Mireya Moscoso, widow of the political leader Arnulfo Arias.

Administrative subdivisions

Main article: Provinces of Panama Panama is divided into 9 provinces (provincias) and 3 provincial-level indigenous territories (comarcas indígenas). There are also 2 sub-provincial comarcas. The provinces are:
- Bocas del Toro
- Chiriquí
- Coclé
- Colón
- Darién
- Herrera
- Los Santos
- Panamá
- Veraguas The provincial-level comarcas are:
- Emberá
- Kuna Yala
- Ngöbe-Buglé The sub-provincial comarcas are Kuna de Madugandí and Kuna de Wargandí, which are part of Panamá and Darién provinces, respectively. :See also List of cities in Panama

Geography

List of cities in Panama Main article: Geography of Panama Panama is located in both North and South America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. Its location on the eastern end of the isthmus forming a landbridge connecting Central and South America is strategic. By 1999, Panama controlled the Panama Canal that links the North Atlantic Ocean via the Caribbean Sea with the North Pacific Ocean.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Panama Because of its key geographic location, Panama's economy is service-based, heavily weighted toward banking, commerce, and tourism. The handover of the canal and military installations by the US has given rise to new construction projects. The Moscoso administration inherited an economy that is much more structurally sound and liberalized than the one inherited by its predecessor. However, Moscoso was criticized for several failed or halted schemes to develop the former Canal Zone area, including the Ciudad del Saber. The economy also experienced a downturn with the departure of thousands of expatriate Canal professionals.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Panama Demographics of Panama Demographics of Panama] Demographics of Panama Demographics of Panama The culture, customs, and language of the Panamanians are predominantly Caribbean Spanish. Ethnically, the majority of the population is mestizo or mixed Spanish, Indian, Chinese, and West Indian. Spanish is the official and dominant language; English is a common second language spoken by the West Indians and by many in business and the professions. More than half the population lives in the Panama City–Colón metropolitan corridor. The majority of Panamanians are Roman Catholic, accounting for over 80% of the population. Although the Constitution recognises Catholicism as the religion of the majority, Panama has no official religion. Evangelical Christians are now estimated to be around 10% of the population. Other major religions in Panama are Islam (5%), the Bahá'í Faith (1%), Judaism (0.4%), and Hinduism (0.3%). The Jewish community, with over 10,000 members, is by far the biggest community in the region (including Central America, Colombia and the Caribbean). Jewish immigration began in the late 19th Century, and at present there are three synagogues in Panama City, as well as two Jewish schools. Within Latin America, Panama has one of the largest Jewish communities in proportion to its population, surpassed by Uruguay and Argentina. Also in regards to the Bahá'í Faith, Panama hosts one of only seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship in the world. Completed in 1972 in Panama City, it is perched on a high cliff overlooking the canal, and is constructed of local stone laid in a pattern reminiscent of Native American fabric designs. Panama, because of its historical reliance on commerce, is above all a melting pot. This is shown, for instance, by its considerable population of Chinese origin, who number around 150,000, or about 5% of the population. (See main article at Chinatowns in Latin America—Panama). Many Chinese immigrated to Panama to help build the Panama Canal more than 100 years ago. A term for "corner store" in Panamanian Spanish is el chino, reflecting the fact that many corner stores are owned and run by Chinese immigrants. (Other countries have similar social patterns, for instance, the "Arab" corner store of France.) The country is also the smallest in Latin America in terms of population, with Uruguay as the second-smallest (by almost 400,000). However, since Panama has a faster birth rate, it is likely that in the coming years its population will surpass Uruguay's.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Panama
- Music of Panama

See also


- Balboa (currency)
- Communications in Panama
- Foreign relations of Panama
- List of hospitals in Panama
- List of Panamanians
- Military of Panama
- Orden de Manuel Amador Guerrero
- Panama Canal
- Public holidays in Panama
- Transportation in Panama
- Panamanian Spanish

External links


- [http://www.thepanamanews.com Panama News in English]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/viviendo_en_panama/ Viviendo en Panama]
- [http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/panamaforum The Panama Forum]
- [http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/cascoviejo UNESCO World Heritage site, El Casco Antiguo]
- [http://www.chiriquichatter.net/blog Chiriqui Chatter - Blog in the Chiriqui Province]
- [http://www.mef.gob.pa/ Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas]-(In Spanish)
- [http://www.mire.gob.pa/ Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores]-(In Spanish)
- [http://www.info-panama.com/panama-gallery/index.php?lang=english Panama Pictures]
- [http://www.presidencia.gob.pa/ Presidencia de la República]-(In Spanish)
- [http://www.up.ac.pa/ Universidad de Panamá]
- [http://www.demetriohbrid.com/ Demetrio H. Brid First de facto President 1903]-(Spanish) Category:Central American countries ko:파나마 ms:Panama ja:パナマ th:ประเทศปานามา

Joseph Greenberg

: "Joseph Greenberg" may also refer to the director better known as Joseph Green Joseph Harold Greenberg (May 28, 1915-May 7, 2001) was a prominent and controversial linguist, known for his work in both language classification and typology. He was born in Brooklyn, New York and served for many years on the faculty of Stanford University.

Contributions to linguistics

Language typology

Greenberg's fame rests in part on his seminal contributions to synchronic linguistics and the quest to identify linguistic universals. In the late 1950's, Greenberg began to examine corpora of languages covering a wide geographic and genetic distribution. He located a number of interesting potential universals, as well as many strong cross-linguistic tendencies. In particular, Greenberg invented the notion of "implicational universal", which takes the form "if a language has structure X, then it must also have structure Y." For example, X might be "mid front rounded vowels" and Y "high front rounded vowels" (for terminology see phonetics). This kind of research was picked up by many other scholars following Greenberg's example and has continued to be an important kind of data-gathering in synchronic linguistics.

African languages

Greenberg is also widely known and respected for his development of a new classification system for African languages, which he published in 1963. The classification was for a time considered very bold and speculative, especially in his proposal of a Nilo-Saharan language family, but is now generally accepted among African historical specialists. In the course of this work, Greenberg coined the term Afroasiatic languages, to replace the former "Hamito-Semitic". Greenberg's classification was well accepted by historical linguists, who have since used it as a basis for further work. Hal Fleming introduced the Omotic family, and Gregersen proposed the join of Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan into a large Kongo-Saharan family, which were in turn accepted by Greenberg, though in the case of Kongo-Saharan only implicitly.

Indo-Pacific languages

In 1971 Greenberg proposed the Indo-Pacific languages super-family, which groups together the Papuan languages (several language families spoken in Papua New Guinea and nearby regions which are not Austronesian) together with the native languages of Tasmania and the Andaman Islands, but excludes Australian Aboriginal languages. This grouping is considered by most linguists to be highly speculative and is not accepted by anyone working on Papuan or Tasmanian languages.

Languages of the Americas

Later, Greenberg studied the native languages of the Americas, which until then had been classified into hundreds of separate language families. In his 1987 book Language in the Americas, he proposed a broader classification into three major groups: Eskimo-Aleut, Na-Dene, and Amerind. As Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dene were already well established families, he was effectively proposing that all other languages of the Americas formed a single family, Amerind. This theory is rejected and has been soundly criticized by most historical linguists. The criticisms are directed not so much to the classification per se, but primarily to the method of mass lexical comparison used to establish it, which the majority of historical linguists consider inherently unreliable (see below); and to the large number of errors that were claimed to be present in the sources used by Greenberg, such as wrong or non-existent words, incorrect translations, words attributed to the wrong languages, and unsupported or wrong identification of prefixes and suffixes. While some of these errors (which, according to Greenberg's defenders, only affect a few percent of the data) could conceivably lead to an artificial increase in the similarity measure, others would merely introduce random noise in the measurement, and therefore tend to reduce it — which would only strengthen Greenberg's conclusions. Nevertheless, the allegations of widespread errors in the data along with objections to his methodology have led many linguists to dismiss this part of Greenberg's work as unscholarly and invalid.

Eurasiatic Languages

Later in his life, Greenberg proposed to join many language families of Europe and Asia into a single group called Eurasiatic, fairly similar to Illich-Svitych's older Nostratic proposals but differing in important ways - notably the exclusion of the Afro-Asiatic languages, which has since become popular among Nostraticists as well. He continued to work on this project from the time of his diagnosis with fatal pancreatic cancer until his death.

Greenberg's method of mass comparison

Greenberg proposed a controversial method for finding historical relationships when comparing too many languages for traditional methods of establishing regular sound shifts to be practical - a situation that arises particularly when attempting to establish long-range historical families in regions of the world where few if any lower-level families have been reconstructed, or where linguistic diversity is especially high. This method was enthusiastically embraced by some historical linguists (and many geneticists), but was rejected by most historical linguists. See mass lexical comparison for a fuller discussion.

References

For criticisms and defenses of specific theories, see the relevant articles (linguistic universals, implicational universal, mass lexical comparison, Niger-Congo languages, Nilo-Saharan languages, Afro-Asiatic languages, Amerind languages, Eurasiatic languages, Indo-Pacific languages.)
- Greenberg, Joseph H. Linguistics, anthropological theory, cultural anthropology; Africa.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In Universals of Language. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 73–113.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) The Languages of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987) Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (2000) Indo-European and its Closest Relatives: the Eurasiatic Language Family – Volume I, Grammar. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (2002) Indo-European and its Closest Relatives: the Eurasiatic Language Family – Volume II, Lexicon. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

See also


- Nostratic languages
- Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza

External links


- [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2001/may16/greenberg-516.html Obituary from Stanford Report]
- [http://www.goodbyemag.com/apr01/greenberg.html Obituary from Good Bye!]
- [http://lings.ln.man.ac.uk/Info/staff/WAC/Papers/JHGobit.pdf Obituary by Bill Croft] Greenberg, Joseph H. Greenberg, Joseph H. Greenberg, Joseph H.

Paezan languages

Paezan (also Páesan, Paezano) is a family of languages spoken in Colombia and Ecuador.

Family division

Paezan consists of 4 languages. I. Andaqui : 1. Andaqui (a.k.a. Andakí) (†) II. Paezan proper : 2. Paez (a.k.a. Nasa Yuwe, Paes, Paisa) : 3. Panzaleo (a.k.a. Pansaleo, Latacunga, Quito) (†) III. Coconuco (a.k.a. Cauca) : 4. Coconuco (a.k.a. Kokonuko) † Andaqui and Panzaleo are now extinct. The Paezan family may be related to the Barbacoan languages; however, Curnow (1998) shows how much of this speculation is based on misinterpretation of an old document of Douay (1888). Other more speculative larger groupings involving Paezan include the Macro-Paesan "cluster", the Macro-Chibchan stock, and the Chibchan-Paezan stock. Some researchers (Gordon [2005], Matteson [1972], Fabre [2005]) place Nasa Yuwe as an isolated language. In general terms, three main theories about linguistic classification of Paez are held by the researchers: 1) Nasa Yuwe and Guambian would form a single group; 2) That sed would be part of a larger Chibchan macrophyle; or 3) Similarities between Guambian and Páez can be explained by geographical vicinity, but they are not related. Matteson's 1972 comparison of Páez and Guambian vocuabularies shows just a 5.2% overlap. Same author has shown also that comparisons between Páez and Arawak, Quechua and Protochibchan evidence greater similarities: respectively 16.9, 11.8 and 14.5%.

Bibliography


- Branks, Judith; Sánchez, Juan Bautista. (1978). The drama of life: A study of life cycle customs among the Guambiano, Colombia, South America (pp xii, 107). Summer Institute of Linguistics Museum of Anthropology Publication (No. 4). Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics Museum of Anthropology.
- Brend, Ruth M. (Ed.). (1985). From phonology to discourse: Studies in six Colombian languages (p. vi, 133). Language Data, Amerindian Series (No. 9). Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Beuchat, Henri; & Rivet, Paul. (1910). Affinités des langues du sud de la Colombie et du nord de l'Équateur. Le Mouséon, 11, 33-68, 141-198.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1981). Comparative Chibchan phonology. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania).
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991). Las lenguas del área intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1993). La familia chibcha. In (M. L. Rodríguez de Montes (Ed.), Estado actual de la clasificación de las lenguas indígenas de Colombia (pp. 75-125). Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
- Curnow, Timothy J. (1998). Why Paez is not a Barbacoan language: The nonexistence of "Moguex" and the use of early sources. International Journal of American Linguistics, 64 (4), 338-351.
- Curnow, Timothy J.; & Liddicoat, Anthony J. (1998). The Barbacoan languages of Colombia and Ecuador. Anthropological Linguistics, 40 (3).
- Douay, Léon. (1888). Contribution à l'américanisme du Cauca (Colombie). Compte-Rendu du Congrès International des Américanistes, 7, 763-786.
- Fabre, Alain. (2005). Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos. (To appear).
- Gerdel, Florence L. (1979). Paez. In Aspectos de la cultura material de grupos étnicos de Colombia 2, (pp. 181-202). Bogota: Ministerio de Gobierno and Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Heinze, Carol (Ed.). (1978). Estudios chibchas 2 (pp. iv, 140). Serie Sintáctica (No. 9). Bogota: Ministerio de Gobierno and Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13-67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-2927-0414-3.
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46-76). London: Routledge.
- Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
- Landaburu, Jon. (1993). Conclusiones del seminario sobre clasificación de lenguas indígenas de Colombia. In (M. L. Rodríguez de Montes (Ed.), Estado actual de la clasificación de las lenguas indígenas de Colombia (pp. 313-330). Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
- Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.
- Slocum, Marianna C. (1986). Gramática páez (p. vii, 171). Lomalinda: Editorial Townsend. Category:Languages of Colombia Category:Languages of Ecuador
- Category:Indigenous languages of the South American Northwest

Barbacoan languages

Barbacoan (also Barbakóan, Barbacoano, Barbacoana) is a language family spoken in Colombia and Ecuador.

Family division

Barboacoan consists of 8 languages: I. Northern : 1. Coaiquer (a.k.a. Cuaiquer, Awa, Awa Pit, Awa-Cuaiquer) : i. Guambiano-Totoró :: 2. Guambiano (a.k.a. Guambiano-Moguez, Wambiano-Mogés, Moguez) :: 3. Totoró : 4. Muellama (a.k.a. Muelyama) (†) : 5. Pasto (†) II. Southern : 6. Caranqui (a.k.a. Kara) (†) : 7. Cayapa (a.k.a. Chachi, Cha’palaachi) : 8. Colorado (a.k.a. Tsafiqui, Colima, Campaz) Muellama, Pasto, and Caranqui are now extinct. Totoró is sometimes considered a dialect of Guambiano instead of a separate language. Guambiano is considered a Barbacoan language by Key (1979), Curnow et al. (1998), and Gordon (2005), but Kaufman (1990, 1994) considers it a Paezan language. The Barbacoan languages may be related to the Paezan languages; however, Curnow (1998) shows how much of this speculation is based on misinterpretation of an old document of Douay (1888). Other more speculative larger groupings involving Barbacoan include the Macro-Paesan "cluster", the Macro-Chibchan stock, and the Chibchan-Paezan stock.

Bibliography


- Branks, Judith; Sánchez, Juan Bautista. (1978). The drama of life: A study of life cycle customs among the Guambiano, Colombia, South America (pp xii, 107). Summer Institute of Linguistics Museum of Anthropology Publication (No. 4). Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics Museum of Anthropology.
- Brend, Ruth M. (Ed.). (1985). From phonology to discourse: Studies in six Colombian languages (p. vi, 133). Language Data, Amerindian Series (No. 9). Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Beuchat, Henri; & Rivet, Paul. (1910). Affinités des langues du sud de la Colombie et du nord de l'Équateur. Le Mouséon, 11, 33-68, 141-198.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1981). Comparative Chibchan phonology. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania).
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991). Las lenguas del área intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
- Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1993). La familia chibcha. In (M. L. Rodríguez de Montes (Ed.), Estado actual de la clasificación de las lenguas indígenas de Colombia (pp. 75-125). Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
- Curnow, Timothy J. (1998). Why Paez is not a Barbacoan language: The nonexistence of "Moguex" and the use of early sources. International Journal of American Linguistics, 64 (4), 338-351.
- Curnow, Timothy J.; & Liddicoat, Anthony J. (1998). The Barbacoan languages of Colombia and Ecuador. Anthropological Linguistics, 40 (3).
- Douay, Léon. (1888). Contribution à l'américanisme du Cauca (Colombie). Compte-Rendu du Congrès International des Américanistes, 7, 763-786.
- Gerdel, Florence L. (1979). Paez. In Aspectos de la cultura material de grupos étnicos de Colombia 2, (pp. 181-202). Bogota: Ministerio de Gobierno and Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13-67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-2927-0414-3.
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46-76). London: Routledge.
- Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
- Landaburu, Jon. (1993). Conclusiones del seminario sobre clasificación de lenguas indígenas de Colombia. In (M. L. Rodríguez de Montes (Ed.), Estado actual de la clasificación de las lenguas indígenas de Colombia (pp. 313-330). Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
- Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.
- Slocum, Marianna C. (1986). Gramática páez (p. vii, 171). Lomalinda: Editorial Townsend.
- Stark, Louisa R. (1985). Indigenous languages of lowland Ecuador: History and current status. In H. E. Manelis Khan & L. R. Stark (Eds.), South American Indian languages: Retrospect and prospect (pp. 157-193). Austin: University of Texas Press. Category:Languages of Ecuador Category:Languages of Bolivia
- Category:Indigenous languages of the South American Northwest

Category:Indigenous languages of the South American Northwest

Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas

Catégorie:Algorithme numérique

Numérique Catégorie:Analyse numérique Catégorie:Calcul numérique

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