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| Kripton |
KriptonKripton (Kr, latinski - krypton)je plemeniti gas VIIIA grupe.
Ima nekoliko izotopa čije se atomske mase nalaze između 72-94. Postojani izotopi su: 78, 80, 82, 83, 84 i 86.
Zastupljen je u zemljinoj atmosferi u količini od oko 1,14 ppm (eng. parts per million), takođe je zastupljen i kao jedan od produkata raspada uranijuma i plutonijuma
Otkriven je 1898 godine od strane William Ramsaya i Morris William Traversa.
Kripton je nereaktivan plemeniti gas, poznat je veoma mali broj njegovih jedinjenja.
Biološki značaj - nema.
Kripton je bezbojan. Reaguje sa gasovitim fluorom pod visokim pritiskom gradeći fluoride. Jedini praktični značaj je njegova detekcija koja omogućava pronalaženje ruda uranijuma.
Category:Hemijski element
Latinski
Latinski je indoevropski jezik, prvobitno govoren u oblasti oko Rima, zvanoj Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages, those being most notably Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. The Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek, remains the most widely-used alphabet in the world. It is said that 80 percent of scholarly English words are derived from Latin (in a large number of cases by way of French). Moreover, in the Western world, Latin was a lingua franca, the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, being eventually replaced by French in the 18th century and English in the late 19th. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the formal language of the Roman Catholic Church to this day, and thus the official national language of the Vatican. The Church used Latin as its primary liturgical language until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Latin is also still used (drawing heavily on Greek roots) to furnish the names used in the scientific classification of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with Greek, is known as Classics.
Main features
Latin is a synthetic inflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs.
There are six noun cases:
#nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative),
#genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun),
#dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for),
#accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases),
#ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from),
#vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed).
In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin.
There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative.
Present system tenses
# present (laudo, "I praise")
# imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising")
# future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")
Past system tenses
# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised")
# pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised")
# future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised")
The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the present system.
Latin and Romance
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese.
The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive.
Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative.
In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.
Latin and English
See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition.
English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English.
During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word."
Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.
Latin education
The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate).
Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.
See also
About the Latin language
- Latin grammar
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- Latin declension
- Latin conjugation
- Latin alphabet
- List of Latin words with English derivatives
- Latin verbs with English derivatives
- Latin nouns with English derivatives
- ablative absolute
- Word order in Latin
About the Latin literary heritage
- Latin literature
- Romance languages
- Loeb Classical Library
- List of Latin phrases
- List of Latin proverbs
- Brocard
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
- List of Latin place names in Europe
- Carmen Possum
Other related topics
- Roman Empire
- Internationalism
References
- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237
External links
- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English.
Category:Classical languages
Category:Ancient languages
Category:Fusional languages
Category:Languages of Italy
Category:Languages of Vatican City
als:Latein
zh-min-nan:Latin-gí
ko:라틴어
ja:ラテン語
simple:Latin language
th:ภาษาละติน
Zemlja
Zemlja je planeta na kojoj živi čovjek i jedina nama poznata planeta na kojoj postoji život. Ona je treća planeta po udaljenosti od Sunca i najveća terestrijalna planeta u Sunčevom sistemu. Planeta Zemlja ima jedan prirodni satelit, Mjesec.
Smatra se da je Zemlja nastala prije otprilike 4,5 milijardi godina.
NAPOMENA: Riječ zemlja ima još dva značenja -
tlo i država
Atmosfera
Zemljina atmosfera sastoji se od više slojeva, a proteže se više stotina kilometara iznad površine. Sastavljena je od 78% dušika, 21% kisika, 1% argona, te nešto vodene pare, karbon dioksida i drugih plinova.
Slojevi atmosfere:
- troposfera je najdonji i najgušći dio atmosfere u kojem se događaju sve vremenske pojave. U ovom sloju temperatura opada s visinom. Sadrži velike količine vodene pare.
- stratosfera sadrži ozon koji nas štiti od štetnog zračenja iz Svemira. Temperatura je u nižim slojevima stratosfere stalna, a u višim slojevima raste. Vjetrovi koji pušu u stratosferi dostižu brzine od nekoliko stotina km/h.
- mezosfera je sloj u kojemu dolazi do naglog pada temperature.
- jonosfera (termosfera) sadrži jone, električki nabijene čestice. U ovom se sloju pod utjecajem Sunčevog vjetra stvara polarna svjetlost. Temperatura raste, sve do visine 400 km.
- egzosfera je prijelazno područje prema vakuumu. Ovo je sloj s vrlo razrijeđenim plinom, prostire se iznad 400 km visine.
Prelazna područja između slojeva atmosfere su tropopauza, stratopauza i mezopauza.
Biosfera
Koliko je do sada poznato, Zemlja je jedino mjesto na kojem postoji život. Životni oblici čine biosferu planete. Smatra se da je razvoj biosfere na Zemlji započeo prije otprilike 3,5 milijardi godina. Životne zajednice (biomi) nastanjuju gotovo cijelu površinu Zemlje, od vrlo rijetko nastanjenih arktičkih i antarktičkih područja, do gusto naseljenih područja oko ekvatora.
Hidrosfera
Zemlja je jedina planeta u Sunčevom sistemu na čijoj površini ima tečne vode. Voda pokriva 71% Zemljine površine. Najveći dio vodenih površina su morske (97%), a manji dio čini slatka voda (3%). Tekuća voda održava se na površini Zemlje zahvaljujući spoju odgovarajućih pogodnih uvjeta: orbite oko Sunca, vulkanizma, gravitacije, efekta staklenika, magnetskog polja i atmosfere bogate kisikom.
Zemljina orbita nalazi se izvan područja u kojem je dovoljno toplo da bi se održala tečna voda. Bez malog efekta staklenika koji zadržava toplotu u atmosferi, voda na Zemlji bi se zaledila. Paleontološki nalazi upućuju na razdoblje u Zemljinoj historiji u kojem je privremeno nestao efekt staklenika, a površina se smrznula tokom 10 do 100 miliona godina.
Na planetama poput Venere vodena para se pod uticajem ultraljubičastog svjetla razlaže na vodik i kisik, vodik se ionizira i (djelovanjem Sunčevog vjetra) odlazi iz vanjskih slojeva atmosfere. Oslobođeni kisik se veže u mineralne spojeve na površini. Ovaj proces je spor, ali se smatra da je glavni razlog zbog kojega na Veneri nema vode. Na Zemlji ozonski omotač apsorbira većinu ultraljubičastog zračenja u višim slojevima atmosfere i smanjuje opisani proces. Osim toga, magnetosfera štiti ionosferu od izravnog uticaja Sunčevog vjetra.
Vulkanski procesi stalno izbacuju vodenu paru iz unutrašnjosti. Procijenjeno je da minerali u Zemljinom plaštu sadrže 10 puta više vode nego je ima u oceanima, iako većina nje nikada neće biti oslobođena.
Unutrašnjost
Slično kao i kod drugih terestrijalnih planeta, unutrašnjost Zemlje je podijeljena u više slojeva:
- vanjska kruta kora
- tečni omotač (plašt)
- tečno vanjsko jezgro
- unutrašnje kruto jezgro
Kora
Kora je vanjski sloj Zemlje, dubine 5 do 35 km. Sastavljena je od silikatnih stijena. Na granici kore i omotača nalazi se Moho-sloj, poznat i kao Mohorovičićev diskontinuitet prema hrvatskom naučniku Andriji Mohorovičiću.
Materijal iz unutrašnjosti stalno izlazi na površinu kroz vulkanske otvore i pukotine na okeanskom dnu. Većina Zemljine površine je mlađa od 100 miliona godina, dok su najstariji dijelovi kore stari 4,4 milijarde godina.
Omotač
Ispod kore, do dubine 2900 km nalazi se omotač. Sastoji se od spojeva bogatih željezom i magnezijem. S dubinom raste i pritisak, a s pritiskom se mijenja i tačka topljenja. Stijene u višim slojevima nalaze se u polurastopljenom, plastičnom stanju, a u većim dubinama su krute. Materijal se kreće ("teče") vrlo sporo zbog visoke viskoznosti.
Jezgro
Kako je prosječna gustoća Zemlje 5515 kg/m3, a gustoća materijala na površini samo oko 3000 kg/m3, očito se gušći materijal mora nalaziti u jezgru. U vrijeme nastajanja Zemlje, prije 4.5 milijardi godina Zemlja je većinom bila rastopljena. U procesu koji nazivamo diferencijacija teži elementi su potonuli prema središtu, a lakši su se skupili uz površinu. Zato je jezgra sastavljena uglavnom od željeza (80%), nikla i silicija.
Jezgro dijelimo u dva dijela, unutrašnju kruto jezgro poluprečnika oko 1250 km i vanjsko rastopljeno jezgro koje se pruža do poluprečnika 3500 km. Smatra se da je unutrašnje jezgro u kristalnom obliku, a vanjska sastavljena od tekućeg željeza i nikla. Smatra se da strujanje ovog rastopljenog metala (i miješanje koje nastaje zbog Zemljine rotacije) stvara Zemljino magnetsko polje.
Category:Sunčev sistem
ja:地球
ko:지구
minnan:Tē-kiû
ms:Bumi
simple:Earth
1898
Događaji
1898. u temama
Rođenja
Smrti
FluorElementarni Fluor je gas žutozelene boje. On je najreaktivniji od svih elemenata. Direktno reaguje na sve metale i nemetale. Vodu razlaže gradeći fluorovodonik, HF.
Reaktivnost fluora bila je dugo godina prepreka za njegovo dobijanje u elementarnom stanju. Danas se fluor industrijski dobija elektrolizom istopljenog kalijum-fluorida na anhidrovanom fluorovodoniku.
U prirodi se fluor nalazi u vidu jedinjenja sa oksidacionim brojem -1 i to najčešće u vidu fluorita, CaF2, i karnalita, Na3AlF6. Tragovi jedinjenja fluora nalaze se u morskoj vodi, kostima, zubima, krvi i mlijeku. Fluorovi derivati metana i etana su veoma slabi otrovi za razliku od ostalih jedinjenja fluora te se stoga zbog svoje velike inertnosti upotrebljavaju u rashladnim uređajima pod nazivom freon. Fluor se koristi i za sintezu uran-heksafluorida koji se primenjuje u izradi nuklearnog oružija.
Category:Hemijski element
Category:Hemijski elementSpisak Hemijskih elemenata The Shore
The Shore is an American rock group founded in Silver Lake, CA by current frontman Ben Ashley. The Shore are heavily influenced by psychedelic bands like The Byrds, The Beatles, and The Beach Boys as well as Britpop groups Oasis and The Verve.
Biography
In the Spring of 2002, Ashley wrote a series of songs with producer Rick Parker. Parker assembled a group of local musicians, including Kyle Mullarky (bass), Cliff Magreta (guitar), and John Wilmer (drums), to record a series of demos. The demos came to Scott Austin (Maverick A&R Executive) and the band was given a major contract only a few months after their initial recordings. The Shore returned to the studio with Parker to record their first album. The Shore recorded the album over a period of three months. The Shore EP was released on New Year's Day of 2003. Their full length album, The Shore, was released in August of 2004. After touring with guitarist Wayne Faler, he was added as a permanent member of the band in December of 2005. It was about this time that The Shore parted ways with Maverick Records to persue a better record deal.
Discography
Singles & EPs
- 2003 - The Shore EP (Maverick)
Albums
- 2004 - The Shore (Maverick)
External links
- Official Website: http://www.theshoremusic.com
- Myspace Music Profile: http://www.myspace.com/theshore
Shore, The
Shore, The
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