Latin is a syntheticinflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs.
There are six noun cases:
#nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative),
#genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun),
#dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for),
#accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases),
#ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from),
#vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed).
In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin.
There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative.
Present system tenses
# present (laudo, "I praise")
# imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising")
# future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")
Past system tenses
# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised")
# pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised")
# future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised")
The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the present system.
Latin and Romance
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese.
The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive.
Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative.
In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.
Latin and English
See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition.English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English.
During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word."
Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.
Latin education
The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate).
Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.
- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237
External links
- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English.
Category:Classical languagesCategory:Ancient languagesCategory:Fusional languagesCategory:Languages of ItalyCategory:Languages of Vatican Cityals:Lateinzh-min-nan:Latin-gíko:라틴어ja:ラテン語simple:Latin languageth:ภาษาละติน
Indoevropski
Riječ indoevropski je prvobitno bila čisto lingvistički izraz, koji se odnosio na indoevropsku jezičnu porodicu. Dodatno, postala je zbirno ime za kulture i religije vezane za te jezike. Hipotetički, ove kulture su nastale kao proizvod širenja prastarog naroda, proto-indoevropskog, iz pradomovine koja je ostala nerazjašnjena, mada su mišljena podijeljena da se radi bilo o južnoj [Rusija|Rusiji]] ili Anadoliji.
Jezična porodica
Vidi glavni članak Indoevropski jezici.
The Indo-European language family is attested in twelve branches, some of them extinct, with a historical distribution over most of Europe, North India, Pakistan, Anatolia, Iran, and parts of Central Asia (East Turkistan). The word Indo specifically
refers to India alone. India has the largest single Indo-European speaking population on the planet where 75% of the non-Dravidian population (some 700 million people) speak many different Indo-European languages and dialects, which are descendents of a language called Proto-Indo-Aryan by linguists.
During the age of colonialism, Indo-European languages spread from Europe to all continents, and today there are over three billion speakers of Indo-European languages, distributed all over the world.
The languages are traditionally separated into a Satem group in the east (Baltic, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian) and a Centum group in the west (Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic), according to their different treatment of PIE velar sounds. The two groups are considered paraphyletic, i.e. there are no separate proto-languages for each group and their common characteristics are likely due to prolonged contact because of their geographical proximity. Also, there is evidence that the Anatolian, Tocharian and Albanian branches belong to neither of the two groups.
Komparativna (uporedna) lingvistika
See main article Indo-European studies.
The existence of the Proto-Indo-Europeans has been inferred by comparative linguistics. The discovery of the genetic relationship of the various Indo-European languages goes back to William Jones, a British judge in India, who in 1782 observed the strong affinity of Sanskrit, Greek and Latin.
The language group was briefly referred to as "Indo-Germanic", until it became apparent that the group included most of the other languages of Europe, as well. "Indo-European", the term now current in English, was coined in 1813 by the British scholar Sir Thomas Young. Franz Bopp performed extensive comparative work.
At first, the related languages were simply compared, with no attempt at reconstruction. August Schleicher was the first scholar to compose a tentative text in the extinct "common source" Jones had predicted. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) represents, by definition, a hypothetical model of the common language of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, great progress was made due to the discovery of more language material belonging to the Indo-European family, and by advances in comparative linguistics, by scholars such as Ferdinand de Saussure.
The scholars of the 19th century that originally tackled the question of the original homeland of the Indo-Europeans (also called Urheimat after the German term), were essentially confined to linguistic evidence. A rough localization was attempted by reconstructing the names of plants and animals as well as the culture and technology. The scholarly opinions became basically divided between a European hypothesis, positing migration from Europe to Asia, and an Asian hypothesis, holding that the migration took place in the opposite direction. However, from its early days, the controversy was tainted by romantic, nationalistic notions of heroic invaders at best and by imperialist and racist agendas at worst. The question is still the source of much contention.
racist according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The purple area corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 1000 BC.]]
In the twentieth century, Marija Gimbutas (1956) created a modern variation on the traditional invasion theory (the Kurgan hypothesis) which regards the Indo-Europeans as nomadic horsemen in what is today South Russia and Eastern Ukraine, expanding in several waves during the 3rd millennium BC. However, others have associalted the Kurgans with the Indo-Iranians. Colin Renfrew (1987) is the main propagator for another theory according to which the Indo-Europeans were farmers in Asia Minor who introduced agriculture into southeast Europe around 7000 BC and assimilated the Preindoeuropeans. This is also problematic, however, as the Indo-European language had words for things such as yoke and plough which were not present at the introduction of agriculture to Europe.
The rise of Archaeogenetics, which uses genetic analysis to trace migration patterns, added new elements to the puzzle. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza recently used genetic evidence to in some ways combine Gimbutas' and Renfrew's theory.
Religion
Main article: Proto-Indo-European religion
The hypothetical PIE religion was centered on sacrificial rituals where animals were slaughtered to establish good relations with the gods. The chief god of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, probably mirroring the position of the king in human society, was the sky-god Dyeus.
Die Westdeutsche Blindenhörbücherei e.V. (WBH) in Münster existiert seit Herbst 1955, um Blinden und hochgradig Sehbehinderten Bücher und Zeitschriften zugänglich zu machen. Die WBH als größte ihrer Art in Deutschland ist im flächendeckenden Netz der Blindenbüchereien primär für Nordrhein-Westfalen und Rheinland-Pfalz und seit Ende 2002 auch für das Saarland zuständig.
Verfahren
Die Texte werden von eigens geschulten Sprechern aufgezeichnet und auf Nachfrage an die Nutzer verschickt. Technisch geschah das jahrzehntelang mit Tonbändern bzw. Musikkassetten. Seit einigen Jahren wurde es komplett umgestellt auf digitale Aufnahmen, die dann als DAISY-Hörbuch auf CDs gespeichert und ausgeliefert werden. Der laut Homepage vorhandene ältere Kassettenbestand von 19.168 Titeln steht ebenfalls weiterhin zur Ausleihe zur Verfügung. Mehr als 8500 Hörer werden auf diese Weise mit literarischen Werken, Krimis, Klassikern und Zeitungen und Zeitschriften versorgt.
Die Anmeldung ist kostenlos, der Bezug konkreter Medien muss von den Nutzern bezahlt werden.Gefordert wird der Nachweis der Erblindung oder der Sehbehinderung, z.B mittels Schwerbehindertenausweis in Kopie, ärztliches Attest, Bescheinigung des örtlichen Blindenvereins. Vielerorts hilft der lokale Blindenverein bei der Anmeldung.
Rechtsträgerschaft und Organisation
Die WBH ist eine Institution der "Blindenselbsthilfe". Träger sind demgemäß die Vereine und Verbände der Kriegs- und Zivilblinden in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz und dem Saarland. Die Betriebskosten der WBH werden durch Spenden, Mitgliedsbeiträge der tragenden Vereine und durch die Blinden selbst finanziert. Dazu kommen Zuschüsse aus Steuergeldern.
Die WBH ist Mitglied der "Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Blindenhörbüchereien" und des Deutschen Paritätischen Wohlfahrtsverbandes. Sie ist vom Finanzamt Münster-Außenstadt als gemeinnützig anerkannt.
Die WBH beschäftigt laut ihrer Homepage 15 hauptamtliche Mitarbeiter in den Arbeitsbereichen Bücherauswahl, Katalogisierung, Kopie und Reparatur, Versand, Kontrolle, Rückbuchung, Verwaltung. Die Sprecherinnen und Sprecher lesen die Bücher nebenberuflich auf Tonträger.
Ramon Vidal de Besalú
Ramon Vidal de Besalú (1196?-1252?) és un trobador que es recorda sobretot per la seva obra Razos de trobar, el primer tractat de poètica (juntament amb Donatz proensals d'Hug Faidit) que es coneix en una llengua romànica. Nascut a Besalú, sembla que començà professionalment com a joglar i es formà al
Ponç d'Ortafà
Ponç d'Ortafà (1170?-1246?) fou un trobador nascut a Ortafà, una vila rossellonesa prop d'Elna, aquest trobador fou el senyor d'Ortafà. Fill de Grimau d'Ortafà i de Brunisenda, tingué un germà anomenat Pere que fou ardiaca d'Elna. Només es conserven dues cançons seves. El començament d'una d'elles recorda les compara
Formit de Perpinyà
Formit de Perpinyà era un trobador del qual no se sap absolutament res. Va viure possiblement al segle XIII. El seu nom apareix en un Cançoner en el qual se li atribueix una única cançó. El seu nom, Formit, significa perfecte, àgil, llest, i pot indicar l'origen joglaresc d'aquest personatge de Perpinyà.
En aquesta peça seua ens trobem un enamorat en el primer estadi del seu desig amorós. És tract
Guillem Ramon de Gironella
Guillem Ramon de Gironella (segona meitat del segle XIII) era un trobador de Gironella, al Berguedà, es correspongui amb el G. R. que està enterrat amb la seva mare Brunissendis de Gerundella al monestir de sant Daniel de Girona. La seva obra consta de tres cançons i un Geòrgia, tocant a Abkhàzia amb la qual fa frontera. Té al nord-oest l'Abkhàzia, al nord la Svanètia, al nord-est la Ratxa, a l'est, la Imerètia, al sud la Gúria, i a l'oest el mar Negre.
Els habitants de Mingrèlia parlen el mingrelià emparentat amb el
Guillem de Cabestany
Guillem de Cabestany (?-1212...) fou un trobador especialment famós per la seva vida, de la qual no es coneixen gaires detalls contrastables. La vida que figura en els Cançoners després de la seva mort va ser al·ludida, repetida o ampliada per Petrarca, Boccaccio, Stendhal, etc., encara actualment és matèria literària, per exemple, hi ha un capítol sencer -50 pà
Guiraut de Bornelh
Guiraut de Bornelh (1138 - 1215) fou un trobadoroccità que pertanyia en la cort d'Alfons I i va anar a les Croades. Era conegut pels seus contemporanis com mestre de trobadors i fou classificat per Dante com el segon millor trobador (després d'
Arnaut Daniel
Arnaut Daniel (1180-1200) fou un trobadoroccità. Malauradament no s'ha conservat cap melodia dels seus diuit poemes que si que s'han conservat. Dante el va considerar com el millor trobador de tots els temps i li va dedicar un vers escrit en occità.
Categoria:Trobad
