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Hafsids

Hafsids

Hafsid dynasty in Ifriqiya (1229-1574) Significant Rulers:
- Abu Zakariya (1229-1249)
- Muhammad I al-Mustansir (1249-1277)
- Yahya II al-Watiq (1277-1279)
- Ibrahim I (1279-1283)
- Ibn Abi Umara (1283-1284)
- Abu Hafs Umar I (1284-1295)
- Abu Bakr II (1318-1346)
- Ishaq II (1350-1369)
- Abu al-Abbas Ahmad II (1370-1394)
- Abd al-Aziz II (1394-1434)
- Uthman (1435-1488) After the split of the Hafsids from the Almohads under Abu Zakariya (1229-1249), he organised the adminsitration in Ifriqiya and built Tunis up as the economic and cultural centre of the empire. At the same time, many muslims from Andalucia fleeing the Reconquista of Castille and Aragon were absorbed. His successor Muhammad I al-Mustansir (1249-1277) took the title of caliph. In the 14th century the empire underwent a temporary decline. Although the Hafsids succeeded for a time in subjugating the empire of the Abdalwids of Tlemcen for a time, but between 1347 and 1357 it was twice conquered by the Merinids of Morocco. These however could not defeat the Bedouin, so that the Hafsids were able to regain their empire. As at the same time epidemics of plague caused a considerable fall in population, the rule of the Hafsids was weakened further. Under the Hafsids, piracy against Christian shipping grew stronger in the 14th century, particularly under Abd al-Aziz II (1394-1434). The profits were used for a great building programme and for the support of art and culture. However piracy also provoked retaliation from Aragon and Venice, which several times attacked Tunisian coastal cities. Under Utman (1435-1488) the Hafsids reached their last zenith, as the caravan trade through the Sahara and with Egypt was developed, as well as sea trade with Venice and Aragon. The Bedouins and the cities of the empire became largely independent, so that the Hafsids controlled only Tunis and Constantine. In the 16th century the Hafsids increasingly became caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Osman-supported Corsairs. The latter conquered Tunis in 1574 and toppled the Hafsids, who had at times accepted Spanish sovereignty over them. Category:History of Tunisia ja:ハフス朝

Ifriqiya

In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah (Arabic: إفريقية) was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. This area included what had been the Roman province of Africa. Ifriqiya was bounded on the south by the semi-arid areas and salt marshes called el-Djerid. At various times, the rulers of this area also conquered Sicily and parts of mainland Italy, and the western boundary was in continual flux but usually went as far as Bejaia. Its capital was Qayrawan (Kairouan) in central Tunisia. In modern Arabic, the term simply means "Africa". It derives from the Latin term Africa of uncertain (either Berber, Punic, or Greek) origin.

1229

Events

- March 18 - Sixth Crusade of Emperor Frederick II ends in truce with Sultan al-Kamil and coronation of Frederick as King of Jerusalem.
- Catalans capture island of Majorca from Muslims.
- University of Paris strike of 1229.
- Foundation of the University of Toulouse in Toulouse, France.
- Founding of the city of Turku, Finland.

Births

Deaths

- January 17 - Albert of Buxhoeveden, German soldier
- Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab biographer and geographer (born 1179) Category:1229 ko:1229년

Abu Zakariya

Abu Zakariya Yahya (1203-1249), founder and first ruler of Hafsid dynasty. He was the Almohad governor of Gabès and then of Tunis by 1229. He seized the opportunity offered by disturbances in the Almohad Empire to declare himself independent late in 1229. He subsequently captured Constantine and Bougie in 1230 and annexed Tripolitania in 1234, Algiers in 1235 and subdued important tribal confederations of the Berbers from 1235-1238. In 1242 he captured Tlemcen, forcing its ruler to become his vassal. By the end of his reign, the Marinid Dynasty of Morocco and several Muslim Princes in Spain paid him tribute and acknowledged his nominal authority. A skillful general, his ability to utilize the military power of the tribesmen enabled him to establish a strong state, his Hafsid dynasty brought peace, prosperity, and stability to Tunisia. Category:History of the Maghreb ja:ヤフヤー1世アブー・ザカリーヤ

Abu Bakr II

Abubakari II was a prince of the Mali Empire, the successor of Mohammed ibn Gao and predecessor of Kankan Musa I. Abubakari II appears to have abdicated his throne in order to explore "the limits of the ocean"; however, his expedition never returned. Malian scholar Gaoussou Diawara has argued that he reached the Americas some time in the early 14th century, but these claims have not been widely accepted.

Sources

- Baxter, Joan. Africa's 'greatest explorer. BBC. December 13, 2000. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1068950.stm] Category:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Category:Mansas of Mali Category:Mali Empire

Ishaq II

Askia Ishaq II was ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1588 to 1591. Ishaq came to power in a long dynastic struggle following the death of the long-ruling Askia Daoud. Sensing the Empire's weakness, Moroccan Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi dispatched a 4,000-man force under the Islamicized Spaniard Judar Pasha across the Sahara desert in October 1590. Though Ishaq assembled more than 40,000 soldiers to meet the Moroccans, his army fled the enemy's gunpowder weapons at the decisive Battle of Tondibi in March 1591; Judar soon seized and looted the Songhai capital of Gao as well as the trading centers of Timbuktu and Djenné, ensuring the Empire's destruction.

References

- Davidson, Basil. Africa in History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.
- Velton, Ross. Mali: The Bradt Travel Guide. Guilford, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press, 2000. Category:Songhai Empire

Almohads

The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i.e. "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians," the name being corrupted in Spanish), a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Muslim Spain.

Origins

It originated with Ibn Tumart, a member of the Masmuda, a Berber tribe of the Atlas Mountains. Ibn Tumart was the son of a lamplighter in a mosque and had been noted for his piety from his youth; he was small, ugly, and misshapen and lived the life of a devotee-beggar. As a youth he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca (or "Makkah"), whence he was expelled on account of his severe strictures on the laxity of others, and thence wandered to Bagdad, where he attached himself to the school of the orthodox doctor al-Ash'ari. But he made a system of his own by combining the teaching of his master with parts of the doctrines of others, and with mysticism imbibed from the great teacher Ghazali. His main principle was a rigid unitarianism which denied the independent existence of the attributes of God, as being incompatible with his unity, and therefore a polytheistic idea. Ibn Tumart in fact represented a revolt against what he perceived as anthropomorphism in the Muslim orthodoxy, but he was a rigid predestinarian and a strict observer of the law.

The ruling

After his return to Morocco at the age of twenty-eight, he began preaching and agitating, heading riotous attacks on wine-shops and on other manifestations of laxity. He even went so far as to assault the sister of the Almoravid (Murabit) amir `Ali III, in the streets of Fez, because she was going about unveiled after the manner of Berber women. `Ali, who was very deferential to any exhibition of piety, allowed him to escape unpunished. Ibn Tumart, who had been driven from several other towns for exhibitions of reforming zeal, now took refuge among his own people, the Masmuda, in the Atlas. It is highly probable that his influence would not have outlived him, if he had not found a lieutenant in Abd al-Mu'min al-Kumi, another Berber, from Algeria, who was undoubtedly a soldier and statesman of a high order. When Ibn Tumart died in 1128 at the monastery or ribat which he had founded in the Atlas at Tinmal, after suffering a severe defeat by the Almoravids, Abd al-Mu'min kept his death secret for two years, till his own influence was established. He then came forward as the lieutenant of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart. Between 1130 and his death in 1163, 'Abd-el-Mumin not only rooted out the Murabits, but extended his power over all northern Africa as far as Egypt, becoming amir of Morocco in 1149. Muslim Spain followed the fate of Africa, and in 1170 the Muwahhids transferred their capital to Seville, a step followed by the founding of the great mosque, now superseded by the cathedral, the tower of which they erected in 1184 to mark the accession of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur. From the time of Yusuf II, however, they governed their co-religionists in Spain and Central North Africa through lieutenants, their dominions outside Morocco being treated as provinces. When their amirs crossed the Straits it was to lead a jihad against the Christians and to return to their capital, Marrakesh. The Muwahhid princes had a longer and a more distinguished career than the Murabits (or Almoravids). Yusuf II or "Abu Ya'qub" (1163-1184), and Ya'qub I or "al-Mansur" (1184-1199), the successors of Abd al-Mumin, were both able men. They were fanatical, and their tyranny drove numbers of their Jewish and Christian subjects to take refuge in the growing Christian states of Portugal, Castile and Aragon. But in the end they became less fanatical than the Murabits, and Ya'qub al Mansur was a highly accomplished man, who wrote a good Arabic style and who protected the philosopher Averroes. His title of al-Mansur, "The Victorious," was earned by the defeat he inflicted on Alfonso VIII of Castile in battle of Alarcos (1195). But the Christian states in Spain were becoming too well organized to be overrun by the Muslims, and the Muwahhids made no permanent advance against them. In 1212 Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199-1214), the successor of al-Mansur, was utterly defeated by the allied five Christian princes of Spain, Navarre and Portugal, at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena. All the Moorish dominions in Spain were lost in the next few years, partly by the Christian conquest of Andalusia, and partly by the revolt of the Muslims of Granada, who put themselves under the protection of the Christian kings and became their vassals. The fanaticism of the Muwahhids did not prevent them from encouraging the establishment of Christians even in Fez, and after the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa they occasionally entered into alliances with the kings of Castile. In Africa they were successful in expelling the garrisons placed in some of the coast towns by the Norman kings of Sicily. The history of their decline differs from that of the Murabits, whom they had displaced. They were not assailed by a great religious movement, but destroyed piecemeal by the revolt of tribes and districts. Their most effective enemies were the Beni Marin (Marinids) who founded the next Moroccan dynasty, the sixth. The last representative of the line, Idris II, "El Wathiq"' was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269.

Muwahhadi (Almohad) Caliphs, 1145-1269

- Abd al-Mu'min 1145-1163
- Abu Ya'qub Yusuf I 1163-1184
- Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur 1184-1199
- Muhammad an-Nasir 1199-1213
- Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II 1213-1224
- Abd al-Wahid I 1224
- Abdallah 1224-1227
- Yahya 1227-1235
- Idris I 1227-1232
- Abdul-Wahid II 1232-1242
- Ali 1242-1248
- Umar 1248-1266
- Idris II 1266-1269

Publications

:History of the Almonades, Dozy, (second edition, 1881) :Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors, Coppée, (Boston, 1881) :Le livre d'Ibn Tumart, Luciani, (1903) :Les Benou Ghanya, Bel, (1903)

External links

- [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/almohads.html Almohads Dynasty] Berber dynasty ---- Category:Caliphates Category:History of the Maghreb Category:History of Morocco Category:Moorish Spain Category:Jewish Spanish history
- ja:ムワッヒド朝

Abu Zakariya

1229

Events

Births

Deaths

- January 17 - Albert of Buxhoeveden, German soldier
- Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab biographer and geographer (born 1179) Category:1229 ko:1229년

Tunis

Tunis (تونس, Tūnis) is the capital of Tunisia, with a population of 699,700 in 2003. Situated at the end of a large gulf (the Gulf of Tunis), linked to it by the Lake of Tunis and a canal to the port of La Goulette (Halq al Wadi), the city extends along the coastal plain and the hills that surround it. From the centre of the city, to the east is the silhouette of the medina and to the north is the suburb of Belvedere. The medina is the centre of the city: a dense agglomeration of alleys and covered passages, full of intense scents and colours, boisterous and active trade, a surfeit of goods on offer ranging from leather to plastic, tin to the finest filigree, tourist souvenirs to the works of tiny crafts-shops. Just through the French Gate, formerly the Sea Gate, begins the modern city, Ville Nouvelle, bisected by the grand avenue Bourguiba, where the colonial-era buildings provide a vivid contrast. The city of Tunis is, above all, the capital where a 10th of the population of the country live and work, and where a large part of business activity is focused, in addition to all of the political and administrative functions. The expansion of the Tunisian economy in the last decades is reflected in the unplanned development of the outer city where one can see clearly the social contradictions and the problems of modern Tunisia.

Geography

Tunis is located in north-eastern Tunisia on the Lake of Tunis, and is connected to the Mediterranean sea's Gulf of Tunis by a canal which terminates at the port of La Goulette / Halq al Wadi. Tunis is located at ().

History

Halq al Wadi

Early History

Tunis is a city with a long history. In the 2nd millennium BCE a town, originally named Tunes, was founded by Libyans and also over time occupied by Berbers or Numidians. In the 9th century BCE, the city was taken over by Phoenicians from Carthage. However, from about 800 BCE the city was dominated by its nearby neighbour, Carthage. In 146 CE, the Romans destroyed Tunis (along with Carthage) but was rebuilt and became an important town under Roman control.

Arab Control

It wasn't until the 7th century, after the final destruction of Carthage, that the city achieved its own importance under the control of Arab Muslims. It was at this time that the medina of Tunis was begun to be built. Many ancient buildings are still standing in the Old City, including the Aghlabid Ez-Zitouna Mosque which was built in the 9th century to celebrate their new capital. For this reason it is now a UNESCO World heritage site. From the 12th century to the 16th century, the old city was controlled by the Almohads and the Hafsids. At the time, it was one of the richest and grandest cities in the Islamic world, with a population of about 100,000.

Turkish rule and piracy

Tunis became the capital of Tunisia under the Hafsid dynasty, and was a leading center of trade with Europe. The Turks took the city in 1534. However, the former Sultan, Mulai-Hassan, fled to the court of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles agreed to reinstate Mulai-Hassan in exchange for an acceptance of Charles's suzerainty by Mulai-Hassan and a navel expedition was dispatched in 1535. This quickly captured Tunis and the resulting protectorate lasted until the Turks retook it in 1574. After 1591, the Turkish governors (Beys) were virtually independent, and the city prospered as a center of piracy and trade. In April 1655 English Admiral Robert Blake was sent to the Mediterranean to extract compensation from states that had been attacking English shipping. Only the Bey of Tunis refused to comply, with the result that Blake's 15 ships attacked the Bey's arsenal at Porto Farina (Ghar el Melh), destroying 9 Algerian ships and 2 shore batteries, the first time in naval warfare that shore batteries had been taken out without landing men ashore.

European colonialism

The French occupied the city from 1881 to 1956. During World War II, Tunis was held by Axis forces from November, 1942, to May, 1943, and was their last base in Africa.

Modern history

The Arab League was headquartered in Tunis from 1979 to 1990. The Palestinian Liberation Organization also had its headquarters in Tunis, from 1982 to 1993. In 1985, the PLO's headquarters was bombed by the Israeli Air Force, killing more than 60 people.

Landmarks

- The Bardo Museum was originally a 13th century Hafsid palace, located in the suburbs of Tunis. It contains a collection of Roman mosaics.
- The ruins of Carthage are nearby, to the northeast
- The medina of Tunis is on the list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1979
- Some 700 monuments, including palaces, mosques, mausoleums, madrasas and fountains dating from the Almohads and the Hafsids periods

Economy

Products include textiles, carpets, and olive oil. Tourism is an important source of the city's income.

Transportation

Tunis is served by the Tunis-Carthage International Airport.

Miscellaneous topics

Tunis is the site of the University of Tunis.

External links

- [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Tunis Wikitravel: Tunis] Category:Capitals in Africa Category:Coastal cities Category:Cities in Tunisia Category:World Heritage Sites in Tunisia ja:チュニス simple:Tunis

Andalucia

Andalusia (Spanish: Andalucía) is a Historical Nationality of Spain like Catalonia or Basque Country. Andalusia is one of the seventeen autonomous communities that constitute Spain. Its capital is Seville. Andalusia is bounded on the north by Extremadura and Castile-La Mancha, on the east by Murcia, on the south by the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and Gibraltar, and on the west by Portugal. Tartessos, the capital of a once great and powerful Civilization, was located in Andalusia. In the Bible with the name of Tarsis. More information about this region can be found in the entry Hispania Baetica, the name of the Roman province that corresponds to the region. The Islamic history can be found in the entry al-Andalus. According to the scholar H. Helm, the name "Al-Andalus" is simply an Arabic rendition of the Visigothic name given to the Roman province of Baetica. The Visigoths, following the custom of their Germanic predecessors, parcelled out the conquered territories by drawing lots, and the allotments to anyone, with their corresponding land, were called "Sortes Gothicae". Contemporary texts, still written in Latin, refer to the Gothic kingdom as a whole as "Gothica sors" (singular). It is reasonable to suppose then that the corresponding Gothic designation "Landahlauts" (allotted, inherited, drawn land), in its phonetic form — "landalos" — became easily and spontaneously, to Arabic ears, "Al-Andalus". The Spanish spoken in the Americas is largely descended from the Andalusian dialect of Castilian Spanish due to the role played by Seville as the gateway to Spain's American territories in the 16th and 17th centuries. A lot of Moorish architecture is found in Andalusia, because it was the last stronghold of the Moors before the reconquista by the Catholic Monarchs completed in 1492. The most famous are the Alhambra in Granada, the Mezquita in Córdoba and the Torre del Oro and Giralda towers in Sevilla. Archaeological remains include Medina Azahara, near Córdoba. Andalusia is divided into 8 provinces:
- Sevilla
- Granada
- Córdoba
- Cádiz
- Málaga
- Huelva
- Jaén
- Almería Major cities in Andalusia are (from West to East):
- Huelva
- Seville
- Cádiz
- Málaga
- Córdoba
- Jaén
- Granada
- Almería Other Andalusian towns are:
- Algeciras, Cádiz
- Jerez, Cádiz
- Marbella, Málaga
- Dos Hermanas, Sevilla
- Antequera, Málaga Andalusia is the home of flamenco music. Andalusia has a national anthem written by Blas Infante: : La bandera blanca y verde, : vuelve tras siglos de guerra. : A pedir Paz y Esperanza, : bajo el sol de nuestra tierra. : ¡Andaluces, levantaos! : ¡Pedid tierra y libertad! : Sea por Andalucia libre, : España y la Humanidad. : Los andaluces queremos : volver a ser lo que fuimos. : Hombres de luz que a los hombres, : Alma de hombres les dimos. : ¡Andaluces, levantaos! : ¡Pedid tierra y libertad! : Sea por Andalucia libre, : España y la Humanidad. A translation follows: : The green and white flag : returns after centuries of war : to tell of peace and hope : under our land's sunshine. : Andalusians, stand up! : Claim for land and freedom : May it be for a free Andalusia, : Spain, and Mankind. : We, Andalusians, want : to be once again : People of light who to mankind : gave their human soul. : Andalusians, stand up! : Claim for land and freedom : May it be for a free Andalusia, : Spain, and Mankind. The Macarena is an aspect of the Virgin Mary recognized in Andalusia, Spain. It is the title given to Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza (Our Lady of Hope), in Seville. It is also the name of a neighbourhood in Seville and a common first name for Andalusian women. Andalusia is also referenced in the Pixies song 'Debaser': "Don't know about you, but I am un chien Andalusia" - referring to the 1928 Salvador Dalí & Luis Bunuel film 'Un Chien Andalou'.

External links

- [http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/SP/Junta_de_Andalucia/CDA/Paginas/JDA-IndiceSimbolos/0,16390,,00.html Statute of Autonomy] (in Spanish)
- [http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/ Government of Andalusia] (in Spanish)
- [http://www.parlamento-and.es/ Parliament of Andalusia] (in Spanish)
- [http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadistica/dtbas/dtb03/dtb03.pdf Basic statistical data for Andalusia] (in Spanish, .pdf format)
- [http://www.andalucia.co.uk Andalucia Info]
- [http://www.andalucia.com/history/people/blasinfante.htm Blas Infante, father of Andalusia]
- [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/es-an_hi.html History of the Andalusian Flag]
- [http://www.ana-andalucia.org/index.htm Asamblea Nacional de Andalucia] (in Spanish, interesting History and Andalusian dialect section) Category:Andalusia Category:Autonomous communities of Spain Category:Vandal history Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe ja:アンダルシア州

Reconquista

For other uses, see Reconquista (Disambiguation). The Reconquista (Spanish and Portuguese for reconquest) was the military reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Christian rulers, conducted from 718 to 1492, following the Moorish conquest of the Iberian Visigothic kingdom. The Portuguese Reconquista culminated in 1249 with the conquest of Algarve by Afonso III, setting Portuguese borders almost to their present location. In what became Spain, the process culminated on January 2, 1492 when Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Catolicos ("The Catholic Kings"), expelled the last of the Moorish rulers, Boabdil of Granada, from the Iberian Peninsula, uniting most of what is now Spain under their rule (Navarre was not incorporated until 1512).

Overview

In the 5th century AD Visigoths (literally 'western Goths') allied with Rome to keep other barbarians away from the Roman border (the limes). These tribes received Roman Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) and Southern Gaul as foedus, a payment for their loyalty. However, once the last emperor was deposed by Odoacer (476 AD), the Visigoths took Hispania as their kingdom. After several centuries (most of them marked by civil wars) the last elected king, Rodrigo, was betrayed by the count of Ceuta, Julian, who called for the Muslims (or Moors) to enter Hispania. This was caused not only by political but by religious reasons, as Julian, like most of the people in Hispania at the time, was an Unitarian Christian (Arianism) and disagreed with the Visigothic elite conversion to Trinitarian Catholicism. The rebels considered monotheistic Islam a related religion as opposed to "heretic" Trinitariasm. During the battle of Guadalete in 711, king Rodrigo lost his life. His left wing turned against him, as it was led by bishop Oppas, a collaborationist of the moors and member of other royal faction. By the end of the battle the whole kingdom fell, and the throne was left empty, for the Moors did not allow the Oppas’ faction to regain it. One of the few survivors was Pelayo, a noble in charge of the royal guard (Comes Spatharius). For three years, Moors ran all over Hispania gaining city by city, helped by the native population. This rapid conquest can only be understood as a continuation of the civil wars that had afflicted the Peninsula for centuries. The Berber soldiers under Tariq and Muza continued conquering on the other side of the Pyrenees, until they were defeated by Charles Martel in 732 in the Battle of Tours. The Moors then settled in the Iberian Peninsula, installing an emirate dependent on Damascus’ Caliph. Hispano-Romans (the local population) kept their properties and social status, as the change of governors did not suppose a change in current life, which stayed the same since the Roman times. By 714, the Moors had replaced the Visigoths in Hispania’s government. The local administration was not changed and counties were respected. There was religious repression and an extra tax for Christians (which led to mass conversions). The different conquerors received different portions of land. Berbers stayed in the poor lands of the northern plateau and southwest Spain. Syrians and Arabs received the rich valleys and cities. By 714, most of the Iberian Peninsula changed from Hispania to Al-Andalus.

The rebellion of the Astures and the early kingdom

The north of Iberia (the former duchy of Gallaecia), a wet, high and mountainous region full of valleys (the Cantabric Range) was home to the Astures, Cantabri, and Basques since the first millennium BC and recent genetic studies hint strongly that they were there long before that time. Conquered by Augustus in 14 BC, these tribes were not fully romanized (concerning their tribal and cultural heritage) even if they spoke Latin and were more or less Christian (many were pagans). These lands, even if conquered, were not the most ideal place for the Moors, who just sent a military force and collected taxes, and as with the Romans, not bothering the Astures and Cantabri. But by the late 710’s Al-Andalus suffered of revolts. The Berbers did not like the lands they were given and were repressed by the emiral forces in several battles until the rebellion stopped, but then the Berbers turned against the Astures, claiming higher taxes and setting punishment patrols against their villages. This forced the Astures to start a guerrilla war. In 722 A.D. a Goth noble, Pelayo, who had returned to his county after Guadalete, became the leader of the Astures and started a period of stronger attacks. This year, the Moorish patrol entered deep in the Astur territory, following direct instructions from the Emir, who wanted to stop those revolts immediately. The facts are not clear, but in 722 (maybe 724 or 718), the Moors were defeated in the valley of Covadonga. The most accepted hypothesis for this battle (epic described by Christian chronicles; mere skirmish in Muslim texts) is that, the Moorish column was attacked from the cliffs and then fell back through the valleys towards present day Gijón, but was attacked in its way by the retinue of Duke Pedro of Cantabria and was nearly destroyed. This first battle made the Astures grow stronger. Once expelled the Moors from the eastern valleys of Asturias and this “federation” was settled, Pelayo attacked León, the main city in north-west Spain and assured the mountain passes, isolating the region from the Moorish attacks. Pelayo continued attacking the Berbers which still stayed north of the Cantabric Range until these left. He then married his son with Duke Pedro’s daughter (which was relative of the former Visigothic dynasty). At his death in 734, his now called kingdom of Asturias stretched all through eastern Asturias and Cantabria. It was not until several years later, under king Alphonso II (791-842), when the kingdom was really settled down. He was recognised as king of Asturias by Charlemagne and the Pope. He conquered Galicia and the Basques. During his reign, the holy bones of St. James the Great were declared to be found in Galicia, in Compostela (campus stellae, literally "the field of the star"). Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a way of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond. St. James was probably not buried in Galicia (it is supposed to be an old Celt grave yard) but it was a way to maintain an armed force inside the rebellion-prone territory of the Galician counts. Alphonso’s policy consisted in depopulating the borders of Vardulia (which would turn into Castile) in order to gain population support north of the Cantabric Range. This growth meant an increase in defence and attack forces. Now the kingdom was strong enough to sack and attack the Moorish cities of Lisbon, Zamora and Coimbra. Not willing to conquer, for centuries on the major part of military actions were focused on pillage and tributes: weakening the enemy and getting fortunes and morale for their soldiers.

The Pyrenees’ block

The Spanish Marches were settled in 775 AD and allowed the growth of small states in the Pyrenees. Once the Franks had driven the moors out of France, the necessity of defending the mountain passes of the Pyrenees became an important point in Charlemagne’s policy. Fortifications were built, and protection was given to the inhabitants of the old Roman cities, such as Jaca and Gerona. The main passes were (eastwards) Roncesvalles, Somport and Junquera. In each of them, Charlemagne settled the counties of Pamplona, Aragon and Catalonia (which was formed from a number of small counties, Pallars, Gerona, Urgell being the most prominent). In 778, the Frankish expedition against Saragossa failed and the army was destroyed while fleeing back to France. This fact is sung in the “Chanson de Roland” At any rate, this battle set the western Pyrenees free from Frankish rule and as a result, two different states appeared: the kingdom of Pamplona (later known as Navarre) and the counties of Aragon, Sobarbe and Ribagorza. Navarre emerged as a kingdom around Pamplona, its capital, and controlled Roncesvalles pass. Its first king was Iñigo Arista. He expanded his domains up to the Bay of Biscay and conquered a few towns beyond the Pyrenees, but never directly attacked the Carolingian armies, as he was in theory their vassal. It was not until Queen Jimena in the 9th century that Pamplona was officially recognised as an independent kingdom by the Pope. Aragon, founded in 809 by Aznar Galíndez, grew around Jaca and the high valleys of the Aragon River, protecting the old Roman road. By the end of the 10th century, Aragon was annexed to Navarre. Sobarbe and Ribagorza were small counties, with little importance to the Reconquista. The Catalonian counties protected the eastern Pyrenees’ passes and shores. They were under the direct control of the Frankish kings and were the last remains of the Spanish Marches. Catalonia included not only the southern Pyrenees’ counties of Gerona, Pallars, Urgell, Vic and Andorra but also some which were on the northern side of the mountains, such as Perpignan and Foix. The most important of them all was Barcelona, once it was conquered in 801 by Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne. Soon, in the late 9th century under Count Wilfred, Barcelona became the capital of Catalonia. It controlled the other counties’ policies in a union, which lead in 948 to the independence of Catalonia under Count Borrel II, who declared that the new dynasty in France (the Capets) were not the legitimate rulers of France nor, as a result, of Catalonia. Theses states were small and did have much capacity for expansion (except for Navarre), as Asturias had, and due to their situation in the mountains, they had no chance against a united and strong Al-Andalus. As results, their borders stayed the same for two centuries.

War tactics in medieval Iberian Peninsula

Daily life was reflected in its warfare. Small, lightly equipped armies reflect how the society (constantly at war) had to be on alert and be capable of moving long distance in short times, to return home once sacking the objective. The main battles were either between clans, expelling intruder armies or sacking expeditions. Medieval Spain was in a different cultural context than the rest of Continental Europe, due to the contact with the Moorish culture and the isolation provided by the Pyrenees. As a consequence, war tactics were different from those in the rest of Europe (with the exception of Catalonia, which always was very influenced by the Franks). Medieval Spanish armies were mainly formed by two groups of soldiers, cavalry (mainly nobles, but commoner knights from the 10th century onwards) and infantry, or peones, meaning peasants. Infantry only went to war if needed, which was not common. Cavalry fought in a typical Spanish way. Knights approached the enemy and then threw javelins, just before turning around and running back, so as to start all over again. Once the enemy formation was weakened enough, the knights charged with thrusting spears (as lances did not arrive to Hispania until the 11th century). There were three types of knights: royal knights, noble knights (caballeros hidalgos) and commoner knights (caballeros villanos). Royal knights were mainly nobles with a close relationship with the king, and had a Goth inheritance. They were equipped in the same manner as their Gothic ancestors - braceplate, kite shield, a long sword (designed to fight from the horse) and apart from the javelins and spears, the typical Visigoth double-axe. Caballeros hidalgos and Caballeros villanos were similarly equipped; the only difference among them was their origin. Noble knights were infanzones or lower nobles, whereas the commoner knights were not noble, but were wealthy enough to afford a horse. These horsemen had no feudal links, and only were under the control of the king or the count of Castile because of the fueros (explained in the Reconquista#Repopulating Hispania: the origin of fueros). They were a militia cavalry force unique through all Europe. Both types of knight wore leather armour, javelins, spears and round-tasselled shields (influenced by Moorish shields), apart from a sword. The peones were the peasants who went to battle due to their feudal relationship, and served their lord. Poorly equipped (bows and arrows, spears and short swords), they were mainly used as auxiliary troops. Their function in battle was to contain the enemy troops until the cavalry arrived and to block the enemy infantry from charging the knights. The typical armours were the leather ones; they usually had iron scales attached. Full coat of mails were extremely rare and horse barding was completely unknown. The head protections were the round helmet, with a nose protector (a Viking influence, result of the attacks of the 8th and 9th centuries) and a chain mail head piece. Shields were often round or kidney-shaped excepting those belonging to the royal knights, which used to be kite-shaped. Usually adorned with geometric designs, crosses or tassels, shields were made out of wood and had a leather cover. Weapons were largely steel swords. Long and double-bladed if mounted and short and single-bladed if from a foot soldier. The guard of the sword used to be or half a circle or straight, but always very ornamented with geometrical patterns. The spears and javelins were up to 1.5 metres long and had an iron tip. The double-axe was perfectly designed to be thrown or to be used in close combat. It was iron-made and 30 cm long, with an extremely sharp edge. Maces and hammers were not common, but some have remained, and are thought to have been used mounted. Finally, mercenaries were an important factor, as many kings did not have enough soldiers and could afford them. Norsemen, Flemish spearmen, Frank knights, Moorish mounted archers and Berber light cavalry were the main mercenaries available, and were who was more often hired. This way of warfare remained in the Iberian Peninsula until the late 11th century, when couched lance tactics entered from France and substituted the traditional style of horse javelin-shot. Then, in the 12th and 13th centuries, horse barding, suits of armours, double-handed swords and crossbows definitely left the early Spanish tactics obsolete.

Repopulating Hispania: the origin of fueros

The Reconquista is a process not only of war and conquest, but mainly of repopulating. Christian kings took their own people to abandoned places, in order to have population capable to defend the borders. The main repopulation areas were the Duero basin (the northern plateau), the high Ebro valley (La Rioja) and central Catalonia. Repopulation appeared as the result of Berbers abandoning the land that they were given and the population growth of the Christian kingdoms. The Duero Basin was repopulated in two different ways, in two different periods of time. North of the river and between the 9th and 10th centuries it was used the presura system. South of the Duero (in the 10th and 11th centuries) the presura lead to the fueros. Fueros were used even south of the Central Range. The presura meant a group of peasants which crossed the mountains and settled in the abandoned lands of the Duero basin. Asturian laws promoted this system with laws, as the one which gave a peasant in property all the land he was able to work and defend. Of course, Asturian and Galician minor nobles and clergymen set their own expeditions with the peasants they maintained. This led to very feudalised areas, such as Leon and Portugal, whereas Castile, an arid land with vast plains and hard climate only attracted peasant with no hope in Cantabria and Biscay. As a consequence, Castile was only governed by a single count, but had a big, low-feudalised territory with many free peasants. Presuras also appear in Catalonia, when the count of Barcelona ordered the Bishop of Urgell and the count of Gerona to repopulate the plains of Vic. During the 10th century and onwards, cities and towns gained more importance and power, as commerce reappeared and the population kept growing. Fueros were charters documenting the privileges and usages given to all the people repopulating a town. The fueros were the way to escape from the feudal system, as fueros were only given by the monarch, as a counterpart, the town council (the concejo) only was dependant on him and had to help their lord (auxilium), and their military force was known as caballeros villanos. The first fuero was given by count Fernán González to the inhabitants of Castrojeriz in the 940’s. The most important towns of medieval Spain had fueros. In Navarre, fueros were the main repopulating system and also in Aragon (in a later stage: 12th century mainly), for example the fuero of Teruel, which was one of the last fueros, in the early 13th century. In the 13th century no more fueros were given, as the demographic pressure had disappeared and other ways of repopulation were created. While presuras allowed Castile to have the only non-feudal peasants in Europe other than cossacks, fueros remained as city charters until the 18th century in Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia and until the 19th century in Castile and Navarre. Fueros had an immense importance for medieval people, and defended them with war if necessary. The abolition of the fueros in Navarre was one of the causes of the Carlist wars. In Castile they had a great importance and were the cause of the war against Charles I (Castilian war of the Communities).

The 10th and 11th centuries: crisis and splendour

Knowing the circumstance of Al-Andalus in the 10th and 11th centuries is important to understand the development of the Christian kingdoms. The 9th century saw the Berber revolts, and they returned back to Africa, and many governors of big cities far away from the capital (Cordoba) planned to separate. Then, in 923 the Emir of Cordoba (Abd-al-Rahman III), the last descendant of the Ummayad dynasty, declared himself caliph, independent from Baghdad. He took all the military, religious and political power and reorganised the army and the bureaucracy. Once he had regained the control over the dissident governors, the caliph decided to expel the Christians from the Iberian peninsula, attacking several times the kingdoms and making them retreat back to the Cantabric range. After his death his son became a puppet in the hands of the great Vizer Almanzor (al-Mansur, "the victorious"). Almanzor became the terror of all the Christian kings, as he attacked and sacked Burgos, Leon, Pamplona, Barcelona and Santiago de Compostela. Almanzor died in 1002, after being defeated by the Castilian army. Between Almanzur’s death and 1031, Al-Andalus suffered many civil wars which ended in the appearance of the Taifa kingdoms. The taifas were small kingdoms, result of the independence wishes of the governors of many cities. The result was many (up to 34) small kingdoms centred upon their capital, and the governors seeking only their benefit, attacking at any opportunity their neighbour kingdoms. Alphonso III of Asturias repopulated Leon and set there the capital, as it was in a more strategic position (the kingdom became at his death Kingdom of Leon). From his new capital, king Alphonso started a series of campaigns which gave him control over all the lands north of the Duero. He reorganized his territories into the major duchies (Galicia and Portugal) and major counties (Saldaña and Castile), he also fortified the borders with many castles. At his death in 910 his heir Ordoño II was able to organize attacks to Toledo and even Seville. The Caliphate of Cordoba was gaining power, and started to attack Leon. Navarre and king Ordoño allied against Abd-al-Rahman but were defeated in Valdejunquera, in 920. For 80 years on, the kingdom of Leon suffered civil wars, the devastating attacks of the Moors, intrigues and assassinations, and the partial independence of Galicia and Castile. The only moment when the situation seemed to change was under Ramiro III, until he was killed. King Ramiro, in alliance with Count Fernán González of Castile, and his retinue of caballeros villanos, defeated the caliph in Simancas, in 939. After this battle, when the caliph barely escaped with his guard and the rest of the army was destroyed, King Ramiro obtained 12 years of peace, but had to give González the independence of Castile as a payment for his help in the battle. After this defeat, Almanzor was the next to attack the Christians. It was Alphonso V in 1002 who finally defeated Almanzour and regained the control over his domains. Navarre, even if suffering from attacks from Almanzor was able to keep it safe. Alphonso annexed Aragon in the 10th century and expanded its control over southern France. King Garcia II (late 10th century) received Biscay from Castile and under his reign, Navarre was the hegemonic kingdom in the medieval Spain. King Sancho the Great, who reigned between 1004 and 1035 annexed Castile due to his marriage, conquered Sobrarbe and Ribagorza and made Leon his vassal after killing the only son of king Bermudo III. But following the Navarrese custom, king Sancho divided his kingdom among his sons: Castile (and Biscay) for Fernando, Navarre and Rioja for Sancho IV, Aragon for Ramiro and Sobrarbe (with Ribagorza) to Gonzalo. Ramiro soon had his brother Gonzalo killed and annexed his domains, while Fernando (naming himself king) married the daughter of Bermudo III, becoming king of Leon and Castile. Fernando I was the leading king of his era. He conquered Coimbra, in Portugal and attacked the taifa kingdoms, not willing to conquer, but to receive the tributes known as parias. Fernando’s strategy was to ask for parias until the taifa was too weak. King Fernando also repopulated the Borders with numerous fueros. Following the Navarrese tradition, he divided at his death in 1064 his kingdom upon his sons. His son Sancho II of Castile wanted to reunite the kingdom of his father and attacked his brothers, with a young noble at his side: Rodrigo Díaz (later known as El Cid Campeador). Sancho was killed while in the siege of Zamora by the traitor Bellido Dolfos in 1072. His brother Alphonso VI took over Leon, Castile and Galicia. Alphonso VI, “the brave”, gave more power to the fueros and repopulated Segovia, Avila and Salamanca. Then, once he had secured the Borders, king Alphonso conquered the powerful Taifa kingdom of Toledo in 1085. Toledo, which was the former capital of the Visigoths was a very important landmark, and gave Alphonso renown all through the Christianity, and named himself Imperator totius Hispaniae, or "Emperor of all the Spains" (all the Christian kingdoms of Spain). Of course, this meant an important change in the policy about Taifas, and all the Taifa kings feared Alphonso, so they asked the African Almoravids for help. Almoravids were religiously fanatic and were mainly Berber. Their armies entered several times in the peninsula (1086, 1088, 1093) and defeated king Alphonso, but their purpose was not to conquer the Christian kingdoms (for the moment) but to unite all the Taifas in a single Almoravid Caliphate. Anyway, they stopped the Christian expansion south, excepting their only defeat, at Valencia in 1094, which was defended by El Cid. Meanwhile, Navarre lost all importance under king Sancho IV, for he lost Rioja against Sancho II of Castile, and was nearly the vassal of Aragon. At his death, the Navarrese chose as their king Sancho I of Aragon, who became Sancho V of Navarre and I of Aragon. Sancho Ramírez I gave Aragon international recognition, as united Aragon and Navarre, expanded the borders south, deep in the valleys conquering Huesca in 1096 and building a fort 25 km away from Saragossa. Catalonia suffered lots of pressure from the Taifa of Saragossa and of Lleida, and also internal disputes, as Barcelona had a dynastical crisis which lead to open war among the smaller counties, but by the 1080’s, the situation calmed, and the domain of Barcelona over the smaller counties was restored. It was not until later centuries that the Christians started to see their conquests as part of a effort of centuries to restore the unity of the Visigothic kingdom. The battle against Moors did not keep the Christian kingdoms from battling among themselves or allying with Islamic kings. For example, the earlier kings of Navarre were family of the Banu Qasi of Tudela. The Moorish kings often had wives or mothers born Christians. Also Christian champions like El Cid were contracted by Taifa kings to fight against their neighbours. In the late years of Al-Andalus, Castile had the military power to conquer the remains of the kingdom of Granada, but the kings preferred to claim the tribute of the parias. The commerce of Granadan goods and the parias were a main way for the African gold to enter medieval Europe. In the High Middle Ages, the fight against the Moors in Iberia was linked to the fight of the whole of Christendom. Military orders like the order of Santiago, Montesa ,Order of Calatrava and the Temple Knights were founded or called to fight in Iberia. The Popes called the knights of Europe to the Crusades in the peninsula. After the so called Battle of Alarcos, French, Navarrese, Castilian and Aragonese armies united in the massive battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). The mixing of Christians, Muslims and Jews was later officially ended by the rules of ethnic or religious purity of the Modern Age, namely the Spanish limpieza de sangre and the expulsion of Jews by Manuel I in Portugal. The big territories awarded to military orders and nobles were the origin of the latifundia in today's Andalusia and Extremadura, in Spain, and Alentejo, in Portugal.

Cultural influence

Real or imaginary episodes of the Reconquista are the subject of much of Medieval Spanish- and Catalan-language literature, such as the cantar de gesta.

Modern views

Modern historical theories dispute the idea that the Reconquista was merely a war of Christians versus Muslims. These theories note that the Muslims had occupied significant parts of the Iberian Peninsula for eight centuries, over which time it would had been impossible to keep ethnic groups separated. Noble genealogies clearly show the close relations between Muslims and Christians. More evidence supporting those theories is that the Portuguese and Spanish languages themselves have a high number of words of Arabic origin. Instead of the term 'Reconquista', the concept of a civil war has been proposed. This has not gained wide acceptance, however, although its supporters attribute this to sociopolitical forces. Regardless, it is not disputed that these wars had a strong religious component. It has also been proposed that the war left the Iberian kingdoms with deep economic crises, which would be the reason behind expelling the Jews (who had lived in the Iberian Peninsula for over ten centuries) in order to confiscate their funds and property. It should be noted however that Portuguese Reconquista ended in 1257 and that the Spanish and Portuguese kingdoms were already profiting from their maritime expansion before the Jews were expelled (see Portugal in the period of discoveries and History of Spain). It is accepted that the Reconquista cannot be seen as a single war, but as a long military, political and social process with times of war and times of peace.

Social types under the Reconquista

The advances and retreats created several social types:
- The Mozarabs: descendants of Visigothic or Romanic dwellers who did not convert to Islam. Some of them migrated to the North in times of persecution.
- The Muladi: Christians who converted to Islam after the invasion.
- The Renegade: Christian individuals who embraced Islam and often fought against their former compatriots.
- The Jewish conversos: Jews who either voluntarily or forced became Christians. Some of them were crypto-Jews who kept practicing Judaism. Eventually all Jews were forced to leave Spain in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella, and Portugal some years later. Their Converso descendants became victims of the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions.
- The Mudejar: Muslims dwelling in land conquered by the Christians, usually peasants. Their characteristic architecture of adobe bricks was frequently employed in churches commissioned by the new lords. Their descendants after 1492 were called Moriscos Currently, the festivals of moros y cristianos (Spanish) and mouros e cristãos (Portuguese) both meaning "Moors and Christians" recreate the fights as colourful parades with elaborate garments and lots of fireworks, especially in the Spanish Mediterranean coast.

External links

- [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/timeline.html Timeline of the Reconquista]; The University of Calgary

Sources

- Payne, Stanley, "The Emergence of Portugal", A History of Spain and Portugal: Volume One. Available online at [http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne6.htm].

Aragon

:This article is about the geographical region. For the poet, see Louis Aragon. For the Olympic medallist, see Aragon (horse). For the commune in the Aude département of France, see Aragon, Aude. Aragon (Spanish and Aragonese: Aragón; Catalan: Aragó) is an autonomous community of north-eastern Spain. It has an area of 47,719 km² with a population of 1,217,514 (2003). Aragon is bounded on the north by France, on the east by Catalonia, on the south by Valencia, and on the west by Castile-La Mancha, Castile-Leon, La Rioja, and Navarre. It comprises the provinces of Zaragoza (English: Saragossa or Caesaraugusta), Huesca, and Teruel. It is traversed by the Ebro, mountainous in the north; with beautiful fertile valleys, rather barren, in the south. Its capital is Zaragoza. In addition to its three provinces, Aragon is subdivided into 33 comarcas (counties).

Language

In addition to Spanish, there is an original Aragonese language, still spoken in some valleys of the Pyrenees. Catalan is spoken as well in some comarques (counties) adjacent to Catalonia known, as a whole, as La Franja; in particular: the Ribagorzan dialect in Ribagorza and La Litera, and a dialect similar to that of Terra Alta in Matarraña and Bajo Cinca.

History

Aragón was a Frankish feudal county (Jaca) before becoming a self-proclaimed kingdom, which was united with the kingdom of Pamplona (later Navarre) in 925. The kingdom of Pamplona included the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza, and the duchy of Castilla. After King Sancho´s death, the kingdom was divided between his sons. Ramiro I was initially named king of Aragon; later, after his brother Gionzalo´s death, also of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza. The new kingdom grew quickly, and incorporated Navarra. This kingdom conquered the city of Zaragoza in 1118. Split from the kingdom of Navarre, the kingdom of Aragón was re-established in 1035 and lasted until 1707. Aragón was also the name of the crown, because of the dynastic union of a Count of Barcelona (Ramon Berenguer IV) with a Queen of Aragón (Petronila of Aragon), their son inheriting all their respective territories. This Crown was effectively disbanded after the dynastic union with Castile (see below). The Kings of Aragón (called by some present-day historians "Kings of Aragón and Counts of Barcelona") ruled territories that consisted of not only the present administrative region of Aragón but also Catalonia, and later the Balearic Islands, Valencia, Sicily, Naples and Sardinia (see Aragonese Empire). The King of Aragón was the direct King of the Aragonese region, and held also the title of King of Valencia, King of Mallorca (for a time), Count of Barcelona, Lord of Montpellier, and, only temporarily, Duke of Athens and Neopatria. Each of these titles gave him sovereignty over a certain region, and these titles changed as he lost and won territories. The real centre of this kingdom was Barcelona, since it had a seaport and was near the geographical centre of the Crown of Aragon, while Valencia was the most important seaport for trade until approximately the 18th century. Present-day historians usually call the Crown the Crown of Aragón, the "Catalan-Aragonese Confederation" or simply "Catalonia-Aragón", typically depending upon whether that historian lives in Aragón or in Catalonia. The Kingdom of Aragón is called simply Kingdom of Aragón. Saying just "Aragón" is ambiguous and should be avoided. Barcelona was the center of what was in many ways a Mediterranean Empire, ruling the Mediterranean Sea and setting rules for the entire sea (for instance, in the Llibre del Consolat del Mar, in Catalan).

List of Chancellors

- Alfons de la Cavalleria 1494-1508
- Tomás de Malferit 1508
- Antoni Agustí de Sicart 1508-1523
- Frederic Honorat de Gualbes de Vallseca (for the Principality of Catalonia) 1523-1529
- Jeronimo de Rage (for Aragón Kingdom) 1523-1529
- Eiximèn Perez de Figuerola (for Valencia Kingdom) 1523-1529
- Joan Sunyer 1529-1533
- Miquel Mai 1533-1546
- Jeroni Descoll de Oliva 1546-1554
- Pere de Clariana de Seva 1554-1562
- Bernardo de Bolea y Portugal 1562-1585
- Simó Friigola 1585-1598
- Dídac Civarrubias Sanç 1598-1607
- Diego Clavera 1608-1612
- Andreu Roig 1612-1622
- President Garci Peréz de Araciel 1623-1624
- President Juan Manuel de Mendoza Luna Manrique, marquis of Montesclaros 1628
- President Enrique Pimentel, bishop of Cuenca 1628-1632
- President Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, duke of Alburquerque 1632-1637
- President Gaspar de Borja y de Velasco 1637-1645
- Maties Bayetola Cabanilles 1646-1652
- Cristòfor Crespí de Vallclaura Brizuela 1652-1671
- Melcior de Navarra Rocafull 1671-1677
- President Pasqual d'Aragó Folc de Cardona 1677
- President Pere Antoni d'Aragó Folc de Cardona i Córdoba 1677-1690
- Melcior de Navarra Rocafull 1690-1691 (second time)
- President Gaspar Téllez Girón y Sandoval, duke of Osuna 1692-1694
- President Ferran de Montcada-Aragó i de Montcada 1695-1698
- President Rodrigo Manuel Manrique de Lara y de Tabora 1698-1702
- President Iñigo de la Cruz Manrique de Lara y Ramiréz de Arellano, count of Aguilar and Frigiliana 1702-1707 See list of Kings of Aragón. See list of Lieutenants of the Kingdom of Aragón The dynastic union of Castile and Aragon in 1479, when Ferdinand II of Aragon wed Isabella I of Castile, led to the formal creation of Spain as a single entity in 1516. See List of Spanish monarchs and Kings of Spain family tree.

External links

- [http://www.aragob.es Government of Aragon] (in Spanish)
- [http://www.aragonguide.com Aragon Guide]Information for hikers, mountain bikers, skiers and visitors. Details of accommodation, routes and travel tips.
- [http://portal.aragob.es/servlet/page?_pageid=2885,591&_dad=portal30&_schema=PORTAL30&cuerpo.est=ITPG_EHE_IAEST_001DB03_0%2CITPG_EHE_IAEST_001DB03_1%2CITPG_EHE_IAEST_001DB03_2&menu.est=ITM_EHE_IAEST_inicio_menu Basic statistical data on Aragon] (in Spanish)
- http://www.charrando.com/ Page about the Aragonese Language Category:Aragon Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe Category:Former countries in Europe ja:アラゴン州 gangsta.

1249

For broader historical context, see 1240s and 13th century.

Events

13th century

Europe

- February 16 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by King Louis IX of France as an ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols.
- August 15 - The First Battle of Athenry is fought in Galway, Ireland.
- University College, the first College at Oxford, is founded with money gifted from the estate of William of Durham.
- The Moors lose possession of Alicante in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain).
- King Afonso III of Portugal captures Faro, Portugal from the Moors.
- Roger Bacon publishes a major scientific work, including writings of convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness and the first publication of the formula for gunpowder in the western world.
- The city of Mystras, Greece is fortified and a palace is constructed there by William II Villehardouin.
- The city of Stralsund (in present-day Germany) is burned to the ground by forces from the rival city of Lübeck.
- Swedish statesman Birger Jarl subjugates the province of Tavastia in Finland, laying the foundations for Sweden's expansionism.
- Alphonse of Toulouse orders the expulsion of Jews from Poitou, France.

Asia

- Pho Khun Si Indrathit becomes the first king of the Sukhothai kingdom, marking the founding of the modern Thai nation.
- The Hikitsuke, a judicial organ of the Kamakura and Muromachi shogunates of Japan, is established.
- The Japanese Hoji era ends, and the Kencho era begins.

Africa

- King Louis IX of France captures Damietta in Egypt, the first major military engagement of the Seventh Crusade.

Births

- July 9 - Emperor Kameyama of Japan (died 1305)
- Eric V of Denmark (died 1286)
- Robert III of Flanders
- Frederick I, Margrave of Baden (died 1268)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford (died 1297)
- Pope John XXII (died 1334)
- Menachem Meiri, rabbi

Deaths

- July 6 - King Alexander II of Scotland (born 1198)
- September 27 - Count Raymond VII of Toulouse (born 1197)
- As-Salih Ayyub, ruler of Egypt
- Abu Zakariya, ruler of the Maghreb (born 1203)
- William of Sherwood, English logician (born 1190)

Caliph

:This article is on the highest religious and/or temporal title, aspiring universal authority, in Islam; :for lower, notably gubernatorial, uses of the Arabic title khalifa, see that article Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalīfah () which means "successor", that is, successor to the prophet Muhammad. Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as Khalîf. The caliph has often been referred to as Ameer al-Mumineen (أمير المؤمنين), or "Prince of the Faithful," where "Prince" is used in the context of "commander." After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib) the title was claimed by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other, competing lineages in Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or emirs, and gave token obedience to a caliph who often had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1924.

Origins of the caliphate

Most academic scholars do not believe that Muhammad had explicitly established how the Muslim community was to be governed after his death. Two questions faced these early Muslims: who was to succeed Muhammad, and what sort of authority he was to exercise.

Succession to Muhammad

Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests(1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and choose a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultation. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir. Muhammad, if he considered the matter of succession at all, would possibly have thought that the standard procedure would apply. This is also the argument advanced by Sunni Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's lieutenant Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus, even though the caliphate soon became a hereditary office, or the prize of the strongest general. Sunnis accept that the caliph should be chosen from Muhammad's tribe, the Quraysh. Shi'a Muslims disagree. They believe that Muhammad had given many indications that he considered Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, as his chosen successor. They say that Abu Bakr seized power by force and trickery. All caliphs other than Ali were usurpers. Ali and his descendents are believed to have been the only proper Muslim leaders, or imams. This matter is covered in much greater detail in the article Succession to Muhammad, and in the article on Shi'a Islam. A third branch of Islam, the Ibadi, believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in Oman.

The authority of the caliph

Who should succeed Muhammad was not the only issue that faced the early Muslims; they also had to clarify the extent of the leader's powers. Muhammad, during his lifetime, was not only the Muslim leader, but the Muslim prophet and the Muslim judge. All law and spiritual practice proceeded from Muhammad. Was his successor to have the same status? None of the early caliphs claimed to receive divine revelations, as did Muhammad; none of them claimed to be nabi, a prophet. Muhammad's revelations were soon codified and written down as the Qur'an, which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command. However, there is some evidence that the early caliphs did believe that they had authority to rule in matters not specified in the Qur'an. They believed themselves to be the spiritual and temporal leaders of Islam, and insisted that implicit obedience to the caliph in all things was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The modern scholars Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, in their book God's Caliph, outline the evidence for an early, expansive view of the caliph's importance and authority. They argue that this view of the caliphate was eventually nullified (in Sunni Islam, at least) by the rising power of the ulema, or Islamic scholars, clerics, and religious specialists. The ulema insisted on their right to determine what was legal and orthodox. The proper Muslim leader, in the ulema's opinion, was the leader who enforced the rulings of the ulema, rather than making rulings of his own. Conflict between caliph and ulema was a recurring theme in early Islamic history, and ended in the victory of the ulema. The caliph was henceforth limited to temporal rule. He would be considered a righteous caliph if he were guided by the ulema. Crone and Hinds argue that Shi'a Muslims, with their expansive view of the powers of the imamate, have preserved some of the beliefs of early Islam. Crone and Hinds' thesis is not accepted by all scholars. Most Sunni Muslims now believe that the caliph has always been a merely temporal ruler, and that the ulema has always been responsible for adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law (shari'a). The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believe to have followed the Qur'an and the way or sunnah of Muhammad in all things. This formulation itself presumes the Sunni ulema's view of history.

The history of the caliphate

Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and the Muslim community submitted to his choice. Uthman was elected by a council of electors, but was soon perceived by many Muslims to be ruling as a "king" rather than an elected leader. Uthman was killed by rebellious soldiers. Ali then took control, but was not universally accepted as caliph. He faced numerous rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war. One of Ali's challengers was Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman. After Ali's death, Muawiyah managed to overcome all other claimants to the caliphate. He is remembered by history as Muawiyah I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Under Muawiyah, the caliphate became a hereditary office. Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the west, Muslim rule expanded across North Africa and into Spain. To the east, it expanded through Iran and ultimately to India. However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like al-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hisham, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali, were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. Following this disappointment, the Shi'at Ali finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several Shi'a denominations. The Abassids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and

Hafsids

Ifriqiya

See also

1229

Events

Births

Deaths

Abu Zakariya

Abu Bakr II

Sources

Ishaq II

References

Almohads

Origins

The ruling

Muwahhadi (Almohad) Caliphs, 1145-1269

Publications

See also

External links

Abu Zakariya

1229

Events

Births

Deaths

Tunis

Geography

History

Early History

Arab Control

Turkish rule and piracy

European colonialism

Modern history

Landmarks

Economy

Transportation

Miscellaneous topics

See also

External links

Andalucia

External links

Reconquista

Overview

The rebellion of the Astures and the early kingdom

The Pyrenees’ block

War tactics in medieval Iberian Peninsula

Repopulating Hispania: the origin of fueros

The 10th and 11th centuries: crisis and splendour

Cultural influence

Modern views

Social types under the Reconquista

See also

External links

Sources

Further reading

Aragon

Language

History

List of Chancellors

See also

External links

1249

Events

Europe

Asia

Africa

Births

Deaths

See also

Caliph

Origins of the caliphate

Succession to Muhammad

The authority of the caliph

The history of the caliphate