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Apple/Nutritional Information

Apple/Nutritional information

This table shows nutritional information about the apple. The figures are based on raw apples, with skin and are from the United States Department of Agriculture National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 15 (August 2002)

Nutrient	Units	Value per 100 grams of edible portion	Sample Count	Std. Error	1 large (3-1/4" dia) (approx 2 per lb) ------- 212 g	1 medium (2-3/4" dia) (approx 3 per lb) ------- 138 g	1 small (2-1/2" dia) (approx 4 per lb) ------- 106 g
Proximates
Water	g	83.93	126	0.189	178	116	89
Energy	kcal	59	0		125	81	63
Energy	kJ	247	0		524	341	262
Protein	g	0.19	119	0.003	0.4	0.3	0.2
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.36	35	0.039	0.8	0.5	0.4
Ash	g	0.26	116	0.005	0.6	0.4	0.3
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	15.25	0		32	21	16
Fiber, total dietary	g	2.7	0		6	4	3
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	7	34	0.519	15	10	7
Iron, Fe	mg	0.18	119	0.019	0.4	0.25	0.2
Magnesium, Mg	mg	5	114	0.100	11	7	5
Phosphorus, P	mg	7	114	0.232	15	10	7
Potassium, K	mg	115	74	2.561	240	160	120
Sodium, Na	mg	0	47	0.064	0.0	0.0	0.0
Zinc, Zn	mg	0.04	15	0.007	0.09	0.06	0.04
Copper, Cu	mg	0.041	119	0.002	0.09	0.06	0.04
Manganese, Mn	mg	0.045	119	0.003	0.10	0.06	0.05
Selenium, Se	mcg	0.3	7	0.076	0.6	0.4	0.3
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	5.7	25	0.766	12	8	6
Thiamin	mg	0.017	6	0.000	0.036	0.023	0.018
Riboflavin	mg	0.014	6	0.001	0.030	0.019	0.015
Niacin	mg	0.077	6	0.028	0.16	0.11	0.08
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.061	6	0.004	0.13	0.08	0.07
Vitamin B6	mg	0.048	7	0.004	0.10	0.07	0.05
Folate, total	µg	3	23	0.611	6.4	4.1	3.2
Folic acid	µg	0	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
Folate, food	µg	3	23	0.611	6	4	3
Folate, DFE	µg DFE	3	0		6	4	3
Vitamin B12	µg	0.00	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	53	6	11.878	110	70	60
Retinol	µg	0	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg RAE	3	6	0.594	6	4	3
Vitamin E	mg ATE	0.320	0		0.7	0.4	0.3
Tocopherol, alpha	mg	0.32	0		0.7	0.4	0.3
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.058	0		0.12	0.08	0.06
4:0	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
6:0	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
8:0	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
10:0	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
12:0	g	0.001	1		0.002	0.001	0.001
14:0	g	0.002	1		0.004	0.003	0.002
16:0	g	0.048	4		0.10	0.07	0.05
18:0	g	0.007	4		0.015	0.010	0.007
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.015	0		0.032	0.021	0.016
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.001	1		0.002	0.001	0.001
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.014	4		0.03	0.02	0.015
20:1	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.105	0		0.22	0.15	0.11
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.087	4		0.18	0.12	0.09
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.018	4		0.04	0.025	0.02
18:4	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
20:5 n-3	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
22:5 n-3	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
22:6 n-3	g	0.000	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
Cholesterol	mg	0	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
Phytosterols	mg	12	0		25	17	13
Amino acids
Tryptophan	g	0.002	1		0.004	0.003	0.002
Threonine	g	0.007	2		0.015	0.010	0.007
Isoleucine	g	0.008	2		0.017	0.011	0.008
Leucine	g	0.012	2		0.025	0.017	0.013
Lysine	g	0.012	2		0.025	0.017	0.013
Methionine	g	0.002	2		0.004	0.003	0.002
Cystine	g	0.003	1		0.006	0.004	0.003
Phenylalanine	g	0.005	2		0.011	0.007	0.005
Tyrosine	g	0.004	2		0.008	0.006	0.004
Valine	g	0.009	2		0.019	0.012	0.010
Arginine	g	0.006	2		0.013	0.008	0.006
Histidine	g	0.003	2		0.006	0.004	0.003
Alanine	g	0.007	2		0.015	0.010	0.007
Aspartic acid	g	0.034	2		0.07	0.05	0.04
Glutamic acid	g	0.020	2		0.04	0.03	0.02
Glycine	g	0.008	2		0.017	0.011	0.008
Proline	g	0.007	2		0.015	0.010	0.007
Serine	g	0.008	2		0.017	0.011	0.008
Other
Caffeine	mg	0	0		0.0	0.0	0.0
Theobromine	mg	0	0		0.0	0.0	0.0

External links

- [http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-001-02s01e9.html Apple nutrition data from nutririondata.com]

Apple (fruit)

The apple is a tree and its pomaceous fruit, of species Malus domestica in the family Rosaceae, and is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits. It is a small deciduous tree reaching 5-12 m tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple oval with an acute tip and serrated margin, slightly downy below, 5-12 cm long and 3-6 cm broad on a 2-5 cm petiole. The flowers are produced in spring with the leaves, white, usually tinged pink at first, 2.5-3.5 cm diameter, with five petals. The fruit matures in the autumn, and is typically 5-8 cm diameter (rarely up to 15 cm).

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flower

Botanical origins

flower]] The wild ancestor of Malus domestica is Malus sieversii. It has no common name in English, but is known where it is native as "alma"; in fact, the city where it is thought to originate is called Alma-Ata, or "father of the apples". This tree is still found wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China. Some individual M. sieversii, planted by the US government at a research facility recently, resist many diseases and pests that affect domestic apples, and research with it to develop new disease-resistant apples is continuing. Other species that were previously thought to have made contributions to the genome of the domestic apples are Malus baccata and Malus sylvestris, but there is no hard evidence for this in older apple cultivars. These and other Malus species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in climates unsuitable for M. domestica, mainly for increased cold tolerance. Apples have been a very important food in all cooler climates, and it was probably the earliest tree to be cultivated. To a greater degree than other tree fruit, except possibly citrus, apples store for months while still retaining much of their nutritive value. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing have been an important food in Asia and Europe for millennia, as well as in Argentina and in the United States since the arrival of Europeans. The word apple comes from the Old English word aeppel which was used to refer to any round object. This word in turn comes from the Latin word abella, which is the name of a town in Campania. The scientific name malus, on the other hand, comes from the actual Latin word for apple.

Apple cultivars

:See List of Apple cultivars for a listing List of Apple cultivars There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples. Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. Apples do not flower in tropical climates because they have a chilling requirement. Commercially-popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical 'Red Delicious' apple shape, long stem (to allow pesticides to penetrate the top of the fruit), and popular flavour. Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Many of them have excellent flavour (often better than most modern cultivars), but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance are out there to discover; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. pesticide Although most cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot. Modern apples are, as a rule, sweeter than older cultivars. Most North Americans and Europeans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following. Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in Asia and especially India. Tastes in apples vary from one person to another and have changed over time. As an example, the U.S. state of Washington made its reputation for apple growing on Red Delicious. In recent years, many apple connoisseurs have come to regard Red Delicious as inferior to cultivars such as Fuji and Gala due to the merely mild flavour and insufficiently firm texture of the Red Delicious.

Growing apples

Apple breeding

Washington Washington Like most perennial fruits, apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by grafting. Seedling apples are different from their parents, sometimes radically. Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. The words seedling, pippin, and kernel in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars. Some breeders have crossed ordinary apples with crabapples or unusually hardy apples in order to produce hardier cultivars. For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important introductions have included Haralson (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), Wealthy, Honeygold, and Honeycrisp. The sweetness and texture of Honeycrisp have been so popular with consumers that Minnesota orchards have been cutting down their established, productive trees to make room for it, a heretofore unheard of practice.

Starting an orchard

Apple orchards are established by planting two to four year old trees. These small trees are usually purchased from a nursery where they are produced by grafting or budding. First, a rootstock is produced either as a seedling or cloned using tissue culture or layering. This is allowed to grow for a year. Then, a small section of branch called a scion is obtained from a mature apple tree of the desired cultivar. The upper stem and branches of the rootstock are cut away and replaced with the scion. In time, the two sections grow together and produce a healthy tree. Rootstocks affect the ultimate size of the tree. While many rootstocks are available to commercial grower, those sold to homeowners who want just a few trees are usually one of two cultivars: a standard seedling rootstock that gives a full-size tree, or a semi-dwarf rootstock that produces a somewhat smaller tree. Dwarf rootstocks are generally more susceptible to damage from wind and cold. Full dwarf trees are often supported of posts or trellises and planted in high density orchards which are much simpler to culture and greatly increase productivity per unit of land. Dwarf Dwarf Some trees are produced with a dwarfing "interstem" between a standard rootstock and the tree, resulting in two grafts. After the small tree is planted in the orchard, it must grow for 3-5 years (semi-dwarf) or 4-10 years (standard trees) before it will bear sizable amounts of fruit. Good training of limbs and careful nipping of buds growing in the wrong places, are extremely important during this time, to build a good scaffold that will later support a fruit load.

Location

Apples are relatively indifferent to soil conditions and will grow in a wide range of pH values and fertility levels. They do require some protection from the wind and should not be planted in low areas that are prone to late spring frosts. Apples do require good drainage, and heavy soils or flat land should be tilled to make certain that the root systems are never in saturated soil.

Pollination

Apples are self-incompatible and must be cross-pollinated to develop fruit. Pollination management is an important component of apple culture. Before planting, it is important to arrange for pollenizers, cultivars of apple or crab apple that provide plentiful, viable and compatible pollen. Orchard blocks may alternate rows of compatible cultivars, or may have periodic crab apple trees, or grafted-on limbs of crab apple. Some cultivars produce very little pollen, or the pollen is sterile, so these are not good pollenizers. Quality nurseries have pollenizer compatibility lists. Growers with old orchard blocks of single cultivars sometimes provide bouquets of crab apple blossoms in drums or pails in the orchard for pollenizers. Home growers with a single tree, and no other cultivars in the neighborhood can do the same on a smaller scale. During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide pollinators to carry the pollen. Honeybee hives are most commonly used, and arrangements may be made with a commercial beekeeper who supplies hives for a fee. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Home growers may find these more acceptable in suburban locations because they do not sting. Some wild bees such as carpenter bees and other solitary bees may help. Bumble bee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators. Symptoms of inadequate pollination are small and misshapen apples, slowness to ripen, and low seed count. Well pollinated apples are the best quality, and will have 7 to 10 seeds. Apples having less than 3 seeds will usually not mature and will drop from the trees in the early summer. Inadequate pollination can result from either a lack of pollinators or pollenizers, or from poor pollinating weather at flowering time. It generally requires multiple bee visits to deliver sufficient grains of pollen to accomplish complete pollination. A common problem is a late frost that destroys the delicate outer structures of the flower. It is best to plant apples on a slope for air drainage, but not on a south facing slope (in the northern hemisphere) as this will encourage early flowering and increase susceptibility to frost. If the frost is not too severe, the tree can be wetted with water spray before the morning sun hits the flowers, and it may save them. Frost damage can be evaluated 24 hours after the frost. If the pistil has turned black, the flower is ruined and will not produce fruit. Growing apples near a body of water gives an advantage by slowing spring warm up, which retards flowering until frost is less likely. Areas of the USA, such as the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, the southern shore of Lake Ontario, and around some smaller lakes, where this cooling effect of water, combined with good, well-drained soils, has made apple growing concentrations possible in these areas. Home growers may not have a body of water to help, but can utilize north slopes or other geographical features to retard spring flowering. Apples (or any fruit) planted on a south facing slope in the northern hemisphere (or north facing in the southern hemisphere), will flower early and be particularly vulnerable to spring frost.

Thinning

Apples are prone to biennial bearing. If the fruit is not thinned when the tree carries a large crop, it may produce very little flower the following year. Good thinning helps even out the cycle, so that a reasonable crop can be grown every year.

Pests and diseases

The trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests. Nearly all commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which reduces needless spraying when pests are not present, or more likely, are being controlled by natural predators. Spraying for insect pests must never be done during flowering because it kills pollinators. Nor should bee-attractive plants be allowed to establish in the orchard floor if insecticides are used. White clover is a component of many grass seed mixes, and many bees are poisoned by insecticides while visiting the flowers on the orchard floor. Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and Gymnosporangium rust, apple scab, and black spot, three fungal diseases. The plum curculio is the most serious insect pest. Others include Apple maggot and codling moth. For other Lepidoptera larvae which feed on apple trees, see List of Lepidoptera which feed on Malus. Apples are difficult to grow organically, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success, using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is to spray a light coating of kaolin clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald.

Harvest

Mature trees typically bear 100-200 kg (5-10 bushels) of apples each year. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. A few cultivars, left unpruned, will grow to be extremely large, causing them to bear a great deal of fruit that is difficult to harvest. Dwarf trees will bear about 50-100 kg (3-5 bushels) of fruit per year. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock.

Commerce and uses

bushel 45 million metric tons of apples were grown worldwide in 2002, with a value of about 10 billion USD. China produced almost half of this total. Argentina is the second leading producer, with more than 15% o fthe world production. The United States is the third leading producer, accounting for 7.5% of world production. Turkey is also a leading producer. France, Italy, South Africa and Chile are among the leading apple exporters. In the United States, more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in Washington state. Imported apples from New Zealand and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year. Apples can be canned, juiced, and optionally fermented to produce apple juice, cider, vinegar, and pectin. Distilled apple cider produces the spirits applejack and Calvados. Apple wine can also be made. They make a popular lunchbox fruit as well. Apples are an important ingredient in many winter desserts, for example apple pie, apple crumble, apple crisp and apple cake. They are often eaten baked or stewed, and they can also be dried and eaten or re-consitituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Puréed apples are generally known as apple sauce. Apples are also made into apple butter and apple jelly. They are also used cooked in meat dishes. In the UK, a toffee apple is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot toffee and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are candy apples (coated in a hard shell of crystallized sugar syrup), and caramel apples, coated with cooled caramel. Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of Rosh Hashanah to symbolize a sweet new year.

Health benefits

Apples have long been considered healthy, as indicated by the proverb an apple a day keeps the doctor away. Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. They may also help with heart disease, weight loss and controlling cholesterol. A group of chemicals in apples could protect the brain from the type of damage that triggers such neurodegenerative diseases as Alzheimer's and Parkinsonism. Chang Y. "Cy" Lee of Cornell University found that the apple phenolics, which are naturally occurring antioxidants found in fresh apples, can protect nerve cells from neurotoxicity induced by oxidative stress. The researchers used red delicious apples grown in New York state to provide the extracts to study the effects of phytochemicals. Lee said that all apples are high in the critical phytonutrients and that the amount of phenolic compounds in the apple flesh and in the skin vary from year to year, season to season and from growing region to growing region (November/December 2004 issue of the Journal of Food Science). Apples are historically known for producing "apple milk". A derivative of apple curd, apple milk is widely used throughout Tibet.

Cultural aspects

;Apples as symbols antioxidants Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical and forbidden fruit. One of the Greek hero Heracles' Twelve Labours was to travel to the Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the Tree of Life growing at its center. In Norse mythology, Iðunn was the keeper of the 'apples of immortality' which kept the Gods young. The 'fruit-bearing tree' referred to by Tacitus in his description of Norse runic divination may have been the apple, or the rowan. This tradition is also reflected in the book of Genesis. Though the forbidden fruit in that account is not identified, popular European Christian tradition has held that it was an apple that Eve incited Adam to share with her. The influence of the antiquity was still strong, and the pagan symbology was absorbed into the new religion. This tradition was reflected in artistic renderings of the fall from Eden. The larynx in the human throat has been called Adam's apple because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam. Celtic mythology includes a story about Conle who receives an apple which feeds him for a year but also makes him irresistibly desire fairyland. fairy.]] Another reason for the adoption of the apple as Christian symbol is that in Latin, the words for "apple" and for "evil" are identical (malum). It is often used to symbolize the fall into sin, or sin itself. When Christ is portrayed holding an apple, he represents the Second Adam who brings life. When held in Adam's hand, the apple symbolizes sin. This also reflects the evolution of the symbol in religion. In the Old Testament the apple was significant of the fall of man; in the New Testament it is an emblem of the redemption from that fall, and as such is also represented in pictures of the Madonna and Infant Jesus. Another Greek mythological figure, Paris, had to give a golden apple inscribed Kallisti "To the most beautiful one", (which had come from the goddess of discord, Eris) to the most beautiful goddess, thus indirectly causing the Trojan War. Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, was distracted during a race by three golden apples thrown for that purpose by a suitor, Hippomenes. In ancient Greece, throwing an apple at a person's bed was an invitation for sexual intercourse. Another instance in Roman and Greek mythology is the story of the Pleiades. At times artists would co-opt the apple, as well as other religious symbology, whether for ironic effect or as a stock element of symbolic vocabulary. Thus, secular art as well made use of the apple as symbol of love and sexuality. It is often an attribute associated with Venus who is shown holding it. The ancient Kazakh city of Almaty, 'Father of Apples' (Turkic language alma, apple, + ata, father), owes its name to the forests of wild apples (Malus sieversii) found naturally in the area. The apple blossom is the state flower of Arkansas and Michigan. Michigan The name of the Russian party Yabloko means "apple". Its logo represents an apple in the constructivist style. ;Traditions Swiss folklore holds that William Tell courageously shot an apple from his son's head with his crossbow, defying a tyrannical ruler and bringing freedom to his people. Irish folklore claims that if an apple is peeled into one continuous ribbon and thrown behind a woman's shoulder, it will land in the shape of the future husband's initials. Danish folklore says that apples wither around adulterers. In some places, dunking for apples is a traditional Halloween activity. Apples are said to increase a woman's chances of conception as well as remove birthmarks when rubbed on the skin. In the United States, Denmark and Sweden, an apple (polished) is a traditional gift for a teacher. This stemmed from the fact that teachers during the 16th to 18th centuries were poorly paid, so parents would compensate the teacher by providing food. As apples were a very common crop, teachers would often be given baskets of apples by students. As wages increased, the quantity of apples was toned down to a single fruit.

External links and references

- [http://www.nutritiondata.com/foods-apple009000000000000000000.html Complete nutritional info.]
- [http://www.allaboutapples.com/varieties/ Over 700 apple variety listings] from AllAboutApples.com
- Wild apples in Kazakhstan: [http://www.ars.usda.gov/Aboutus/docs.htm?docid=6310 1995] and [http://www.ars.usda.gov/Aboutus/docs.htm?docid=6311 1996] expeditions
- [http://www.webvalley.co.uk/brogdale/collectionapples.php Over 2000 apples] in the UK's National Fruit Collections
- [http://www.usapple.org/consumers/appleguide/guide.shtml U.S Apple Association Guide] with some years and places of cultivar origins
- [http://www.ifr.bbsrc.ac.uk/public/FoodInfoSheets/applefacts.html Apple Facts] from the UK's Institute of Food Research
- [http://www.ba.ars.usda.gov/hb66/027apple.pdf An article about storing apples and the effects. Good for those interested in shipping apples.] from the Agricultural Research Service
- [http://www.orangepippin.com Apple flavours and descriptions] from OrangePippin.com Category:Agriculture ja:リンゴ simple:Apple

United States Department of Agriculture

The U.S. Department of Agriculture, also called the Agriculture Department, or USDA, is a Cabinet department of the United States Federal Government. Its purpose is to develop and execute policy on farming, agriculture, and food. It aims to meet the needs of farmers and ranchers, promote agricultural trade and production, work to assure food safety, protect natural resources, foster rural communities, also to meet the needs of the American people, and end hunger, in America and abroad.

History

The United States had a largely agrarian economy early in its history. Officials in the federal government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants, and animals for importation to the United States. In 1836 Henry L. Ellsworth, a man interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents, a position within the Department of State. He soon began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839 Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for "the collection of agricultural statistics and other agricultural purposes." Ellsworth's interest in aiding agriculture was evident in his annual reports that called for a public depository to preserve and distribute the various new seeds and plants, a clerk to collect agricultural statistics, the preparation of statewide reports about crops in different regions, and the application of chemistry to agriculture. In 1849 the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior. In the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the Department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Department of the Interior On May 15, 1862 President Abraham Lincoln established the independent Bureau of Agriculture to be headed by a Commissioner without cabinet status. Lincoln called it the "people's department." In the 1880s, varied special interest groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry. Farmers tried to raise the Bureau of Agriculture to Cabinet rank. In 1887, the House and Senate passed bills creating a Department of Agriculture and Labor, but farm interests objected to the inclusion of labor, and the bill was killed in conference. Finally, on February 9, 1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law establishing the Cabinet level Department of Agriculture. During the Great Depression, farming remained a common way of life for millions of Americans. The Deparment of Agriculture was crucial to providing concerned persons with the assistance that they needed to make it through this diffucult period, helping to ensure that food continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisting with loans for small landowners, and contributing to the education of the rural youth. In this way, the Department of Agriculture became a source of comfort as people struggled to survive in rural areas. Today, many of the programs concerned with the distribution of food to the hungry people of America and providing nourishment to those in need are run and operated under the Department of Health and Human Services. The USDA now primarily concerns itself with assisting farmers with the sale of crops on both a domestic and world market. The USDA is administered by the United States Secretary of Agriculture.

Operating units

United States Secretary of Agriculture]]
- Extension Service of the USDA
- Farm Service Agency (FSA)
- Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS)
- Risk Management Agency (RMA)
- Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS)
- Forest Service (FS)
- Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
- Rural Business-Cooperative Service (RBS)
- Office of Community Development (OCD)
- Rural Housing Service (RHS)
- Rural Utilities Service (RUS)
- Food and Nutrition Service (FNS)
- Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP)
- Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS)
- Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)
- Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration (GIPSA)
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS)
- Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES)
- Economic Research Service (ERS)
- National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS)
- Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS)

Related legislation

Important legislation setting policy of the USDA includes the:
- 1890, 1891, 1897, 1906 Meat Inspection Act
- 1906 - Pure Food and Drug Act
- 1914 - Cotton Futures Act
- 1916 - Federal Farm Loan Act
- 1917 - Food Control and Production Acts
- 1921 - Packers and Stockyards Acts
- 1922 - Grain Futures Act
- 1922 - National Agricultural Conference
- 1923 - Agricultural Credits Act
- 1933 - Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)
- 1933 - Farm Credit Act
- 1935 - Resettlement Administration
- 1936 - Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act
- 1937 - Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act
- 1941 - National Victory Garden Program
- 1941 - Steagall Amendment
- 1946 - Farmers Home Administration
- 1946 - National School Lunch Act PL 79-396
- 1946 - Research and Marketing Act
- 1948 - Hope-Aiken Agriculture Act PL 80-897
- 1956 - Soil Bank Program authorized
- 1957 - Poultry Inspection Act
- 1947 - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act PL 80-104
- 1949 - Agricultural Act PL 81-439
- 1954 - Food for Peace Act PL 83-480
- 1954 - Agricultural Act PL 83-690
- 1956 - Mutual Security Act PL 84-726
- 1957 - Poultry Products Inspection Act PL 85-172
- 1958 - Food Additives Amendment PL 85-929
- 1958 - Humane Slaughter Act
- 1958 - Agricultural Act PL 85-835
- 1961 - Agricultural Act PL 87-128
- 1964 - Agricultural Act PL 88-297
- 1964 - Food Stamp Act PL 88-525
- 1964 - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act Extension PL 88-305
- 1965 - Appalachian Regional Development Act
- 1965 - Food and Agriculture Act PL 89-321
- 1966 - Child Nutrition Act PL 89-642
- 1967 - Wholesome Meat Act PL 90-201
- 1968 - Wholesome Poultry Products Act PL 90-492
- 1970 - Agricultural Act PL 91-524
- 1972 - Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act PL 92-516
- 1970 - Environmental Quality Improvement Act
- 1970 - Food Stamp Act PL 91-671
- 1972 - Rural Development Act
- 1972 - Rural Development Act Reform 3.31
- 1972 - National School Lunch Act Amendments (Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children) PL 92-433
- 1973 - Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act PL 93-86
- 1974 - Safe Drinking Water Act PL 93-523
- 1977 - Food and Agriculture Act PL 95-113
- 1996 - Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act PL 104-127
- 1996 - Food Quality Protection Act PL 104-170
- 2002 - Farm Security and Rural Investment Act PL 107-171

External links

- [http://www.usda.gov/ United States Department of Agriculture]
- [http://www.usda.gov/history2/text11.htm History of American Agriculture]
- [http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/ USDA National Nutrient Database]
- [http://www.elook.org/nutrition/ eLook Nutrition] - Provides the complete USDA nutritional database online along with search feature.
- [http://www.colby.edu/sts/97guide/nara07-18.html National Archives document of the USDA's origins]
- [http://releases.usnewswire.com/GetRelease.asp?id=33830 Report: USDA Regulatory Policy Has Been 'Hijacked' by Agribusiness Industry] - July 23, 2004. Agriculture

Energy

Energy is a measure of being able to do work. This is a fundamental concept pertaining to the ability for action. In physics, it is a quantity that every physical system possesses. This quantity is not absolute but relative to a state of the system known as its reference state or reference level. The energy of a physical system is defined as the amount of mechanical work that the system can produce if it changes its state to its reference state; for example if a liter of water cools down to 0°C or if a car hits a tree and decelerates from 120 km/h to 0 km/h. Energy of an object can be in several forms, potential—due to the position of the object relative to other objects; kinetic—energy because of its motion; chemical—due to chemical bonds between atoms that make up the substance; electrical—due to its charge; thermal—due to its heat; and nuclear—due to the instability of the nuclei of its atoms. In the case where the "object" is an electromagnetic wave or light, then radiant energy can also be defined. One form of energy can be readily transformed into another; for instance, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy, which can be converted into thermal energy. Similarly, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy of moving water and turbine in a dam, which in turn transforms into electric energy by generator. The law of conservation of energy states that in a closed system the total amount of energy, corresponding to the sum of a system's constituent energy components, remains constant. This law follows from translational symmetry of time (that is, independence of any physical process on the moment it started). Some works (thus some forms of energy) are not easily measured by the unaided observer. The term 'energy' is also used in a spiritual or non-scientific way that cannot be quantified, to make certain prepositions look like they are more plausible, by imitating the scientific terminology. Usually this has something to do with mystical and/or healing type references such as acupuncture and reiki.

Forms of Energy

Below is a list of different energy forms. Lotka (1956, p. 5) asked an interesting question about what defines an energy form. :"We are equipped with two separate and distinct senses, the one responding to electromagnetic waves ranging from about 4×10^-4 to 8×10^-4 mm., light waves; the other to somewhat longer waves otherwise of the same character, heat waves. Accordingly we have two separate terms in our language light and heat, to denote two phenomena which, objectively considered, are not separated by any line of division, but merge into one another by gradual transition. Here the question might be raised whether an electromagnetic wave of a length of 9×10^-4 mm. is a light wave or a heat wave." That is to ask, if all forms of energy are defined in terms of infinitesimal increments of the wave spectrum, what makes one form of energy different to another?
- Kinetic energy: the energy of moving objects
- Thermal energy: the energy associated with heat
- Sound energy: the energy of compression waves
- Electrical energy: the energy of moving charged particles
- Potential Energy: the energy that an object has due to position; also known as stored energy
- Chemical energy: the stored energy of chemical substances
- Nuclear energy: the stored energy of the atomic nucleus
- Radiant energy: the energy of electromagnetic waves, including light

Units

SI

The SI unit for both energy and work is the joule (J), named in honour of James Prescott Joule and his experiments on the mechanical equivalent of heat. In slightly more fundamental terms, 1 joule is equal to 1 newton-metre and, in terms of SI base units:

1\ \mathrm = 1\ \mathrm \left( \frac \right ) ^ 2 = 1\ \frac

An energy unit that is used in particle physics is the electronvolt (eV). One eV is equivalent to 1.60217653×10⁻¹⁹ J. In spectroscopy the unit cm^-1 = 0.0001239 eV is used to represent energy since energy is inversely proportional to wavelength from the equation

E = h \nu = h c/\lambda

. (Note that torque, which is typically expressed in newton-metres, has the same dimension and this is not a simple coincidence: a torque of 1 newton-metre applied on 1 radian requires exactly 1 newton-metre=joule of energy.)

Other units of energy

In cgs units, one erg is 1 g cm² s⁻², equal to 1.0×10⁻⁷ J. Another obsolete metric unit is the litre-atmosphere (101.325 J). The imperial/US units for both energy and work include the foot-pound force (1.3558 J), the British thermal unit (Btu) which has various values in the region of 1055 J, and the horsepower-hour (2.6845 MJ). The energy unit used for everyday electricity, particularly for utility bills, is the kilowatt-hour (kW h), and one kW h is equivalent to 3.6×10⁶ J (3600 kJ or 3.6 MJ; the metric units usually are self-consistent, and this particular one may seem arbitrary; it's not, the metric measurement for time is the second, and there are 3,600 seconds in an hour -- in other words, 1 kW second = 1 kJ, but the kW h is a more convenient unit for everyday use). The calorie is mainly used in nutrition and equals the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius, at a pressure of 1 atm. This amount of heat depends somewhat on the initial temperature of the water, which results in various different units sharing the name of "calorie" but having slightly different energy values. It is equal to 4.1868 kJ. The calories used for food energy in nutrition are the large calories based on the kilogram rather than the gram, often identified as food calories. These are sometimes called kilocalories with that calorie being the small calorie based on the gram, and as a result the prefixes are generally avoided for the large calories (i.e., 1 kcal is 4.184 kJ, never 4.184 MJ, even if "calories" are also used for the other, larger unit in the same document or the same nutrition label). Food calories are sometimes noted as Calories (1000 calories) or simply abbreviated Cal with the capital C, but that convention is more often found in chemistry or physics textbooks—which do not use these large calories—than it is in real-world applications by those who do use these calories. (This convention is also, of course, useless when the word calorie appears in a location where it would ordinarily be capitalized, as at the beginning of a sentence or in the first column of a nutrition label as a substitute for the quantity being measured, which is energy, when all the other quantities such as "Iron" and "Sugars" are also capitalized.)

Transfer of energy

Work

Main article: mechanical work. Work is a defined as a path integral of force F over distance s: :

W = \int \mathbf \cdot \mathrm\mathbf

The equation above says that the work (

W

) is equal to the integral of the dot product of the force (

\mathbf

) on a body and the infinitesimal of the body's position (

\mathbf

Heat

Main article: Heat. Heat is the common name for thermal energy of an object that is due to the motion of the atoms and molecules that constitute the object. This motion can be translational (motion of molecules or atoms as a whole; vibrational - relative motion of atoms within molecules or rotational motion. It is the form of energy which is usually linked with a change in temperature or in a change in phase of matter. In chemistry, heat is the amount of energy which is absorbed or released when atoms are rearranged between various molecules by a chemical reaction. The relationship between heat and energy is similar to that between work and energy. Heat flows from areas of high temperature to areas of low temperature. All objects (matter) have a certain amount of internal energy that is related to the random motion of their atoms or molecules. This internal energy is directly proportional to the temperature of the object. When two bodies of different temperature come in to thermal contact, they will exchange internal energy until the temperature is equalised. The amount of energy transferred is the amount of heat exchanged. It is a common misconception to confuse heat with internal energy, but there is a difference: the change of the internal energy is the heat that flows from the surroundings into the system plus the work performed by the surroundings on the system. Heat Energy is transferred in three different ways: conduction, convection and/or radiation.

Conservation of energy

The first law of thermodynamics says that the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. This law is used in all branches of physics, but frequently violated by quantum mechanics (see off shell). Noether's theorem relates the conservation of energy to the time invariance of physical laws. An example of the conversion and conservation of energy is a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the potential gravitational energy is at its maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at its maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one unrealistically assumes that there is no friction, the energy will be conserved and the pendulum will continue swinging forever. (In practice, available energy is never perfectly conserved when a system changes state; otherwise, the creation of perpetual motion machines would be possible.) Another example is a chemical explosion in which potential chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy and heat in a very short time.

Types of energy

All forms of energy: thermal, chemical, electrical, radiant, nuclear etc. can be in fact reduced to kinetic energy or potential energy. For example thermal energy is essentially kinetic energy of atoms and molecules; chemical energy can be visualized to be the potential energy of atoms within molecules; electrical energy can be visualized to be the potential and kinetic energy of electrons; similarly nuclear energy is the potential energy of nucleons in atomic nucleii.

Kinetic energy

Main article: Kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the portion of energy related to the motion. :

E_k = \int \mathbf \cdot \mathrm\mathbf

The equation above says that the kinetic energy (

E_k

) is equal to the integral of the dot product of the velocity (

\mathbf

) of a body and the infinitesimal of the body's momentum (

\mathbf

). For non-relativistic velocities, that is velocities much smaller than the speed of light, we can use the Newtonian approximation :

E_k = \begin \frac \end mv^2

where E_k is kinetic energy m is mass of the body v is velocity of the body At near-light velocities, we use the correct relativistic formula: :

E_k = m c^2 (\gamma - 1) = \gamma m c^2 - m c^2 \;\!

\gamma = \frac

where v is the velocity of the body m is its rest mass c is the speed of light in a vacuum, which is approximately 300,000 kilometers per second

\gamma m c^2 \,

is the total energy of the body

m c^2 \,

is again the rest mass energy. See also, E=mc². In the form of a Taylor series, the relativistic formula for can be written as: :

E_k = \frac mv^2 - \frac \frac  + \cdots

Hence, the second and higher terms in the series correspond with the "inaccuracy" of the Newtonian approximation for kinetic energy in relation to the relativistic formula. However, the phrase "conservation of energy" is often confusing to a non scientist. This is so, because of the common usage of the terms "save energy" or conserve energy" used in campaigns for conservation of energy resources like electricity or fossil fuels.

Potential energy

Main article: Potential energy. In contrast to kinetic energy, which is the energy of a system due to its motion, or the internal motion of its particles, the potential energy of a system is the energy associated with the spatial configuration of its components and their interaction with each other. Any number of particles which exert forces on each other automatically constitute a system with potential energy. Such forces, for example, may arise from electrostatic interaction (see Coulomb's law), or gravity. In an isolated system consisting of two stationary objects that exert a force

f(x)

on each other and lay on the x-axis, their potential energy is most generally defined as :

E_p = -\int f(x) \, dx

where the force between the objects varies only with distance

x

and is integrated along the line connecting the two objects. To further illustrate the relationship between force and potential energy, consider the same system of two objects situated along the x-axis. If the potential energy due to one of the objects at any point

x

U(x)

, then the force on the that object

x

is :

f(x) = -\frac

This mathematical relationship demonstrates the direct connection between force and potential energy: the force between two objects is in the direction of decreasing potential energy, and the magnitude of the force is proportional to the extent to which potential energy decreases. A large force is associated with a large decrease in potential energy, while a small force is associated with a small decrease in potential energy. Notice how, in this case, the force on an object depends entirely on its potential energy. These two relationships – the definition of potential energy based on force, and the dependence of force on potential energy – show how the concepts of force and potential energy are intimately linked: if two objects do not exert forces on each other, there is no potential energy between them. If two objects do exert forces on each other, then potential energy naturally arises in the system as part of the system's total energy. Since potential energy arises from forces, any change in the system's spatial configuration will either increase or decrease the system's potential energy as the objects are repositioned. When a system moves to a lower potential energy state, energy is either released in some form or converted into another form of energy, such as kinetic energy. The potential energy can be "stored" as gravitational energy, elastic energy, chemical energy, rest mass energy or electrical energy, but arises in all cases from the spatial positioning and interaction of objects within a system. Unlike kinetic energy, which exists in any moving body, potential energy exists in any body which is interacting with another object. For example a mass released above the Earth initially has potential energy resulting from the gravitational attraction of the Earth, which is transferred to kinetic energy as the gravitational force acts on the object and its potential energy is decreased as it falls. Equation: :

E_p = mgh \;

where m is the mass, h is the height and g is the value of acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface (see gee).

Internal energy

Main article: Internal energy. Internal energy is the kinetic energy associated with the motion of molecules, and the potential energy associated with the rotational, vibrational and electric energy of atoms within molecules. Internal energy, like energy, is a quantifiable state function of a system.

History

In the past, energy was discussed in terms of easily observable effects it has on the properties of objects or changes in state of various systems. Basically, if something changed, some sort of energy was involved in that change. As it was realized that energy could be stored in objects, the concept of energy came to embrace the idea of the potential for change as well as change itself. Such effects (both potential and realized) come in many different forms; examples are the electrical energy stored in a battery, the chemical energy stored in a piece of food, the thermal energy of a water heater, or the kinetic energy of a moving train. To simply say energy is "change or the potential for change", however, misses many important examples of energy as it exists in the physical world. The concept of energy and work are relatively new additions to the physicist’s toolbox. Neither Galileo nor Newton made any contributions to the theoretical model of energy, and it was not until the middle of the 19th century that these concepts were introduced. The development of steam engines required engineers to develop concepts and formulas that would allow them to describe the mechanical and thermal efficiencies of their systems. Engineers such as Sadi Carnot and James Prescott Joule, mathematicians such as Émile Claperyon and Hermann von Helmholtz , and amateurs such as Julius Robert von Mayer all contibuted to the notions that the ability to perform certain tasks, called work, was somehow related to the amount of energy in the system. The nature of energy was elusive, however, and it was argued for some years whether energy was a substance (the caloric) or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) amalgamated all of these laws into his laws of thermodynamics, which aided in the rapid development of energetic descriptions of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, Walther Nernst. In addition, this allowed Ludwig Boltzmann to describe entropy in mathematical terms, and to discuss, along with Jožef Stefan, the laws of radiant energy. For further information, see the Timeline of thermodynamics.

Energy and Economy

Main articles: energy development, energy policy The way in which humans use energy is one of the defining characteristics of an economy. The progression from animal power to steam power, then the internal combustion engine and electricity, are key elements in the development of modern civilization. Future energy development, for example of renewable energy, may be key to avoiding the effects of global warming.

Notes

This definition is one of the most common; e.g. [http://observe.arc.nasa.gov/nasa/space/stellardeath/stellardeath_6.html Glossary at the NASA homepage]

External links

- [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/energy.html Online Energy and Work Converter] - convert between various units of energy and work, such as joule, erg, gigawatt-hour, newton meter, calorie, Btu, and so on
- [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/energy-v.html Interactive Energy and Work Conversion Table] - convert selected unit to all other units of energy and work
- [http://jumk.de/calc/energy.shtml Conversions of energy units]
- [http://www.physicsweb.org/article/world/15/7/2 What does energy really mean? From Physics World]
- [http://www.energy.ca.gov/glossary/ Glossary of Energy Terms]
- [http://www.iea.org International Energy Agency IEA - OECD] Category:Introductory physics Category:Fundamental physics concepts Category:Physical quantity ko:에너지 ms:Tenaga ja:エネルギー simple:Energy th:พลังงาน

Lipid

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid. Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below. Phospholipids or, more precisely, glycerophospholipids, are built on a glycerol core to which are linked two fatty acid-derived "tails" by ester linkages and one "head" group by a phosphate ester linkage. Fatty acids are unbranched hydrocarbon chains, connected by single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both single and double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). The chains are usually 10-24 carbon groups long. The head groups of the phospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine (lecithin), phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol, whose head group can be modified by the addition of one to three more phosphate groups. While phospholipids are the major component of biological membranes, other lipid components like sphingolipids and sterols (such as cholesterol in animal cell membranes) are also found in biological membranes. In an aqueous milieu, the heads of lipids tend to face the polar, aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails tend to minimize their contact with water. The nonpolar tails of lipids (U) tend to cluster together, forming a lipid bilayer (1) or a micelle (2). The polar heads (P) face the aqueous environment. Micelles form when single-tailed amphiphilic lipids are placed in a polar milieu, while lipid bilayers form when two-tailed phospholipids are placed in a polar environment (Fig. 2). Micelles are "monolayer" spheres and can only reach a certain size, whereas bilayers can be considerably larger. They can also form tubules. Bilayers that fold back upon themselves form a hollow sphere, enclosing an a separate aqueous compartment, which is essentially the basis of cellular membranes. Micelles and bilayers separate out from the polar milieu by a process known as the "hydrophobic effect." When dissolving a nonpolar substance in a polar environment, the polar molecules (i.e. water in an aqueous solution) become more ordered around the dissolved nonpolar substance, since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the nonpolar molecule. Therefore, in an aqueous environment, the polar water molecules form an ordered "clathrate" cage around the dissolved nonpolar molecule. However, when the nonpolar molecules separate out from the polar liquid, the entropy (state of disorder) of the polar molecules in the liquid increases. This is essentially a form of phase separation, similar to the spontaneous separation of oil and water into two separate phases when one puts them together. entropy on the right.]] The self-organisation depends on the concentration of the lipid present in solution. Below the critical micelle concentration the lipids form a single layer on the liquid surface and are dispersed in solution. At the first critical micelle concentration (CMC-I), the lipids organise in spherical micelles, at the second critical micelle concentration (CMC-II) into elongated pipes, and at the lamellar point (LM or CMC-III) into stacked lamellae of pipes. The CMC depends on the chemical composition, mainly on the ratio of the head area and the tail length. Lipid bilayers form the foundation of all biological membranes and of liposomes.

External links

- [http://www.apollolipids.org/ ApolloLipids - Provides dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment information as well as continuing medical education programs.]
- [http://www.biochemweb.org/lipids_membranes.shtml Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
- [http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/class/lipid.html IUPAC glossary entry for the lipid class of molecules] what is IUPAC? ja:脂質 th:ไลปิด

Ash

Ash may mean:
- Ash, the unburnable solid remains of a fire
- Ash (analytical chemistry), one of the components in the proximate analysis of biological materials, consisting mainly of carbonates and bicarbonates of metals
- Ash (band), a British rock band
- Ash (god), a hawk-god of the Sahara Desert in Egyptian mythology
- Ash tree, any tree of the genus Fraxinus
- Mountain Ash, any of various trees not in the Fraxinus genus
- Aishwarya Rai, actress from India popular by the nickname of Ash
- Volcanic ash, rocky powder material ejected from a volcano
- Ash (video game), a forthcoming video game for the Nintendo DS, by Square Enix
- Ash (comic), created by Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, published by Event Comics Ash may also be:
- Æ, a letter from Old English commonly called "ash"
- near-open front unrounded vowel, the sound that æ (lowercase ash) corresponds to in the International Phonetic Alphabet
- Almquist shell, a command-line interface for computers running some variants of the Unix operating system
- alt.suicide.holiday, a Usenet newsgroup
- Action on Smoking and Health, an anti-smoking charitable organisation
- The NATO reporting name of the Bisnovat R-4 air-to-air missile Ash is also the name of: Places in the United Kingdom:
- Ash, Sevenoaks, in Kent, England
- Ash, Dover (Ash-next-Sandwich), Kent, England
- Ash, Derbyshire, England
- Ash, Somerset, England
- Ash, Surrey, England Places in the United States:
- Ash, Texas in Houston County, Texas
- Ash, Missouri in Monroe County, Missouri
- Ash, North Carolina in Brunswick County, North Carolina
- Ash, Ohio in Licking County, Ohio
- Ash, Washington in Walla Walla County, Washington
- Ash, Oregon in Douglas County, Oregon
- Ash, West Virginia in Mason County, West Virginia
- Ash, Georgia in Paulding County, Georgia Fictional characters:
- Ash Williams, the anti-hero of the Evil Dead trilogy
- Ash Ketchum, the protagonist in the Pokémon series
- Ash, the phantom guardian of Marona in Phantom Brave
- Science Officer Ash, the science officer of the Nostromo in the 1979 film Alien

Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms. They consist of monosaccharide sugars of varying chain lengths and that have the general chemical formula C_n(H₂O)_n or are derivatives of such. Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals. Carbohydrates are classified by the number of sugar units into monosacchharides (such as glucose), disaccharides (such as saccharose), oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose).

Structure

cellulose)]] cellulose)]] Pure carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, in a 1:2:1 molar ratio, giving the general formula C_n(H₂O)_n. (This applies only to monosaccharides, see below, although all carbohydrates have the more general formula C_n(H₂O)_m.) However, many important "carbohydrates" deviate from this, such as deoxyribose and glycerol, although they are not, in the strict sense, carbohydrates. Sometimes compounds containing other elements are also counted as carbohydrates (e.g. chitin, which contains nitrogen). The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, which are small straight-chain aldehydes and ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon except the functional group. Other carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharide units and break down under hydrolysis. These may be classified as disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides, depending on whether they have two, several, or many monosaccharide units..

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides may be divided into aldoses, which have an aldehyde group on the first carbon atom, and ketoses, which typically have a ketone group on the second. They may also be divided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and so forth, depending on how many carbon atoms they contain. For instance, glucose is an aldohexose, fructose a ketohexose, and ribose an aldopentose. Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (except for the first and last) is optically active, allowing a number of different carbohydrates with the same basic structure. For instance, galactose is an aldohexose but has different properties from glucose because the atoms are arranged differently. galactose) ]] The straight-chain structure described here is only one of the forms a monosaccharide may take. The aldehyde or ketone group

Apple/Nutritional information

External links

Apple (fruit)

Botanical origins

Apple cultivars

Growing apples

Apple breeding

Starting an orchard

Location

Pollination

Thinning

Pests and diseases

Harvest

Commerce and uses

Health benefits

Cultural aspects

See also

External links and references

United States Department of Agriculture

History

Operating units

Related legislation

See also

External links

Energy

Forms of Energy

Units

SI

Other units of energy

Transfer of energy

Work

Heat

Conservation of energy

Types of energy

Kinetic energy

Potential energy

Internal energy

History

Energy and Economy

See also

Energy in natural sciences

Energy resources

Other energy Topics

Further reading

Notes

External links

Lipid

See also

External links

Ash

See also

Carbohydrate

Structure

Monosaccharides