:: wikimiki.org ::

Hijaz

Hijaz

ŴHejaz (also Hijaz, Hedjaz; al-Ḥiǧāz) is a region in the northwest of present-day Saudi Arabia; its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better-known for the holy city of Mecca. As a region, The Hijaz, as it is often referred to, because of being the site of Islam's holy places, has significance in the Arab and Islamic historical and political landscape. Islamic Under the control of regional powers such as Egypt or the Ottoman Empire through most of its history, Hejaz enjoyed a brief period of political independence in the early 20th century. It was one of several regions of the Ottoman Empire provoked into rebellion by T. E. Lawrence ("of Arabia") of the British during World War I. In 1916 its independence was proclaimed by Husain ibn Ali, the Sherif of Makkah. In 1924, however, ibn Ali's authority was usurped by ibn Saud of the neighboring nation of Nejd and became known as the Kingdom of Hijaz and Nejd and later the Saudi Arabian state.

Saudi-Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest country on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Jordan on the north, Iraq on the north and north-east, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the south and south-east, and Yemen on the south, with the Persian Gulf to its north-east and the Red Sea to its west. It is called "the land of the two holy mosques", a reference to Mecca and Medina, Islam's two holiest places.

History

The Saudi state began in central Arabia in about 1750. A regional ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd Al-Wahhab, to create a new political entity. Over the next one hundred and fifty years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, and other Arabian families for control on the peninsula. The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (known internationally as Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud). In 1902 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud captured Riyadh, the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Ahsa, Al-Qatif, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. On 8 January 1926 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud became the King of Hijaz. On 29 January 1927 he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the Treaty of Jedda, signed on May 20, 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm, then known as the Kingdom of Hijaz and Nejd. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The discovery of oil in March 1938 transformed the country economically, and has given the kingdom great legitimacy over the years. Besides Liechtenstein, Saudi Arabia remains the only country in the world named after its ruling family. Many opponents of the House of Saud reject the family's legitimacy and decline to speak of the country as "Saudi Arabia".

Politics

House of Saud House of Saud The central institution of Saudi Arabian Government is the Saudi monarchy. The Basic Law adopted in 1992 declared that Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the first king, Abd Al Aziz Al Saud, and that the Holy Qur'an is the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a). There are no recognized political parties or national elections. The king is often classified as an absolute monarch, but his powers are theoretically limited within the bounds of Shari'a and other Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the Saudi royal family, religious leaders (ulema), and other important elements in Saudi society. The state's ideology is Salafi. This flavour of Islam spreads further by funding construction of mosques and Qur'an schools around the world. The leading members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent approval of the ulema. Saudi kings have gradually developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers, appointed by and responsible to the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. This council consists of a prime minister, the first and second deputy prime ministers, 20 ministers (of whom the minister of defense also is the second deputy prime minister), two ministers of state, and a small number of advisers and heads of major autonomous organizations. Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Shari'a (Islamic law). Justice is administered according to the Shari'a by a system of religious courts whose judges are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, composed of 12 senior jurists. The independence of the judiciary is protected by law. The king acts as the highest court of appeal and has the power to pardon. Access to high officials (usually at a majlis, or public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions. Saudi Municipal elections took place in 2005 as a first step to open the way to form political parties in the future. Saudi courts impose capital punishment and corporal punishment, including amputations of hands and feet for serious robbery, and floggings for lesser crimes such as "sexual deviance" (i.e. homosexuality) and drunkenness. The number of lashes is not clearly prescribed by law and varied according to the discretion of judges, and ranges from dozens of lashes to several thousand, usually applied over a period of weeks or months.In 2002, the United Nations Committee against Torture criticised Saudi Arabia over the amputations and floggings it carries out under the Shari'a. The Saudi delegation responded defending "legal traditions" held since the inception of Islam in the region 1400 years ago and rejected interference in its legal system. (Source: BBC, see [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=saudi+torture&btnG=Google+Search]) Religious police enforce a modest code of dress and many institutions from schools to ministries are gender-segregated. Homosexual men and women are prosecuted (sometimes publicly) and/or executed, if they are found to be engaging in same-sex sexual activities.

Provinces

Homosexual Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces (manatiq, singular - mintaqah). #Al Bahah #Al Hudud ash Shamaliyah #Al Jawf #Al Madinah #Al Gassim #Ar Riyad #Eastern Province #'Asir #Ha'il #Jizan #Makkah #Najran #Tabuk

Geography

Tabuk The kingdom occupies eighty percent of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country's boundaries with the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen are undefined, so the exact size of the country remains unknown. The Saudi government's estimate is 2,217,949 square kilometers (856,355 mi²). Other reputable estimates vary between 2,149,690 square kilometers (830,000 mi²) and 2,240,000 square kilometers (864,869 mi²). The climate is dry and hot. Dry desert with great extremes of temperature and the terrain is mostly uninhabited, sandy desert. In most parts of the country, vegetation is limited to weeds, xerophytic herbs and shrubs. Animals include the ibex, wildcats, baboons, wolves, and hyenas in the highlands. Small birds are found in the oases. The coastal area of the Red Sea, especially the coral reefs, have a rich marine fauna. Saudi Arabia has a coastline of 2,640 kilometers (1,640 mi). Saudi Arabia consists mostly of semi-desert and desert with oases. Almost half of the total country is uninhabitable desert with annual precipitation up to 100 millimetres (4 in) in most regions. The western regions are plateau and the east is lowland. The southwest region has mountains as high as 3000 metres (9,840 ft), and is an area is known for greenest and freshest climate in all of the country. The capital, Riyadh, which is to the center-east has an average temperature in July of 42ºC (108°F) and 14ºC (57°F) in January. In contrast, Jedda on the western coast has 31ºC (88°F) in July and 23ºC (73°F) in January. Less than 2 percent of the total area is suitable for cultivation, and in the early 1990s, population distribution varied greatly among the towns of the eastern and western coastal areas, the densely populated interior oases, and the vast, almost empty deserts, such as the Rub' al Khali (desert), the Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands. There are no permanent rivers and lakes in Saudi Arabia.

Economy

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Also: Oil boom (1974-85) Saudi Arabia has an oil-based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. Saudi Arabia is known to be in possession of 260.1 billion barrels of oil reserves as of 2003, about 24% of the world's proven total petroleum reserves. It ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum and plays a leading role in OPEC. Moreover, the proven reserves increase gradually as more oil fields are discovered, unlike most other oil-producing countries. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 75% of budget revenues, 40% of the GDP, and 90% of export earnings. About 35% of the GDP comes from the private sector. Saudi Arabia was a key player in the successful efforts of OPEC and other oil producing countries to raise the price of oil in 1999 to its highest level since the Gulf War by reducing production. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. The government is expected to continue calling for private sector growth to lessen the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment opportunities for the swelling Saudi population. Shortages of water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural products. In recent years, Saudi Arabia has experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income has fallen from $25,000 in 1980 to $8,000 in 2003, up from about $7,000 in 1999. The decline in inflation-adjusted per-capita income from 1980 to 1999 set a record, being by far the worst such decline suffered by any nation-state in history. Recently, with higher oil prices, however, Saudi Arabia's oil revenues have increased dramatically. Saudi Arabia's budget surplus has crossed $28 billion (SR110 billion) in 2005. The Tadawul (The Saudi stock market Index) (TASI) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23 percent to close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14 percent from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion (SR589.93 billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.‏ Saudi Arabia has officially become a WTO member in December 2005.

Forced labor

Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa seeking work. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from third world regions migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia. A minority of these immigrants are trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, begging, or involuntary servitude. Many of these involuntary workers suffer from abuse, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their freedom of movement and non-consensual contract alterations.

Demographics

wage Saudi Arabia's 2003 population is estimated to be about 24.3 million, including about 6.4 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or semi-nomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. The birth rate is 29.74 births per 1,000 people. The death rate is only 2.66 deaths per 1,000 people. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometre (2,600 /mi²). Most Saudis are ethnically Arab. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Malays, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of South and South East Asian expatriates mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of which live in compounds. According to the CIA World Fact Book, 100% of Saudi Arabias citizens are Muslims. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html#People] The exit and entry visa cards ask applicants for their religious affiliation and officially bans entry to atheists, Israelis or anyone with an official stamp from the State of Israel.

Culture

Israel]] Israel]] Israel
- Music of Saudi Arabia
- Islam in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian culture revolves almost entirely around the religion of Islam. Islam's two holiest sites, Mecca and Medina, are located in the country. Every day, five times a day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which dot the country. The weekend consists of Thursday and Friday. Islam itself derives from the same monotheistic roots as Judaism and Christianity, and traditionally Muslims generally regarded other religions with respect Jews and Christians are considered fellow 'People of the Book'. However the public practice of Christianity, the presence of churches and open possession of Christian religious materials are outlawed in Saudi Arabia. Israelis are also banned from entering the country. Islam's holy book The Qur'an is Saudi Arabia's constitution, and Shari'ah (Islamic law) is the foundation of its legal system. See Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia One of Saudi Arabia's most compelling folk rituals is the Ardha, the country's national dance. This sword dance is based on ancient Bedouin traditions: drummers beat out a rhythm and a poet chants verses while sword-carrying men dance shoulder to shoulder. Al-sihba folk music, from the Hijaz, has its origins in Arab Andalusia, a region of medieval Spain. In Mecca, Medina and Jeddah, dance and song incorporate the sound of the al-mizmar, an oboe-like woodwind instrument. The drum also an important instrument according to traditional and tribal customs. Saudi Arabian dress is strongly symbolic, representing the people's ties to the land, the past, and Islam. The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering garments reflect the practicalities of life in a desert country as well as Islam's emphasis on conservative dress. Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle-length shirt woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a ghutra (a large square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. However, Saudi women must wear a long cloak (abaya) and veil (niqab) when they leave the house to protect their modesty. The law does not apply to foreigners at such a high degree, but both men and women are told to dress modestly. Islam forbids the eating of pork and the drinking of alcohol, and this law is followed strictly throughout Saudi Arabia. Arabic unleavened bread, or khobz, is eaten with almost all meals. Other staples include cooked lamb, grilled chicken, felafel (deep-fried chickpea balls), shwarma (spit-cooked sliced lamb), and fuul (a paste of fava beans, garlic and lemon). Traditional coffee houses used to be ubiquitous, but are now being displaced by food-hall style cafes. Arabic tea is also a famous custom, which is used in both casual and formal meetings between friends, family and even strangers. The tea is black (without milk) and has herbal flavoring that comes in many variations. Public theatres and cinemas are prohibited, as Wahabbi tradition deems those institutions to be incompatible with Islam. However, in private compounds such as Dhahran and Ras Tanura public theaters can be found, but often are more popular for local music, arts, and theatre productions rather than the exhibition of motion pictures. Recently plans for some cinemas that will allow Arabic cartoons to be featured in cinemas for women and children were announced. The cultural heritage is celebrated at the annual Jenadriyah Cultural festival. An institution found in Saudi Arabia is the Mutaween, or religious police, also known as the Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice. There are 3,500 officers assisted by thousands of volunteers, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2399885.stm] whose job it is to enforce religious doctrine (Muslim Shari'a law as defined by the Saudi government) and to root out "un-Islamic" activities. They have the power to arrest any unrelated males and females caught socializing, and to ban consumer products and media, such as games and toys, various Western musical groups, and television shows. The Mutaween recently launched a website where people can file anonymous tips about "un-Islamic" activities. On March 11, 2002 the Mutaween prevented schoolgirls from escaping from their burning school in Mecca because the girls were not wearing headscarves and abayas (black robes). Fifteen girls died and 50 were injured as a result. There was widespread public criticism, and the Saudi government and religious leaders condemned the Mutaween for their actions. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm]. Although their influence and power has declined recently, they had been the focus of a few human rights concerns.

Miscellaneous topics

- Mecca
- Medina
- Communications in Saudi Arabia
- Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia
- Holidays in Saudi Arabia
- Insurgency in Saudi Arabia
- List of Arabian Houses
- List of cities in Saudi Arabia
- List of Saudi Arabian companies
- List of Saudi Arabian universities
- Military of Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Aramco
- Transportation in Saudi Arabia
- Human rights in Saudi Arabia
- Human trafficking in Saudi Arabia
- Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia
- Green Party of Saudi Arabia
- Irrigation in Saudi Arabia

Bibliography

- Baer, Robert, Sleeping With The Devil: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude (Crown, 2003) ISBN 1400050219
- Gold, Dore, Hatred's Kingdom : How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (Regnery Publishing, Inc. 2004) ISBN 0895260611
- Lippman, Thomas W. "Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia" (Westview 2004) ISBN 0813340527
- Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) ISBN 0395411653
- Ménoret, Pascal, The Saudi Enigma: A History (Zed Books, 2005) ISBN 1842776053
- al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 052164335

References

- [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/10/international/middleeast/10saudi.html The New York Times "Asterisk Aside, First National Vote for Saudis" February 10, 2005]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4230685.stm BBC "Q&A: Saudi municipal elections"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4252305.stm BBC "Saudis' first exercise in democracy"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm "Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue"]
- [http://www.hesbah.com/disapprove.asp Hesbah.com site of Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice] Form for Saudis to anonymously report "un-Islamic" activities to the Mutaween.
- [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=8696492 "Saudi says US human trafficking criticism unfounded"]

External links

Government
- [http://www.saudinf.com Saudi Arabian Information Resource] from the Saudi Ministry of Culture and Information Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791936.stm BBC News Country Profile - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html CIA World Factbook - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2419.htm US State Department - Saudi Arabia] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saud/ PBS Frontline - "House of Saud"] February 2005 documentary Directories
- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/saudi.htm Arab Gateway - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.findouter.com/Saudi_Arabia Findouter - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Saudi_Arabia/ Open Directory Project - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Saudi_Arabia/ Yahoo! - Saudi Arabia] directory category News
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc?tmpl=fc&cid=34&in=world&cat=saudi_arabia Yahoo! News Full Coverage - Saudi Arabia] news headline links Other
- [http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Asia/saudiarc.htm Saudi Arabia: Historical Demographic Data Factsheet]
- [http://www.asinah.org/travel-guides/saudiarabia.html Asinah - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.bbg-jed.org British Business Group, Jeddah]
- [http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/fara/Fara1st02/COUNTRY/SAUDIARA.HTM#2165 U.S. Department of Justice: Foreign Agents Registration Act]
- [http://www.TourSaudiArabia.com/ A Virtual Tour of Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2004/01/07/5 Amir Butler: Leave change in Saudi Arabia to the Saudis] (Discusses the question of Saudi liberalization) Category:Arab League Category:Arabia Category:Persian Gulf states Category:Monarchies Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Southwest Asian countries Category:Arab Gulf states zh-min-nan:Saudi Arabia ko:사우디아라비아 ms:Arab Saudi ja:サウジアラビア th:ประเทศซาอุดีอาระเบีย

Mecca

:This article is about the holy city in Saudi Arabia. For other uses, see Mecca (disambiguation) Mecca or Makkah (in full: Makkah al-Mukarramah; ) is the capital city of Saudi Arabia's Makkah province, in the historic Hijaz region. It is located at , 73 kilometers inland from Jeddah, in the narrow sandy Valley of Abraham, 277 meters (909 feet) above sea level. 80 km from the Red Sea. It has a population of approximately one million. The city is revered as the holiest site of Islam, and a pilgrimage to it is required of all Muslims who can afford to go. Muslims regard the al-Masjid al-Haram (or 'The Sacred Mosque') as the holiest place on Earth. Both the mosque and the city itself are strictly off-limits to non-Muslims. The term 'Mecca' has come into common usage metaphorically to mean any all-important site for any particular group of people. In the 1980s the government of Saudi Arabia changed the official English transliteration of the city's name from 'Mecca', as it had been commonly spelled by westerners, to 'Makkah'. See below for the reasons.
The importance of Mecca
For Muslims, a pilgrimage to Mecca is required as one of the Five Pillars of the faith. In recent years, about two to three million have gathered for the major pilgrimage or Hajj, during the Muslim month of Dhu al-Hijjah, and many more perform the minor pilgrimage or Umrah, which may be performed at any time of year. Few non-Muslims have ever seen the rites and rituals of the Hajj as non-Muslims are strictly prohibited from entering Mecca and Medina. The focal point of Mecca is the Ka'bah, the "House of God" believed by Muslims to have been built by Abraham and his son Ishmael, and is covered in a gold-embroidered black fabric. The Pilgrims circle the Ka'bah seven times and may also try to touch or kiss its cornerstone, the Black Stone. Pilgrims then drink from the well of Zamzam. The water of Zamzam is believed to have special properties and is alleged to have health benefits. Few pilgrims return from the Hajj without a large plastic bottle of the Zamzam water. During the Hajj the pilgrims travel to Mina, a small village, where Iblis (the Devil), symbolised by stone columns, is ritually stoned. They then proceed to the Hill of Arafat (sometimes called the Mountain, but it is only 70 meters high), a site for prayers, where Muhammad is believed to have delivered his final Sermon. Hill of Arafat The importance of Mecca for Muslims is inestimable. All Muslims, wherever they are on the earth, are required to pray five times a day in the direction of the Ka'bah in Mecca (located at ). The direction of prayer is known as the qiblah. Muslims regard the al-Masjid al-Haram (or 'The Sacred Mosque') as the holiest place on Earth. Both the mosque and the city itself are strictly off-limits to non-Muslims.
Muhammad
Muhammad, the final prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca in 571 CE. When he was forty years old, he received the first revelation in a cave called Hira in Jabal al-Nour (Mountain of Light), approximately 2 miles from Mecca. In the year 622 CE, after an attempt on his life, he moved to Yathrib (now Madinah), which also became a holy city. Later, Muhammad led the Muslims and conquered Mecca from the pagans.
Non-Muslims and Mecca
Non-Muslims are not permitted to enter Mecca. Road blocks are stationed along roads leading to the city. The most celebrated case of a non-Muslim visiting Mecca was that of the British explorer Sir Richard Burton in 1853. Burton disguised himself as an Afghan Muslim to visit and write his Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al Madinah and Meccah.
Is Mecca the city of the Valley of Bakkah?
:See main article: Bakkah Some have identified Mecca as the ancient city Bakkah, the Biblical "valley of Baca" in Psalm 84, but this association is controversial. It is known that the name Bakkah was changed to Mecca at some time, which is the location identified in the Qur'an. Some Muslims also believe it is the same location as mentioned in the Old Testament, but this is contestable.
The spelling of the name
For most English-speakers, Mecca has long been the accepted spelling for the holy city. The word is a transliteration of the original Arabic, and has become part of the English language. In an effort to distinguish between the metaphorical and official references to the holy site, the Saudi Arabian government in the 1980s began promoting a new transliteration, 'Makkah al-Mukarramah', which is even closer to the original Arabic. This new usage has been adopted in many places and by certain organization, such as on the [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm U.S. Department of State] website, but it is not part of the active vocabulary of English-speakers at large.
See also

- Islamic architecture
- List of famous mosques
- List of holy cities
- Medina
- Mecca (disambiguation)
External links

-
- [http://haqaonline.lightuponlight.com/pg/index.php?cat=2 Pictures of Mecca]
- [http://www.irbs.com/lists/navigation/0008/0039.html Mention of the Kaaba's coordinates]
- [http://www.asinah.org/travel-guides/saudiarabiamecca.html Mecca Information]
- [http://peace-city.tripod.com/Glory_of_Makkah.html Is it the Glory of Mecca or Zion in Isaiah, Chapter 60?]
- [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/b/burton/richard/b97p/chapter27.html Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al Madinah and Meccah, by Richard Burton] (opinionated)
- [http://www.3dkabah.com A 3D model of the Kaaba and Haraam. With Pictures and Videos] Category:Holy cities Category:Mecca Category:Pilgrimages Category:Arabic words ko:메카 ms:Makkah al-Mukarramah ja:マッカ simple:Mecca th:มักกะหฺ

Egypt

The Arab Republic of Egypt, commonly known as Egypt, (in Arabic: مصر, romanized Misr), is a republic in North Africa. While it is geographically located in Africa, it is sometimes associated with the Middle East for political reasons. Covering an area of about 1,020,000 km², Egypt shares land borders with Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and Israel and the Gaza Strip to the northeast and has coasts on the north and east by the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, respectively. Egypt is the second most populous country in Africa, second only to Nigeria, and the vast majority of its 77 million population (2005) live near the banks of the Nile River (about 40,000 km²), where the only arable agricultural land is found. Large areas of land are part of the Sahara Desert and are sparsely inhabited. The majority of Egyptians today are urban, living in the great Arab population centers of greater Cairo, the largest city in Africa, and Alexandria. Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most stunning ancient monuments, including the Giza Pyramids, the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings; the southern city of Luxor contains a particularly large number of ancient artifacts. Today, Egypt is widely regarded as the main political and cultural centre of the Arab and Middle Eastern regions.

Origin and history of the name

Misr, the Arabic and official name for modern Egypt, is of Semitic origin directly cognate with the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם Misráyim meaning "the two straits", and possibly means "a country" or "a state." The ancient name for the country, kemet, or "black land," is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the 'red land' (deshret) of the desert. This name became keme in a later stage of Coptic. The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word Aegyptus derived from the ancient Greek word Αίγυπτος Aiguptos (see also List of traditional Greek place names), which in turn is derived from the ancient Egyptian phrase ḥwt-k3-ptḥ ("Hwt ka Ptah") meaning "home of the Ka (part of the soul) of Ptah," the name of a temple of the god Ptah at Memphis. For details see the article Copt.

History

Main article: History of Egypt The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom was founded circa 3200 BC by King Menes, and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty, known as the Thirtieth Dynasty, fell to the Persians in 341 BC who dug the predecessor of the Suez canal and connected the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Persians again. It was the Muslim Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the seventh century changing Egypt into a linguistically and mostly ethnically "Arab" nation. Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub; however, the country also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. Between 1924-1936 there existed a short-lived attempt to model Egypt's constitutional government after the European style of government; known as Egypt's Liberal Experiment. In 1952 a popularly-supported military coup d'état forced King Farouk I, a constitutional monarch, to abdicate in support of his son King Ahmed Fouad II. Finally the Egyptian Republic was declared on 18 June 1953 with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. After Naguib resigned in 1954, Gamal Abdel Nasser, the real architect of the 1952 Revolution, assumed power as President and nationalized the Suez Canal leading to the 1956 Suez Crisis. Nasser came out of the war an Arab hero, and Nasserism won widespread influence in the region. Between 1958 and 1961 Egypt and Syria formed a union known as the United Arab Republic. Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, in which Egypt lost the Sinai to Israel, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat, who presented his takeover in terms of a Corrective Revolution. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the Infitah economic reform, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched a surprise attack on Israel in the October War,which despite not being a complete military success was by most accounts a political victory. Both the United States and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached between Egypt and Israel. In 1979, Sadat made peace with Israel in exchange for the Sinai, a move which sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League (it was readmitted in 1989). Sadat was murdered by a religious fundamentalist in 1981, and succeeded by Hosni Mubarak. Hosni Mubarak

Politics

Main article: Politics of Egypt Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14 1981, following the assassination of former President Anwar Sadat on October 6 1981. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office. The permanent headquarters for the League of Arab States is located in Cairo. Egypt was the first Arab state to establish peace with the State of Israel after the signing of the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty after the Camp David Accords. Egypt also has a major influence on the other Arab states. Historically, Egypt has played the role of a mediator in resolving disputes of various Arab nations. Most Arab nations still use Egypt in that role. Egypt supposedly operates under a multi-party semi-presidential system where the executive power is divided between the President and the Prime Minister. Egypt holds regular single-candidate presidential and multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election was held in September 2005, in which Mubarak won again. However, after the September elections there has been expressed concern from international human rights observers concerning freedom of speech, government interference in local elections and vote-rigging. I had been, as previous elections, just a pantomime. There had been many cases of misrespect for the oposition candidates and their followers' human right. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced on a surprise television broadcast that he has ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the coming election. For the first time in Egypt's history, the people will have a chance to elect their leader in a closely watched election. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy." However, the new law places draconian restrictions on the filing of presidential candidacies designed to pave the road for Mubarak's easy re-election. As a result most Egyptians are sceptical about the process of democratisation and the role of elections. As expected, Mubarak was re-elected. Newspapers however have exhibited an increasing freedom in criticizing the president, and the results of the parlimentary elections genuinely indicate that a democratic transition is underway, as evidenced by the strong showing of rival political parties.

Military

Main article: Military of Egypt The Egyptian Armed Forces (Arabic: القوات المسلحة المصرية) consists of the Army, Air Force, Navy and Air Defense. The Coast Guard and Border Guard operate as subordinates to the Navy and Army Command respectively. The Egyptian military is the strongest military power on the African continent, and the second largest in the Middle East, after Israel - (Source: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance). The Egyptian Armed Forces also ranks among the most battle-trained armed forces in the region. Its inventory includes F-16s, Mirage 2000 aircraft, Apache helicopters, M1 Abrams Tanks and medium-long range missiles. The Egyptian Armed forces, has a combined troop strength of 450,000 active personel. The Commander-in-Chief is Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi. The Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. Sami Hafez Enan. Conscription is compulsory for egyptian men of 18 years of age. Full-time students may defer their service until the age of 28. The length of the service depend on the level of education achieved by the conscripted. Military relations between Egypt and the US are strong. Military cooperation between the two countries covers a number of strategic areas, including cooperation in the ongoing process of modernising Egyptian armaments and training the Egyptian armed forces. While military cooperation between the US and Egypt is close and diversified this does not constitute a form of military alliance. Nothing could furnish clearer proof of this than the high degree of transparency surrounding all aspects of Egyptian-US military cooperation. Bilateral exercises, mutual training are carried out regularly and according to one US source, reflect the great esteem in which the US holds the high levels of professionalism and commitment and the growing excellence of the fighting men and women in the various branches of the Egyptian armed forces. Egypt take part regularely in military exercises with the US and other European and Arab allies, including the manoeuvres that take place in Egypt every two years. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to United Nations peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia.

Governorates

Liberia Main article: Governorates of Egypt Egypt is divided into 26 governorates (Muhafazat; singular – Muhafazah):

- Aswan
- Asyut
- al-Bahr al-Ahmar (Red Sea)
- Bani Suwayf
- al-Buhayrah
- Bur Sa'id (Port Said)
- ad-Daqahliyah
- Dumyat (Damietta)
- al-Fayyum

- al-Gharbiyah
- al-Iskandariyah (Alexandria)
- al-Isma'iliyah
- Janub Sina' (South Sinai)
- al-Jizah (Giza)
- Kafr ash Shaykh
- Matruh
- al-Minufiyah
- al-Minya

- al-Qahirah (Cairo)
- al-Qalyubiyah
- Qina
- Shamal Sina' (North Sinai)
- ash-Sharqiyah
- Suhaj
- as-Suways (Suez)
- al-Wadi al-Jadid (New Valley)

Foreign relations

al-Wadi al-Jadid al-Wadi al-Jadid al-Wadi al-Jadid al-Wadi al-Jadid and the Middle East]]Middle Easts]]Middle East]]Middle East Geography, population, history, military strength, and diplomatic expertise give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development. The League of Arab States headquarters is in Cairo. The Secretary General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996. Egypt is on good terms with all of its neighbours, and was the first Arab nation to make peace with Israel. It has a territorial dispute with Sudan over the Hala'ib Triangle.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Egypt Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than 5 million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf area like UAE, and Europe. The United States as well has a large population of Egyptian immigrants. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure, much financed from U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of 2.2 billion dollars per year). Egypt is the third largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Economic conditions are starting to improve considerably after a period of stagnation due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Egypt Egypt is the most populous country in the Arab world, at about 77,500,000 people. Nearly all the population is concentrated along the River Nile, notably Alexandria and Cairo, and along the Nile Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity (primarily the Coptic denomination). The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people. In the northern part of the country, North African and Mediterranean elements are more predominant, and the south is home to populations more closely related to Ethiopians and Somalis from the Horn of Africa. The bulk of the modern Egyptian people still maintain a homogenous genetic tie to ancient Egyptian society, which has always been regarded as rural and most populous compared to the neighboring demographics. The Egyptian people have spoken only languages from the Afro-Asiatic family (previously known as Hamito-Semitic) throughout their history starting with Old Egyptian, to modern Egyptian-Arabic. Ethnic minorities include a small number of Bedouin Arab nomads in the Sinai and eastern and western deserts, as well as a Nubian minority clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt who are estimated for about 0.8% of the population. The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has disappeared, but several important archeological and historical sites remain.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Egypt Geography of Egypt Towns and cities include Alexandria, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Shubra-El-Khema, Suez, Zagazig,Al-Minya. Deserts: Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert Oases include: Bahariya Oasis, Dakhleh Oasis, Farafra Oasis, Kharga Oasis, Siwa Oasis. Egypt borders on Libya on the west, on Sudan on the south and on Israel on the northeast. It controls the Suez Canal between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: as a land bridge between Africa and Asia, and as a passage between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Egypt Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. The Egyptian Academy of the Arabic Language is responsible for regulating the Arabic Language throughout the world. Egypt also hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University, the oldest Islamic institution for higher studies (founded around 970 CE) with its corresponding mosque Al-Azhar. The head of Al-Azhar is traditionally regarded as the supreme leader of Sunni Muslims all over the world. Egypt also has a strong Christian heritage as evidenced by the existence of the Coptic Orthodox Church headed by the Patriarch of Alexandria, which has a following of approximately 50 million Christians worldwide (one of the famous Coptic Orthodox Churches is Saint Takla Haimanot Church in Alexandria http://www.St-Takla.org). Though considered a low-income country, Egypt has a thriving media and arts industry, with more than 30 satellite channels and more than 100 motion pictures produced each year. To bolster its media industry, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf states and Lebanon, it has built a large media city that it has promoted as the "Hollywood of the East". Egypt is the only Arab country with an opera house. Some famous Egyptians include:
- Gamal Abdel Nasser (former president)
- Boutros Boutros-Ghali (former Secretary General of the United Nations)
- Naguib Mahfouz (Nobel Prize-winning novelist)
- Umm Kulthum (singer)
- Omar Sharif (actor)
- Ahmed Zewail (Nobel Prize-winning chemist)
- Mohamed ElBaradei (Head of the International Atomic Energy Agency and Winner of the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize)
- Anwar Sadat (former president and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize)

References

-
-

External links

Government

- [http://www.egypt.gov.eg/ Official Egyptian Government Portal]
- [http://www.investment.gov.eg/ Egyptian Investment Portal] official government site
- [http://www.sis.gov.eg/ Egypt State Information Service] official government site
- [http://www.presidency.gov.eg/ The Egyptian Presidency]
- [http://www.parliament.gov.eg/EPA/en/Index.jsp The People Assembly of Egypt]
- [http://www.shoura.gov.eg/ Egyptian Shoura Council]

News

- [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al-Ahram Weekly]
- [http://allafrica.com/egypt/ AllAfrica – Egypt] news
- [http://www.egypttoday.com/ Egypt Today] magazine
- [http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today Egypt] magazine
- [http://story.news.yahoo.com/fc?cid=34&tmpl=fc&in=World&cat=Egypt Yahoo! News Full Coverage – Egypt] headline links

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm BBC News Country Profile - Egypt]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/eg.html CIA World Factbook - Egypt]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3729.htm US State Department - Egypt] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Egypt Open Directory Project - Egypt] directory category
- [http://www.joinafrica.com/countries1/Egypt/people.htm Joinafrica.com - Egypt]

Education

See: List of Egyptian universities
- [http://www.worldwide.edu/ci/egypt/index.html Study Destinations in Egypt]
- [http://www.scu.eun.eg/eng/scu-eng.htm/ Supreme Council of Universities] U suck

Tourism

See: List of museums in Egypt
-
- [http://www.touregypt.net/ Tour Egypt] (Association of Egyptian Travel Businesses)
- [http://www.egypt-travelguide.com/ Egypt Hotel & Travel Guide]
- [http://www.eternalegypt.org/ Journey through Eternal Egypt]
- [http://ancient-egypt.blogspot.com/ History of Ancient Egypt]

Other

- [http://www.fonsvitae.com/archit.html CAIRO - 1001 Years of Islamic Art and Architecture (Video series in four parts)]
- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/egypt.html Egypt Maps - Perry-Castañeda Map Collection]
- [http://ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/Egypt Egypt Photo Galleries] Pictures from a visit in December 2004
- [http://st-takla.org/Egypt-1.html Egypt through the ages..]
- [http://www.egyptianculture.net Egyptian Mythology]
- Khnumhotep & Niankhkhnum
- [http://en.jurispedia.org/index.php/Egypt Egyptian law] from Jurispedia
Category:Arab League Category:Near Eastern countries Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:African Union member states Category:Bicontinental countries zh-min-nan:Ai-ki̍p als:Ägypten ko:이집트 ms:Mesir ja:エジプト simple:Egypt th:ประเทศอียิปต์

20th century

The 20th century lasted from 1901 to 2000 in the Gregorian calendar. Common usage sometimes regards it as lasting from 1900 to 1999, but this is incorrect since counting of calendar years begins with the year 1. The 20th century is also sometimes known as the nineteen hundreds (1900s). Decades are almost always considered as starting with the "0" year and named accordingly ("1960s", etc.). However, a number of arguments have been used to justify the common usage. One was advanced, erroneously, by Stephen Jay Gould. He claimed that the first decade had only nine years, thus contradicting the definition of decade equaled 10 years. Another argument is that the astronomical year numbering system for years does have a year zero, the year normally known as 1 BC. In 2000 the International Organization for Standardization clarified ISO 8601 to use the astronomical year numbering system, which could be interpreted as retrospectively endorsing all the people who had celebrated the new century a few months earlier. The term is also used to describe various periods that overlap with the calendar definition, most notably the Short twentieth century, which claims that the 20th Century spanned from 1914 to 1989, rendering the pre-WWI 1900s into the 19th Century and putting the 1990s at the beginning of the 21st Century. Indeed, the part of the 20th Century before World War I is quite identical to the late 1800s culturally and technologically and the 1990s decade pointed in many ways (such as the rise of the Internet) to the 21st Century and is seen by some as not being truly a part of the 20th Century.

Overview

The twentieth century saw a remarkable shift in the way that vast numbers of people lived, as a result of technological, medical, social, ideological, and political innovations. Terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage and became an influence on the lives of everyday people. War reached an unprecedented scale and level of sophistication; in the Second World War (1939-1945) alone, approximately 57 million people died, mainly due to massive improvements in weaponry. The trends of mechanization of goods and services and networks of global communication, which were begun in the 19th century, continued at an ever-increasing pace in the 20th. In spite of the terror and chaos, the 20th century saw many attempts at world peace. As the 35th President of the United States John F. Kennedy said: :What kind of peace do we seek? I am talking about a genuine peace, the kind of peace that makes life on earth worth living. Not merely peace in our time, but peace in all time. Our problems are man-made, therefore they can be solved by man. For in the final analysis, our most basic common link is that we all inhabit this small planet, we all breathe the same air, we all cherish our children's future, and we are all mortal. Virtually every aspect of life in virtually every human society changed in some fundamental way or another during the twentieth century and for the first time, any individual could influence the course of history no matter their background. Arguably, the 20th century re-shaped the face of the planet in more ways than any previous century.
- Death rates
- Infant mortality
- Infectious disease
- Life expectancy
- Maternal death rates
- Battles Scientific discoveries such as relativity and quantum physics radically changed the worldview of scientists, causing them to realize that the universe was much more complex than they had previously believed, and dashing the hopes at the end of the preceding century that the last few details of knowledge were about to be filled in. For a more coherent overview of the historical events of the century, see The 20th century in review. The 20th century has sometimes been called, both within and outside the United States, the American Century, though this is a controversial term.

Important developments, events and achievements

Science and technology

- The assembly line and mass production of motor vehicles and other goods allowed manufacturers to produce more and cheaper products. This allowed the automobile to become the most important means of transportation.
- The invention of heavier-than-air flying machines and the jet engine allowed for the world to become "smaller". Space flight increased knowledge of the rest of the universe and allowed for global real-time communications via geosynchronous satellites.
- Mass media technologies such as film, radio, and television allow the communication of political messages and entertainment with unprecedented impact
- Mass availability of the telephone and later, the computer, especially through the Internet, provides people with new opportunities for near-instantaneous communication
- Applied electronics, notably in its miniaturized form as integrated circuits, made possible the above mentioned rise of mass media, telecommunications, ubiquitous computing, and all kinds of "intelligent" appliances; as well as many advances in natural sciences such as physics, by the use of exponentially growing calculation power (see supercomputer).
- The development of Nitrogen fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides resulted in significantly higher agricultural yield.
- Advances in fundamental physics through the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics led to the development of nuclear weapons (known informally as "the Bomb" and dropped on the industrial town of Hiroshima and the historic one of Nagasaki), the nuclear reactor, and the laser. Fusion power was studied extensively but remained an experimental technology at the end of the century.
- Inventions such as the washing machine and air conditioning led to an increase in both the quantity and quality of leisure time for the middle class in Western societies.
- Most influential inventions in the 20th century: antibiotics, oral contraceptives, new plastics, transistors, Internet
- More...

Wars and politics

- Democratic nations began to extend voting privileges to all adults.
- Rising nationalism and increasing national awareness were among the causes of World War I, the first of two wars to involve all the major world powers including Germany, France, Italy, Japan, the United States and the British Commonwealth. World War I led to the creation of many new countries, especially in Eastern Europe. Ironically, it was said by many to be the 'War to end all Wars'.
- The economic and political aftermath of World War I led to the rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe, and shortly to World War II. This war also involved Asia and the Pacific, in the form of Japanese aggression against China and the United States. While the First World War mainly cost lives among soldiers, civilians suffered greatly in the Second -- from the bombing of cities on both sides, and in the unprecedented German genocide of the Jews and others, known as the Holocaust.
- During World War I, in Russia the Bolshevik putsch led to the Russian Revolution of 1917. After the Soviet Union's involvement in World War II, Communism became a major force in global politics, spreading all over the world: notably, to Eastern Europe, China, Indochina and Cuba. This led to the Cold War and proxy wars with the western world, including wars in Korea (1950-53) and Vietnam (1957 - 75).
- The "fall of Communism" in the late 1980s freed Eastern and Central Europe from Soviet supremacy. It also led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia into successor states, many rife with ethnic nationalism, and left the United States as the world's superpower.
- Through the League of Nations and, after World War II, the United Nations, international cooperation increased. Other efforts included the formation of the European Union, leading to a common currency in much of Western Europe, the euro around the turn of the millennium.
- The end of colonialism led to the independence of many African and Asian countries. During the Cold War, many of these aligned with the USA, the USSR, or China for defense.
- The creation of Israel, a Jewish state in a mostly Arab region of the world, fueled many conflicts in the region, which were also influenced by the vast oil fields in many of the Arab countries.
- The term Southeast Asia coined.

Culture and entertainment

- Movies, music and the media had a major influence on fashion and trends in all aspects of life. As many movies and music originate from the United States, American culture spread rapidly over the world.
- After gaining political rights in the United States and much of Europe in the first part of the century, and with the advent of new birth control techniques women became more independent throughout the century.
- Rock and Roll and Jazz styles of music are developed in the United States, and quickly become the dominant forms of popular music in America, and later, the world. The Beatles, a 1960s British Rock and Roll band, becomes one of the most successful acts of all time, and is credited, in their experimental later albums, with permanently changing what was thought possible in popular music.
- Modern art developed new styles such as expressionism, cubism, and surrealism.
- The automobile provided vastly increased transportation capabilities for the average member of Western societies in the early to mid-century, spreading even further later on. City design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car. The car became a leading symbol of modern society, with styles of car suited to and symbolic of particular lifestyles.
- Sports became an important part of society, becoming an activity not only for the privileged. Watching sports, later also on television, became a popular activity.

Disease and medicine

- Although the availability and quality of medicine continued to improve, epidemic diseases continued to spread, aided by modern transportation. An influenza pandemic, the Spanish Flu, killed 25 million between 1918 and 1919, while AIDS is yet uncured and treatments remain too expensive for wide use in developing countries.
- Advances in medicine, such as the invention of antibiotics, decreased the number of people dying from diseases. Contraceptive drugs and organ transplantation were developed. The discovery of DNA molecules and the advent of molecular biology allowed for cloning and genetic engineering.

Natural resources and the environment

- The widespread use of petroleum in industry -- both as a chemical precursor to plastics and as a fuel for the automobile and airplane -- led to the vital geopolitical importance of petroleum resources. The Middle East, home to many of the world's oil deposits, became a center of geopolitical and military tension throughout the latter half of the century. (For example, oil was a factor in Japan's decision to go to war against the United States in 1941, and the oil cartel, OPEC, used an oil embargo of sorts in the wake of the Yom Kippur War in the 1970s).
- A vast increase in fossil fuel consumption leads to depletion of natural resources, while air pollution has led to the develoment of an ozone hole and, many believe, global warming and both local and global climate change. The problem is increased by world-wide deforestation, also causing a loss of biodiversity. The problem of a depletion of natural resources is decreased by advances in drilling technology which led to a net increase in the amount of fossil fuel that is readily obtainable at the end of the century, as compared with the amount considered obtainable at the beginning of the century.

Significant people

World leaders

- Africa
- Gnassingbe Eyadema, Togo
- Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Côte d'Ivoire
- Kenneth Kaunda, Zambia
- Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya
- Idi Amin, Uganda
- Nelson Mandela, South Africa
- Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe
- Gamal Abdal Nasser, Egypt
- Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana
- Julius Nyerere, Tanzania
- Habib Bourguiba, Tunisia
- Muammar al-Qaddafi, Libya
- Haile Selassie, Ethiopia
- Léopold Sédar Senghor, Senegal
- Ahmed Sékou Touré, Guinea
- Americas
- Juan Perón, Argentina
- Eva Perón, Argentina
- Getúlio Vargas, Brazil
- Luis Carlos Prestes, Brazil
- Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazil
- Wilfrid Laurier, Canada
- William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canada
- Pierre Trudeau, Canada
- Salvador Allende, Chile
- Augusto Pinochet, Chile
- Fidel Castro, Cuba
- Ernesto 'Che' Guevara, Argentina/Cuba
- Emiliano Zápata, Mexico
- Pancho Villa, Mexico
- Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, Mexico
- Augusto César Sandino, Nicaragua
- Fernando Belaúnde Terry, Peru
- Alberto Kenya Fujimori, Peru
- Theodore Roosevelt, USA
- Woodrow Wilson,USA
- Franklin D. Roosevelt, USA
- Harry S Truman, USA
- Dwight Eisenhower, USA
- John F. Kennedy, USA
- Lyndon B. Johnson, USA
- Richard Nixon, USA
- Ronald Reagan, USA
- Bill Clinton, USA
- George H. W. Bush, USA
- José Batlle y Ordóñez, Uruguay
- Romulo Betancourt, Venezuela
- Asia
- Mahatma Gandhi, India
- Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore
- Ferdinand Marcos, the Philippines
- Corazon Aquino, the Philippines
- Mao Zedong, People's Republic of China
- Deng Xiaoping, People's Republic of China
- Pol Pot, Cambodia
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan
- Indira Gandhi, India
- Mahathir Mohamad, Malaysia
- Jawaharlal Nehru, India
- Emperor Hirohito, Japan
- Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
- Sun Yat-sen, Republic of China
- Chiang Kai-shek, Republic of China
- Achmad Sukarno, Indonesia
- Suharto, Indonesia
- Australia and Oceania
- Edmund Barton, Australia
- Sir Robert Menzies, Australia
- Peter Fraser, New Zealand
- Michael Joseph Savage, New Zealand
- David Lange, New Zealand
- Europe
- Franz Joseph of Austria, Austria-Hungary
- Václav Havel, Czech Republic
- Franjo Tuđman, Croatia
- Archbishop Makarios III, Cyprus
- Urho Kekkonen, Finland
- Philippe Pétain, France
- Charles de Gaulle, France
- Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, France
- François Mitterrand, France
- Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany
- Friedrich Ebert, Germany
- Adolf Hitler, Germany
- Konrad Adenauer, West Germany
- Walter Ulbricht, East Germany
- Erich Honecker, East Germany
- Willy Brandt, West Germany
- Helmut Kohl, Germany
- Gerhard Schröder, Germany
- Eleftherios Venizelos, Greece
- Ioannis Metaxas, Greece
- Konstantinos Karamanlis, Greece
- Andreas Papandreou, Greece
- Miklós Horthy, Hungary
- Imre Nagy, Hungary
- Benito Mussolini, Italy
- Aldo Moro, Italy
- Eamon de Valera, Ireland
- Einar Gerhardsen, Norway
- Józef Piłsudski, Poland
- Lech Wałęsa, Poland
- António de Oliveira Salazar, Portugal
- Mário Soares, Portugal
- Nicolae Ceauşescu, Romania
- Milan Kučan, Slovenia
- Francisco Franco, Spain
- Felipe González, Spain
- Adolfo Suárez, Spain
- Olof Palme, Sweden
- Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey
- Neville Chamberlain, United Kingdom
- Winston Churchill, United Kingdom
- Margaret Thatcher, United Kingdom
- Tony Blair, United Kingdom
- Josip Broz Tito,Yugoslavia
- Slobodan Milošević, Yugoslavia
- Russia and Soviet Union
- Czar Nicholas II
- Vladimir Lenin
- Joseph Stalin
- Leon Trotsky
- Nikita Khrushchev
- Leonid Brezhnev
- Mikhail Gorbachev
- Boris Yeltsin
- Middle East
- Reza Shah Pahlavi, Iran
- Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Iran
- Mohammad Mosaddeq, Iran
- Ayatollah Khomeini, Iran
- Ayatollah Khamenei, Iran
- Mohammad Khatami, Iran
- Abdul Nasser, Egypt or United Arab Republic
- Anwar Sadat, Egypt or United Arab Republic
- David Ben-Gurion, Israel
- Golda Meir, Israel
- Menachem Begin, Israel
- Yitzhak Rabin, Israel
- Hafez el Assad, Syria
- Saddam Hussein, Iraq
- King Hussein, Jordan
- Yassar Arafat, Palestine

Scientists

; Biology and Anthropology
- Norman Borlaug
- Francis Crick
- Theodosius Dobzhansky
- Paul Ehrlich
- Jane Goodall
- Stephen Jay Gould
- Hans Adolf Krebs
- Ernst Mayr
- John Maynard Smith
- Albert Szent-Györgyi
- James Watson ; Chemistry
- Elias Corey
- Maria Skłodowska-Curie
- Pierre Curie
- Fritz Haber
- Stanley Miller
- Linus Pauling
- Ernest Rutherford
- J.J. Thomson
- Harold Urey ; Computer Science
- John Backus
- Edsger Dijkstra
- Richard Matthew Stallman
- Linus Torvalds
- Grace Murray Hopper
- John von Neumann
- Claude Shannon
- Alan Turing
- William Gates III ; Mathematics
- Paul Erdős
- Kurt Gödel
- David Hilbert
- Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov
- Benoit Mandelbrot
- John Nash
- John von Neumann ; Medicine and Pharmacy
- Carl Djerassi
- Alexander Fleming
- Howard Walter Florey
- Ma Haide (George Hatem)
- Jonas Salk ; Physics and Astronomy
- Abdus Salam
- Niels Bohr
- Paul Dirac
- Freeman Dyson
- Albert Einstein
- Enrico Fermi
-