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Johann Jakob Wettstein

Johann Jakob Wettstein

Johann Jakob Wettstein (also Wetstein) (March 5, 1693 - March 23, 1754), was a Swiss theologian, best known as a New Testament critic. He was born at Basel. Among his tutors in theology was Samuel Werenfels (1657-1740), an influential anticipator of modern scientific exegesis. While still a student Wettstein began to direct his attention to the special pursuit of his lifethe text of the Greek New Testament. A relative, Johann Wettstein, who was the university librarian, gave him permission to examine and collate the principal manuscripts of the New Testament in the library, and he copied the various readings which they contained into his copy of Gerard of Maastricht's edition of the Greek text. In 1713 in his public examination he defended a dissertation entitled De variis Novi Testamenti lectionibus, and sought to show that variety of readings did not detract from the authority of the Bible. Wettstein paid great attention also to Aramaic and Talmudic Hebrew. In the spring of 1714 he undertook a learned tour, which led him to Paris and England, the great object of his inquiry everywhere being manuscripts of the New Testament. In 1716 he made the acquaintance of Richard Bentley at the University of Cambridge; Bentley took great interest in his work and persuaded him to return to Paris to collate carefully the Codex Ephraemi, Bentley having then in view a critical edition of the New Testament. In July 1717 Wettstein returned to take the office of a curate at large (diaconus communis) at Basel, a post which he held for three years, after which he became his father's colleague and successor in the parish of St Leonard's. At the same time he pursued his favorite study, and gave private lectures on New Testament exegesis. It was then that he decided to prepare a critical edition of the Greek New Testament. He had in the meantime broken with Bentley, whose famous Proposals appeared in 1720. His earlier teachers, however, JC Iselin and JL Frey, who were engaged upon work similar to his own, became so unfriendly towards him that after a time he was forbidden any further use of the manuscripts in the library. Then a rumour began that Wettstein's projected text would take the Socinian side in the case of such passages as i Timothy iii. 16; and in other ways (e.g. by regarding Jesus's temptation as a subjective experience, by explaining some of the miracles in a natural way) he gave occasion for the suspicion of heresy. At length in 1729 the charge of projecting an edition of the Greek Testament savouring of Arian and Socinian views was formally laid against him. The end of the long and unedifying trial was his dismissal, on May 13, 1730, from his office of curate of St Leonard's. He then moved from Basel to Amsterdam, where another relative, Johann Heinrich Wettstein, had an important printing and publishing business, from whose office excellent editions of the classics were issued, and also Gerard of Maastricht's edition of the Greek Testament. Wettstein had begun to print in this office an edition of the Greek Testament, which was suddenly stopped for some unknown reason. As soon as he reached Amsterdam he published anonymously the Prolegomena ad Novi Testamenti Graeci editionem, which he had proposed should accompany his Greek Testament, and which was republished by him, with additions, as part of his great work, 1751. The next year (1731) the Remonstrants offered him the chair of philosophy in their college at Amsterdam, vacated by the illness of Jean le Clerc, on condition that he clear himself of the suspicion of heresy. He returned to Basel, and procured a reversal (March 22, 1732) of the previous decision, and re-admission to all his clerical offices. But, on his becoming a candidate for the Hebrew chair at Basel, his orthodox opponents procured his defeat and he retired to Amsterdam. At length, he was allowed to instruct the Remonstrant students in philosophy and Hebrew on certain humiliating conditions. For the rest of his life he continued as professor in the Remonstrant college, declining in 1745 the Greek chair at Basel. In 1746 he once more visited England, and collated Syriac manuscripts for his great work. At last this appeared in 1751-1752, in two folio volumes, under the title Novum Testamentum Graecum editionis receptae cum lectionibus variantibus codicum manuscripts, etc. He did not venture to put new readings in the body of his page, but consigned them to a place between the textus receptus and the full list of various readings. Beneath the latter he gave a commentary, consisting principally of a mass of valuable illustrations and parallels drawn from classical and rabbinical literature, which has formed a storehouse for all later commentators. In his Prolegomena he gave an admirable methodical account of the manuscripts, the versions and the readings of the fathers, as well as the troubled story of the difficulties with which he had had to contend in the prosecution of the work of his life. He was the first to designate uncial manuscripts by Roman capitals, and cursive manuscripts by Arabic figures. He did not long survive the completion of this work. He died at Amsterdam on the 23rd of March 1754. Wettstein's New Testament has never been republished entire. The London printer, William Bowyer, published, in 1763, a text in which he introduced the readings recommended by Wettstein; JG Semler republished the Prolegomena and appendix (1764); A Lotze commenced a new edition of the work, but the Prolegomena only appeared (Rotterdam, 1831), and this " castigated." It is generally allowed that Wettstein rendered invaluable service to textual criticism by his collection of various readings and his methodical account of the manuscripts and other sources, and that his work was rendered less valuable through his prejudice against the Latin version and the principle of grouping manuscripts in families which had been recommended by Richard Bentley and JA Bengel. See Wettstein's account of his labors and trials in his Nov. Test. i..

Reference


- This entry incorporates public domain text originally from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Wettstein, Johann Jakob Wettstein, Johann Jakob Wettstein, Johann Jakob

March 5

March 5 is the 64th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (65th in leap years). There are 301 days remaining.

Events


- 1046 - Naser Khosrow begins the seven-year Middle Eastern journey which he would later describe in his book Safarnameh.
- 1689 - Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham is named Secretary of State for the Northern Department.
- 1766 - Antonio de Ulloa, the first Spanish governor of Louisiana, arrives in New Orleans.
- 1770 - Boston Massacre: Five Americans, including Crispus Attucks, are killed by British troops in an event that would help start the American [[Revolutionary War]] five years later.
- [[1784 - Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney is named President of the Board of Trade.
- 1793 - French troops are defeated by Austrian forces and Liège is recaptured.
- 1821 - James Monroe is inaugurated for a second term as President of the United States.
- 1824 - First Burmese War: The British officially declares war on Burma.
- 1836 - Samuel Colt makes the first production-model revolver (.34-caliber).
- 1842 - Over 500 Mexican troops led by Rafael Vasquez invade Texas, briefly occupy San Antonio and then head back to the Rio Grande.
- 1848 - Louis Antoine Garnier-Pages is named French minister of Finance.
- 1849 - Zachary Taylor is inaugurated as the 12th President of the United States.
- 1860 - Parma, Tuscany, Modena and Romagna vote in referenda to join Kingdom of Sardinia.
- 1861 - Montgomery Blair is named 23rd Postmaster General of the United States by Abraham Lincoln
- 1868 - A court of impeachment is organized in the United States Senate to hear charges against President Andrew Johnson.
- 1868 - Mefistofele, an opera by Arrigo Boito premieres at La Scala.
- 1872 - George Westinghouse patents the air brake.
- 1877 - Rutherford B. Hayes is publicly inaugurated as the 19th President of the United States (he was privately inaugurated on March 3).
- 1894 - Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery becomes First Lord of the Treasury.
- 1904 - Nikola Tesla, in Electrical World and Engineer, describes the process of ball lightning formation.
- 1905 - Russian troops begin to retreat from Mukden, Manchuria after losing 100,000 troops in three days.
- 1907 - The second Duma opens in St. Petersburg, Russia and 40,000 demonstrators have to be dispersed by Russian troops.
- 1912 - Italian forces are the first to use airships for military purposes, using them for reconnaissance behind Turkish lines.
- 1915 - World War I: LZ 33, a zeppelin, is damaged by enemy fire and stranded south of Ostend.
- 1916 - Spanish football club Real Club Deportivo Mallorca founded.
- 1917 - Woodrow Wilson is inaugurated for a second term as President of the United States.
- 1918 - Bolshevist Russia moves the national capital from Petrograd to Moscow.
- 1924 - Shefqet Verlaci becomes Prime Minister of Albania.
- 1929 - LanChile airline begins operations.
- 1931 - Daniel Salamanca Urey is named President of Bolivia.
- 1933 - Great Depression: President Franklin D. Roosevelt declares a "bank holiday", closing all United States banks and freezing all financial transactions.
- 1933 - In Germany, the Nazis win 44 percent of the vote in parliamentary elections.
- 1936 - First flight of fighter airplane Spitfire Type 300.
- 1940 - Members of Soviet politbiuro sign an order for the execution of 25,700 Polish intelligentsia, including 14,700 Polish POW, known also as Katyn massacre.
- 1943 - First flight of Gloster Meteor jet aircraft in Britain.
- 1946 - Winston Churchill uses the phrase "Iron Curtain" in his speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri.
- 1948 - US rocket flies a record 4800 KPH to 126KM height.
- 1949 - The Jharkhand Party is founded in India.
- 1953 - Both Josef Stalin and Sergei Prokofiev die in Soviet Union.
- 1955 - President of Lithuania, Antanas Merkys dies, after having been imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union.
- 1956 - Ernie Terrell becomes the WBA world heavyweight champion, beating Eddie Machen.
- 1956 - "King Kong" first televised.
- 1958 - Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region is established.
- 1958 - Explorer 2 spacecraft launches, fails to reach Earth orbit.
- 1960 - Elvis Presley is discharged from a 2-year hitch in the United States Army.
- 1963 - Country singer Patsy Cline dies in a plane crash.
- 1964 - Atlanta Mayor Ivan Allen Jr announces a baseball team is moving there.
- 1964 - Ceylon declares emergency crisis due to unrest.
- 1965 - First performance of Walter Piston's Eighth Symphony.
- 1966 - A BOAC Boeing 707 jet crashes on Mount Fuji, Japan killing 124
- 1966 - In Luxembourg, Udo Jürgens wins the eleventh Eurovision Song Contest for Austria.
- 1966 - Bob Seagren vaults 5.19m, an indoor world record.
- 1968 - US launches Solar Explorer B, aka Explorer 37 from Wallops Island to study the Sun.
- 1970 - A nuclear non-proliferation treaty goes into effect after ratification by 43 nations.
- 1970 - Dubnium atoms first detected conclusively.
- 1971 - First live performance of Led Zeppelin's "Stairway to Heaven."
- 1973 - Donald DeFreeze, future Symbionese Liberation Army leader, escapes from Vacaville Prison.
- 1974 - Yom Kippur War: Israeli forces withdrew from the west bank of the Suez Canal.
- 1974 - "Candide", by Leonard Bernstein, opens at Broadway Theatre in NYC for 740 performances.
- 1976 - British pound falls below $2 US for the first time.
- 1978 - Landsat 3 is launched from Vandenberg AFB in California.
- 1979 - Detection equipment picks up a gamma ray burst originating from the Large Magellanic Cloud, leading to the discovery of soft gamma repeaters.
- 1979 - Voyager 1's closest approach to Jupiter, 172000 miles.
- 1980 - Earth satellites record gamma rays from remnants of supernova N-49.
- 1981 - Cannibal Alferd Packer pardoned posthumously.
- 1982 - SNL star John Belushi dies of a drug overdose in his hotel room.
- 1982 - Venera 14, a Soviet satellite arrives at the planet Venus.
- 1983 - Bob Hawke becomes Australian prime minister after defeating Malcolm Fraser in Australian elections.
- 1985 - The body of undercover DEA agent Enrique Camarena is found.
- 1988 - Constitution of Turks and Caicos Islands restored and revised.
- 1991 - Iraq releases all Gulf War prisoners
- 1993 - Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson is banned from international competition for life after testing positive for banned substances for the second time.
- 1998 - NASA announces that the Clementine probe orbiting the Moon has found enough water to support a human colony.
- 1998 - NASA announces the choice of United States Air Force Lt. Col. Eileen Collins as the first woman commander of a space shuttle mission.
- 1999 - Paul Okalik is elected first Premier of Nunavut.
- 2001 - In Mecca, 35 Muslim pilgrims are crushed to death during the annual Hajj pilgrimage.
- 2002 - MTV begins airing The Osbournes.
- 2003 - University of Manchester and UMIST announce agreement to merge operations.
- 2003 - Natalie Maines of the Dixie Chicks provokes controversy in the U.S. by stating that the band was "ashamed the president of the United States is from Texas."
- 2003 - Nature withdraws several papers as a result of the Jan Hendrik Schön scandal.

Births


- 1133 - King Henry II of England (d. 1189)
- 1324 - King David II of Scotland (d. 1371)
- 1512 - Gerardus Mercator, Flemish cartographer (d. 1594)
- 1563 - John Coke, English politician (d. 1644)
- 1575 - William Oughtred, English mathematician (d. 1660)
- 1585 - John George I, Elector of Saxony (d. 1656)
- 1658 - Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, French explorer (d. 1730)
- 1693 - Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian (d. 1754)
- 1696 - Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Italian painter (d. 1770)
- 1703 (N.S.) - Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, Russian poet (d. 1768)
- 1748 - Jonas C. Dryander, Swedish botanist (d. 1810)
- 1748 - William Shield, English musician (d. 1829)
- 1750 - Jean-Baptiste Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison, French classical scholar (d. 1805)
- 1814 - Wilhelm von Giesebrecht, German historian (d. 1889)
- 1815 - John Wentworth, American politician (d. 1888)
- 1817 - Austen Henry Layard, English archaeologist (d. 1894)
- 1836 - Charles Goodnight, American cattle rancher (d. 1929)
- 1853 - Howard Pyle, American author and illustrator (d. 1911)
- 1867 - Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, Premier of Quebec (d. 1952)
- 1869 - Michael von Faulhaber, German cardinal and archbishop (d. 1952)
- 1870 - Frank Norris, American writer (d. 1902)
- 1871 - Rosa Luxemburg, German revolutionary (d. 1919)
- 1874 - Henry Travers, British actor (d. 1965)
- 1879 - Sir William Beveridge, British economist (d. 1963)
- 1886 - Dong Biwu, founder of the Communist Party of China (d. 1975)
- 1887 - Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazilian composer (d. 1959
- [[1898]] - [[Zhou Enlai, Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1976)
- 1898 - Soong May-ling, Chinese wife of Chiang Kai-Shek (d. 2003)
- 1904 - Karl Rahner, German theologian (d. 1984)
- 1908 - Sir Rex Harrison, English actor (d. 1990)
- 1910 - Józef Marcinkiewicz, Polish mathematician (d. 1940)
- 1915 - Laurent Schwartz, French mathematician (d. 2002)
- 1918 - James Tobin, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
- 1920 - Virginia Christine, American actress (d. 1996)
- 1921 - Elmer Valo, baseball player (d. 1998)
- 1922 - Pier Paolo Pasolini, Italian writer and film director (d. 1975)
- 1923 - David Nathan, Welsh journalist (d. 1966)
- 1923 - Laurence Tisch, American investor
- 1927 - Jack Cassidy, American actor (d. 1976)
- 1934 - Daniel Kahneman, Iraeli economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1934 - James B. Sikking, American actor
- 1936 - Canaan Banana, first President of Zimbabwe (d. 2003)
- 1936 - Dean Stockwell, American actor
- 1937 - Olusegun Obasanjo, leader of Nigeria
- 1938 - Fred Williamson, American football player and actor
- 1939 - Peter Woodcock, Canadian serial killer
- 1939 - Pierre Wynants, Belgian chef
- 1939 - Samantha Eggar, British actress
- 1942 - Felipe González Márquez, Prime Minister of Spain
- 1943 - Billy Backus, American boxer
- 1947 - Clodagh Rodgers, Irish singer
- 1948 - Eddy Grant, Guyana-born singer
- 1951 - Elaine Paige, English singer and actress
- 1954 - Marsha Warfield, American actress, comedienne
- 1955 - Penn Jillette, American magician and comedian
- 1957 - Mark E. Smith, Vocalist with The Fall
- 1958 - Andy Gibb, English singer (d. 1988)
- 1966 - Michael Irvin, American football player
- 1966 - Tim Crutchfield,Controversial politician
- 1969 - MC Solaar, French hiphop artist
- 1970 - John Frusciante, American musician (The Red Hot Chili Peppers)
- 1974 - Jens Jeremies, German footballer
- 1974 - Eva Mendes, American actress
- 1975 - Jolene Blalock, American actress
- 1975 - Niki Taylor, American model
- 1976 - Sarunas Jasikevicius, Lithuanian basketball player
- 1976 - Paul Konerko, baseball player
- 1977 - Bryan Berard, American hockey player
- 1977 - Wally Szczerbiak, American basketball player
- 1989 - Jake Lloyd, American actor

Deaths


- 1534 - Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter (b. 1489)
- 1539 - Nuno da Cunha, Portuguese governor in India (b. 1487)
- 1592 - Michael Coxcie, Flemish painter (b. 1499)
- 1605 - Pope Clement VIII (b. 1536)
- 1611 - Shimazu Yoshihisa, Japanese warlord and samurai (b. 1533)
- 1622 - Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1569)
- 1695 - Henry Wharton, English writer (b. 1664)
- 1726 - Evelyn Pierrepont, 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, English politician
- 1778 - Thomas Augustine Arne, English composer (b. 1710)
- 1815 - Franz Mesmer, Austrian developer of hypnotism (b. 1734)
- 1827 - Pierre-Simon Laplace, French mathematician (b. 1749)
- 1827 - Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist (b. 1745)
- 1829 - John Adams, last surviving HMS Bounty mutineer (b. 1766)
- 1849 - David Scott, Scottish painter (b. 1806)
- 1876 - Marie d'Agoult, German-born writer (b. 1805)
- 1893 - Hippolyte Taine, French historian (b. 1828
- 1895 - Henry Rawlinson, British soldier (b. 1810)
- 1895 - Nikolai Leskov, Russian writer (b. 1831)
- 1903 - George Francis Robert Henderson, British soldier (b. 1854)
- 1907 - Friedrich Blass, German classical scholar (b. 1843)
- 1926 - Clément Ader, French aviation pioneer (b. 1841)
- 1927 - Franz Mertens, German mathematician (b. 1840)
- 1940 - Cai Yuanpei, Chinese educator (b. 1868)
- 1944 - Max Jacob, French poet and writer (b. 1876)
- 1947 - Alfredo Casella, Italian composer (b. 1883)
- 1953 - Sergei Prokofiev, Russian composer, (b. 1891)
- 1953 - Joseph Stalin, Georgian leader of the Soviet Union (b. 1879)
- 1953 - Herman J. Mankiewicz, American screenwriter (b. 1897)
- 1963 - Patsy Cline, American singer (b. 1932)
- 1965 - Chen Cheng, Chinese politician (b. 1897)
- 1965 - Pepper Martin, baseball player (b. 1904)
- 1966 - Anna Akhmatova, Russian poet (b. 1889)
- 1967 - Georges Vanier, Governor General of Canada (b. 1888)
- 1974 - Sol Hurok, Russian-born impresario (b. 1888)
- 1980 - Jay Silverheels, Canadian actor (b. 1912)
- 1980 - Winifred Wagner, German opera producer (b. 1897)
- 1981 - Yip Harburg, American lyricist (b. 1896)
- 1982 - John Belushi, American actor (b. 1949)
- 1984 - Tito Gobbi, Italian baritone (b. 1915)
- 1984 - William Powell, American actor (b. 1892)
- 1988 - Alberto Olmedo, Argentine comedian (b. 1933)
- 1996 - Whit Bissell, American actor (b. 1909)
- 1997 - Samm Sinclair Baker, American diet author (b. 1909)
- 1999 - Richard Kiley, American actor (b. 1922)
- 2000 - Lolo Ferrari, French actress (b. 1970)
- 2004 - Walt Gorney, American actor (b. 1912)

Holidays and observances


- St Piran's Day - Cornwall's national day
- Feast of St. Kieran, patron of the Diocese of Ossory, in Irish calendar
- Approximate beginning of month of jīngzhé in Chinese calendar

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/5 BBC: On This Day] ---- March 4 - March 6 - February 5 - April 5 -- listing of all days ko:3월 5일 ja:3月5日 simple:March 5 th:5 มีนาคม

March 23

March 23 is the 82nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (83rd in Leap years). There are 283 days remaining.

Events


- 752 - Stephen II becomes Pope.
- 1568 - Peace of Longjumeau ends the Second War of Religion in France. Again Catherine de Medici and Charles IX of France make substantial concessions to the Huguenots.
- 1708 - James Francis Edward Stuart lands at the Firth of Forth.
- 1775 - American Revolutionary War: Patrick Henry delivers his famous speech - "give me liberty or give me death" at St. John's Church in Richmond, Virginia.
- 1801 - Tsar Paul I of Russia is struck with a sword, then strangled, and finally trampled to death in his bedroom at St. Michael Palace.
- 1806 - After traveling through the Louisiana Purchase and reaching the Pacific Ocean, explorers Lewis and Clark and their "Corps of Discovery" begin their arduous journey home.
- 1839 - First recorded use of "OK" as an abbreviation for "oll korrect" in the Boston Morning Post.
- 1848 - The ship John Wickliffe arrives at Port Chalmers carrying the first Scottish settlers for Dunedin, New Zealand. Otago province is founded.
- 1857 - Elisha Otis's first elevator is installed at 488 Broadway, New York City.
  - Death of Emile L'Angelier in Glasgow, Scotland -- possibly by the hand of Madeleine Smith.
- 1868 - The University of California is founded in Oakland, California when the Organic Act is signed into law.
- 1889 - Land run: President Benjamin Harrison opens Oklahoma to white settlement starting on April 22.
  - The free Woolwich Ferry officially opens in east London.
- 1903 - The Wright Brothers apply for a patent on their invention of one of the first successful airplanes after much hard work.
- 1909 - Theodore Roosevelt leaves New York for a post-presidency safari in Africa. The trip is sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution and National Geographic Society.
- 1919 - In Milan, Italy, Benito Mussolini founds his Fascist political movement.
- 1931 - Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt embrace the gallows during the Indian struggle for independence. Their request to be shot by a firing squad is refused.
- 1933 - The Reichstag passes the Enabling Act, making Adolf Hitler dictator of Germany.
- 1935 - Signing of the Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Philippines
- 1940 - The Lahore Resolution (Qarardad-e-Pakistan or the then Qarardad-e-Lahore) is put forward at the Annual General Convention of the All India Muslim League.
- 1942 - World War II: In the Indian Ocean, Japanese forces capture the Andaman Islands.
- 1956 - Pakistan becomes the first Islamic republic in the world.
- 1962 - NS Savannah, the first nuclear-powered cargo-passenger ship, was launched as a showcase for Dwight D. Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace initiative.
- 1963 - In London, United Kingdom, Grethe & Jørgen Ingmann win the eighth Eurovision Song Contest for Denmark singing "Dansevise" (Dancing tune).
- 1965 - NASA launches Gemini 3, the United States' first two-man space flight (crew: Gus Grissom and John Young).
- 1978 - The first UNIFIL troops arrived in Lebanon for peacekeeping mission along the Blue Line.
- 1983 - Strategic Defense Initiative: President Ronald Reagan makes his initial proposal to develop technology to intercept enemy missiles.
- 1989 - Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann announce cold fusion at the University of Utah.
  - A 1,000-foot diameter Near-Earth asteroid misses the Earth by 400,000 miles.
- 1994 - At an election rally in Tijuana, Mexican presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio is assassinated by Mario Aburto Martínez.
- 1996 - Taiwan holds its first direct elections and chooses Lee Teng-hui as President
- 1999 - Gunmen assassinate Paraguay's Vice President Luis María Argaña.
- 2001 - The Russian Mir space station is disposed of, breaking up in the atmosphere before falling into the southern Pacific Ocean near Fiji.
  - The World Wrestling Federation (WWF) (now World Wrestling Entertainment) purchases rival organization World Championship Wrestling (WCW) for an estimated $5 million.
- 2003 - In Nasiriyah, Iraq, 18 U.S. Marines are killed during the first major conflict of Operation Iraqi Freedom
- 2004 - Andhra Pradesh Federation of Trade Unions holds its first conference in Hyderabad, India.
- 2005 - The United States 11th Circuit Court of Appeals, in a 2-1 decision, refuses to order the reinsertion of Terri Schiavo's feeding tube.

Births

1429 to 1899


- 1429 - Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI of England (d. 1482)
- 1638 - Frederik Ruysch, Dutch physician and anatomist (d. 1731)
- 1699 - John Bartram, American botanist (d. 1777)
- 1723 - Agha Mohammad Khan Ghajar, King of Iran (d. 1771)
- 1749 - Pierre Simon de Laplace, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1827)
- 1754 - Baron Jurij Vega, Slovenian mathematician, physicist, and artillery officer (d. 1802)
- 1769 - William Smith, English geologist and cartographer (d. 1839)
- 1823 - Schuyler Colfax, Vice President of the United States (d. 1885)
- 1831 - Eduard Schlagintweit, German writer (d. 1866)
- 1834 - Julius Reubke, German composer (d. 1858)
- 1858 - Ludwig Quidde, German pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1941)
- 1878 - Franz Schreker, Austrian composer (d. 1934)
- 1881 - Roger Martin du Gard, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)
- 1881 - Hermann Staudinger, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)
- 1882 - Emmy Noether, German mathematician (d. 1935)
- 1887 - Juan Gris, Spanish artist (d. 1927)
- 1887 - Prince Felix Yussupov, Russian assassin of Rasputin (d. 1967)
- 1899 - Dora Gerson, German actress and singer (d. 1943)

1900 to 1999


- 1900 - Erich Fromm, German-born psychoanalyst (d. 1980)
- 1905 - Lale Andersen, German singer and cabaretist (d. 1972)
- 1905 - Joan Crawford, American actress (d. 1977)
- 1907 - Daniel Bovet, Swiss-born scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1992)
- 1910 - Akira Kurosawa, Japanese film director (d. 1998)
- 1912 - Betty Astell, British actress (d. 2005)
- 1912 - Wernher von Braun, German-born physicist and engineer (d. 1977)
- 1915 - Vasily Zaitsev, Russian World War II hero (d. 1991)
- 1929 - Sir Roger Bannister, British runner
- 1931 - Viktor Korchnoi, Russian chess player
- 1931 - Yevgenij Grishin, Russian speed skater (d. 2005)
- 1934 - Mark Rydell, American film and television director
- 1937 - Craig Breedlove, American land speed record holder
- 1938 - Maynard Jackson, American politician (d. 2003)
- 1942 - Walter Rodney, Guyanese historian and political figure (d. 1980)
- 1948 - David Olney, American musician
- 1949 - Ric Ocasek, American musician (The Cars)
- 1950 - Anthony De Longis, American actor
- 1951 - Corinne Clery, French actress
- 1952 - Kim Stanley Robinson, American author
- 1953 - Bo Diaz, Venezuelan baseball player (d. 1990)
- 1953 - Chaka Khan, American singer
- 1955 - Moses Malone, American basketball player
- 1956 - José Manuel Durão Barroso, Portuguese politician, president of the European Commission
- 1957 - Amanda Plummer, American actress
- 1960 - Nicol Stephen, Deputy First Minister of Scotland
- 1961 - Helmi Johannes, Indonesian television newscaster
- 1964 - Hope Davis, American actress
- 1965 - Richard Grieco, American actor and singer
- 1968 - Damon Albarn, English musician (Blur and Gorillaz)
- 1971 - Gail Porter, British television presenter
- 1971 - Karen McDougal, American model
- 1972 - Judith Godrèche, French actress and author
- 1973 - Jerzy Dudek, Polish footballer
- 1973 - Jason Kidd, American basketball player
- 1975 - Alydar, American racehorse (d. 1990)
- 1976 - Keri Russell, American actress
- 1978 - Nicholle Tom, American actress
- 1978 - Walter Samuel, Argentine football player
- 1979 - Mark Buehrle, baseball player
- 1979 - Chad Dittman, American president of the Indoor Football League
- 1979 - Misty Hyman, American swimmer
- 1983 - Jerome Thomas, English footballer

Deaths

1103 to 1899


- 1103 - Eudes I, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1058)
- 1369 - King Peter I of Castile (b. 1334)
- 1548 - Itagaki Nobukata, retainer of Takeda Shingen
- 1555 - Pope Julius III, (b. 1487)
- 1559 - Emperor Gelawdewos of Ethiopia (killed in battle) (b. 1522)
- 1596 - Henry Unton, English diplomat
- 1606 - Justus Lipsius, Flemish humanist (b. 1547)
- 1618 - James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Abercorn, Scottish politician
- 1653 - Johan van Galen, Dutch naval officer (b. 1604)
- 1680 - Nicolas Fouquet, French statesman (b. 1615)
- 1742 - Jean-Baptiste Dubos, French writer (b. 1670)
- 1747 - Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French soldier (b. 1675)
- 1748 - Johann Gottfried Walther, German music theorist, organist, and composer (b. 1684)
- 1754 - Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian (b. 1693)
- 1783 - Charles Caroll, American lawyer and delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1723)
- 1801 - Tsar Paul of Russia (b. 1754)
- 1842 - Stendhal, French writer (b. 1783)

1900 to 1999


- 1927 - Paul César Helleu, French artist (b. 1859)
- 1931 - Bhagat Singh, Indian freedom fighter (b. 1907)
- 1955 - Artur da Silva Bernardes, President of Brazil (b. 1875)
- 1960 - Franklin Pierce Adams, American newspaper columnist (b. 1881)
- 1964 - Peter Lorre, Hungarian-born actor (b. 1904)
- 1965 - Mae Murray, American actress (b. 1889)
- 1970 - Del Lord, Canadian director (b. 1894)
- 1972 - Cristóbal Balenciaga, Spanish fashion designer (b. 1895)
- 1979 - Orlando Letelier, Chilean ambassador to the United States (b. 1932)
- 1992 - Friedrich Hayek, Austrian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)
- 1994 - Luis Donaldo Colosio, Mexican politician (b. 1950)

2000 onwards


- 2002 - Eileen Farrell, American soprano (b. 1920)
  - Ben Hollioake, English cricketer (b. 1977)
- 2003 - Fritz Spiegl, Austrian-born journalist (b. 1926)
- 2004 - Rupert Hamer, Australian politician (b. 1916)

Holidays and observances


- Roman Empire - The fifth and final day of Quinquatria, held in honor of Minerva.
- Roman Empire - Tubilustrium was held in honor of Mars
- Ancient Latvia - Lieldienas held in honor of Mara and other goddesses
- Pakistan - National Day (Republic Day)
- Otago, New Zealand - Anniversary Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/23 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/3/23 Today in History: March 23] ---- March 22 - March 24 - February 23 - April 23 -- listing of all days ko:3월 23일 ms:23 Mac ja:3月23日 simple:March 23 th:23 มีนาคม

1754

1754 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events


- June 19 - The Albany Convention of New England Colonies proposes an American Union
- July - Columbia University founded as King's College by royal charter of King George II of England. The college was originally located in Lower Manhattan. Instruction was suspended in 1776 and the school would be reopened in 1784 as Columbia College. With the college's growth in the 19th Century, it would be renamed Columbia University in 1896.
- Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mahmud I (1730-1754) to Osman III (1754-1757)
- Beginning of the French and Indian War in North America.
- Britain and its colonies adopted a new Marriage Act that formulated many of the rules of modern marriage.

Births


- January 15 - Richard Martin, Irish founder of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (d. 1834)
- January 30 - John Lansing, Jr., American statesman (d. 1829)
- February 2 - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, French politician (d. 1838)
- March 17 - Madame Roland (Jeanne Marie Manon Philipon), French politician (d. 1793)
- March 23 - Baron Jurij Vega, Slovenian mathematician, physicist, and artillery officer (d. 1802)
- June 4 - Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, German scientific editor and astronomer (d. 1832)
- July 11 - Thomas Bowdler, English physician (d. 1825)
- August 2 - Pierre Charles L'Enfant, French architect (d. 1825)
- August 21 - William Murdoch, Scottish inventor (d. 1839)
- August 23 - King Louis XVI of France (d. 1793)
- September 9 - William Bligh, English sailor (d. 1817)
- September 26 - Joseph Proust, French chemist (d. 1826)
- October 1 - Emperor Paul I of Russia (d. 1801)
- December 24 - George Crabbe, English poet (d. 1832)
- Jacques Pierre Brissot, French politician (d. 1795)
- Usman dan Fodio, Nigerian Islamic theologan (d. 1817)

Deaths


- January 10 - Edward Cave, English editor and publisher (b. 1691)
- January 28 - Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian dramatist and writer (b. 1684)
- February 16 - Richard Mead, English physician (b. 1673)
- March 6 - Henry Pelham, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1696)
- March 23 - Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian (b. 1693)
- April 2 - Thomas Carte, English historian (b. 1686)
- April 9 - Christian Wolff, German philosopher, mathematician, and scientist (b. 1679)
- April 15 - Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician (b. 1676)
- May 14 - Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée, French writer (b. 1692)
- May 23 - John Wood, the Elder, English architect (b. 1704)
- June 2 - Ebenezer Erskine, Scottish religious dissenter (b. 1680)
- July 4 - Philippe Néricault Destouches, French dramatist (b. 1680)
- October 4 - Tanacharison, Catawba Indian chief
- October 8 - Henry Fielding, English novelist (b. 1707)
- November 27 - Abraham de Moivre, French mathematician (b. 1667)
- December 12 - Wu Jingzi, Chinese writer (b. 1701)
- December 13 - Mahmud I, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1696) Category:1754 ko:1754년

Switzerland

The Swiss Confederation or Switzerland (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica) is a landlocked federal republic in Europe, bordering Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein. The country has a strong tradition of political and military neutrality, but also of international cooperation, and is home to many international organisations. Confoederatio Helvetica is the Latin official name. The use of Latin avoids having to choose one of the four official languages. The abbreviation (CH) is similarly used; for example, it is used as Switzerland's ccTLD, .ch. The Latin title Confoederatio Helvetica means Helvetic Confederation. The titles commonly used in French, Italian and Romansh translate as Swiss Confederation, while the German name of Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft translates roughly as "Swiss Oath Fellowship" or "Swiss Commonwealth of the Covenant".

History

Switzerland is a federation of relatively autonomous cantons, some of which have a history of confederacy that goes back more than 700 years, arguably putting them among the world's oldest surviving republics. According to the popular legend, in 1291, representatives of the three forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden signed the Federal Charter. The charter united the involved parties in the struggle against foreign rule by the Habsburgs, who then held the German imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire. At the Battle of Morgarten on November 15, 1315, the Swiss defeated the Habsburg army and secured quasi-independence as the Swiss Confederation. The authenticity of the Federal Charter is disputed, with many historians agreeing that it is in fact a forgery of the 14th century. By 1353, the three original cantons had been joined by the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the city states of Lucerne, Zürich and Berne, forming the "Old Federation" of eight states that persisted during much of the 15th century (although Zürich was expelled from the confederation during the 1440s due to a territorial conflict) and led to a significant increase of power and wealth of the federation, in particular due to the victories over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The traditional listing order of the cantons of Switzerland reflects this state, listing the eight "Old Cantons" first, with the city states preceding the founding cantons, followed by cantons that joined the federation after 1481, in historical order. The Swiss victory in a war against the Swabian League in 1499 amounted to de facto independence from the Holy Roman Empire. In 1506, Pope Julius II engaged the Swiss Guard that continues to serve the Vatican to the present day. The expansion of the federation, and the reputation of invincibility acquired during the earlier wars, suffered a first setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal wars in 1529 and 1531 (Kappeler Kriege). The conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the battles of Villmergen in 1656 and 1712. 1712] Under the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, European countries recognised Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality (ancien régime). In 1798, the armies of the French Revolution conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country and effectively abolished the cantons. The new regime was known as the Helvetic Republic and was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army, had destroyed centuries of tradition, including the right to worship, and had made Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. Uprisings were common and only the presence of French troops kept them from succeeding. The brutal French suppression of the Nidwalden revolt in September was especially infamous. When war broke out between France and other countries Switzerland found itself being invaded by other outside forces from Austria and Russia. The Swiss were divided mainly between "Republicans" who were in favour of a centralised government, and "Federalists" who wanted to restore autonomy to the cantons. The violent conflict between both sides was never-ending. In Paris in 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 Cantons. From then on much of Swiss politics would be about preserving the cantons' right to self-rule and the need for a central government. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise the Swiss neutrality. At this time, the territory of Switzerland was increased for the last time, by the new cantons of Valais, Neuchatel and Geneva. In 1847, a civil war broke out between the Catholic and the Protestant cantons (Sonderbundskrieg). Its immediate cause was a 'special treaty' (Sonderbund) of the Catholic cantons. The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties. Apart from small riots, this was the latest armed conflict on Swiss territory. As a consequence of the civil war, Switzerland adopted a federal constitution in 1848, amending it extensively in 1874 and establishing federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters. In 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy, which remains unique even today. Since then, continued political, economic, and social improvement has characterised Swiss history. In 1920, Switzerland joined the League of Nations, and in 1963 the Council of Europe. Switzerland proclaimed neutrality in World War I and was not involved militarily in the conflict. Neutrality was again proclaimed in World War II, and although a German intervention was both planned and anticipated, it ultimately didn't occur. The massive mobilisation of Swiss armed forces under the leadership of General Henri Guisan is often cited as a decisive factor that the German invasion was never initiated. Modern historical findings, such as the research done by the Bergier commission, indicate that another major factor was the continued trade by Swiss banks with Nazi Germany. Bergier commission Women were granted the right to vote in the first cantons in 1959, at the federal level in 1971, in the last canton, Appenzell Innerrhoden, only in 1990. In 1979, parts of the canton of Berne attained independence, forming the new canton of Jura. On April 18, 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution. In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is not a member state of the EU but applied for membership therein in May 1992. Switzerland has not advanced this application since the rejection, by referendum, of the European Economic Area in December 1992. However, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to that of the EU and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland (together with Liechtenstein) has been surrounded by the EU since Austria's membership in 1995. On June 5, 2005, Swiss voters agreed, by a 55% majority, to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was welcomed by EU commentators as a sign of goodwill by a Switzerland that is traditionally perceived as isolationist.

Politics

Schengen treaty]] The bicameral Swiss parliament, the Federal Assembly, is the primary seat of power, apart from the Federal Council. Both houses, the Council of States and the National Council, have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation. Under the 1999 constitution, cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation. The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from former half cantons) are directly elected in each canton, whereas the 200 members of the National Council are elected directly under a system of proportional representation. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. Through referenda citizens may challenge any law voted by federal parliament and through initiatives introduce amendments to the federal constitution, making Switzerland a semi-direct democracy. The top executive body and collective Head of State is the Federal Council, a collegial body of seven members. Although the constitution provides that the Assembly elects and supervises the members of the Council, the latter (and its administration) has gradually assumed a pre-eminent role in directing the legislative process as well as executing federal laws. The President of the Confederation is elected from the seven to assume special representative functions for a one-year term. From 1959 to December 2003, the four major parties were represented in the Federal Council according to the "magic formula", proportional to their representation in federal parliament: 2 Christian Democrats (CVP/PDC), 2 from the Social Democrats (SPS/PSS), 2 Free Democrats (FDP/PRD), and 1 from the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC). This traditional distribution of seats, however, is not backed up by any law, and in the 2003 elections to the Federal Council the CVP/PDC lost their second seat to the SVP/UDC. The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals of cantonal courts or the administrative rulings of the federal administration. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms. See also: International relations of Switzerland

Direct democracy

Switzerland features a system of government not seen at the national level on any other place on earth: Direct democracy. Any citizen may challenge a law that has been passed by parliament. If he is able to gather 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days, a national vote has to be scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law. Also, any citizen may seek a decision on an amendment they want to make to the constitution. For such an amendment initiative to be organised, the signatures of 100,000 voters must be collected within 18 months. Such a popular initiative may be formulated as a general proposal or - much more often - be put forward as a precise new text whose wording can no longer be changed by parliament and the government. After a successful vote gathering, the federal council may create a counterproposal to the proposed amendment and put it to vote on the same day. Such counterproposals are usually a compromise between the status quo and the wording of the initiative. Voters will again decide in a national vote whether to accept the initiative amendment, the counterproposal put forward by the government or both. If both are accepted, one has to additionally signal a preference. Initiatives have to be accepted by a double majority of both the popular votes and a majority of the states.

Energy politics

The energy generated in Switzerland comprises around 40 percent nuclear power and 60 percent from hydroelectricity. On May 18, 2003, two referenda regarding the future of nuclear power in Switzerland were held. The referendum Electricity without nuclear asked for a decision on a nuclear power phase-out and Moratorium Plus asked about an extension an existing law forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down: Moratorium Plus by a margin of 41.6% for and 58.4% opposed, and Electricity Without Nuclear by a margin of 33.7% for and 66.3% opposed. The former ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes (see Nuclear power phase-out#Switzerland for details).

Cantons (states)

Nuclear power phase-out#Switzerland]] The Swiss Confederation consists of 26 cantons:
- These cantons are represented by only one councillor in the Council of States. Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km² (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km² (Grisons). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,889 municipalities. The following are enclaves within Switzerland: Büsingen is territory of Germany, Campione d'Italia is territory of Italy.

Geography

Italy With an area of 41,285 km², Switzerland is a small country. The population is around 7.4 million, resulting in a population density of 184 people per km². Switzerland comprises three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps, the Swiss plateau, and the Jura mountains.The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country. Among the high peaks of the Swiss Alps, the highest of which is the Dufour Peak at 4,634 m, are found countless valleys, some with glaciers. From these the headwaters of several major European rivers such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, the Aare or the Ticino, flow down into lakes such as Lake Geneva, Lake Zürich, Lake Neuchâtel, and Lake Constance. Lake Constance The northern, more populous part of the country is more open, but can still be mountainous, for example, in the Jura Mountains, a smaller range in the northwest. The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from harsh conditions on the high mountains to the often pleasant Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. A zoomable map of Switzerland is available at either [http://www.swissinfo-geo.org www.swissinfo-geo.org] or [http://www.swissgeo.ch www.swissgeo.ch]; a zoomable satellite picture is at [http://map.search.ch/ map.search.ch].
See also: Swisstopo topographical survey, List of lakes of Switzerland, List of rivers of Switzerland, List of mountain passes in Switzerland.

Economy

Switzerland is a prosperous and stable modern market economy, with a per capita GDP that is higher than those of the big western European economies. For much of the 20th century Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin. However since the early 1990s it has suffered from slow growth, and as of 2005 it had fallen to fourth among European states with populations above one million in terms of Gross Domestic Product per capita at purchasing power parity, behind Ireland, Denmark and Norway (see list). Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association. In recent years, the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the European Union, in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness, but this has not produced strong growth. Full EU membership is a long-term objective of the Swiss government, but there is considerable popular sentiment against this. To this end, it has established an [http://www.europa.admin.ch/e/index.htm Integration Office] under the Department of Foreign and Economic Affairs. To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Bern and Brussels signed seven agreements, called Bilateral Agreements I, to further liberalise trade ties in 1999 and entering into force in 2001. This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons. A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and awaits ratification. The second series includes the Schengen treaty and the Dublin Convention. They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation. Preparatory discussions are being opened on four new areas: opening up the electricity market, participation in the European GPS system Galileo, cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products. Switzerland voted against membership in the European Economic Area in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union and European countries through bilateral agreements.
- List of Swiss companies
- Swiss bank

Demographics

Swiss bank (19.2%),
Italian (7.6%),
Romansh (0.6%)]] Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures that have heavily influenced the country's languages and culture. Switzerland has three nationwide official languages (German (64%) in the north and centre, French (19%) to the west, and Italian (8%) in the south), plus a fourth national language that is considered official locally (Romansh, a Romance language spoken by a small minority (< 1%) in the southeastern canton of Graubünden and in parts of Ticino). The federal government is obliged to communicate in the three official languages. In the federal parliament, German, French and Italian are the official languages and simultaneous translation is provided. The German spoken in Switzerland is predominantly a group of dialects that are almost unintelligible to Germans and are collectively known as Swiss German, but written communication and broadcasts typically use standard German. Swiss French and Swiss Italian differ far less from their counterparts in France and Italy, respectively. Learning one of the other national languages at school is obligatory for all Swiss, so most Swiss are at least bilingual. English is considered by some as a Swiss lingua franca, and most Swiss people have some command of English; many Swiss documents and websites are available in English. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 20% of the population. The most popular religion in Switzerland is Roman Catholicism (43% of the population). There are various Protestant denominations (35%), while immigration has brought Islam (4%) and Eastern Orthodoxy (2%) as sizeable minority religions. The stability and prosperity of Switzerland, combined with a linguistically diverse population, has led some to describe the country as a consensus, or consociational state.
- List of Swiss people

Culture

List of Swiss people] The culture of Switze