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Sewage Treatment

Sewage treatment

Sewage treatment is the process that removes the majority of the contaminants from waste-water or sewage and produces both a liquid effluent suitable for disposal to the natural environment and a sludge. To be effective, sewage must be conveyed to a treatment plant by appropriate pipes and infrastructure and the process itself must be subject to regulation and controls. Other wastewaters require often different and sometimes specialised treatment methods.

Description

Sewage is the liquid waste from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, etc. that is disposed of via sewers. In many areas sewage also includes some liquid waste from industry and commerce. In the UK, the waste from toilets is termed foul waste, the waste from items such as basins, baths, kitchens is termed sullage water, and the industrial and commercial waste is termed trade waste. The division of household water drains into greywater and blackwater is becoming more common in the developed world, with greywater being permitted to be used for watering plants or recycled for flushing toilets. Much sewage also includes some surface water from roofs or hard-standing areas. Municipal wastewater therefore includes residential, commercial, and industrial liquid waste discharges, and may include stormwater runoff. Sewerage systems that transport liquid waste discharges and stormwater together to a common treatment facility are called combined sewer systems. The construction of combined sewers is a less common practice in the U.S. and Canada than in the past and is no longer accepted within Building Regulations in the UK and other European countries. Instead, liquid waste and stormwater are collected and conveyed in separate sewer systems, referred to as sanitary sewers and storm sewers in the U.S. and as foul sewers and surface water sewers in the UK. Overflows from foul sewers designed to relieve pressure from heavy rainfall are termed storm sewers or combined sewer overflows. As rainfall runs over the surface of roofs and the ground, it may pick up various contaminants including soil particles (sediment), heavy metals, organic compounds, animal waste, and oil and grease. Some jurisdictions require stormwater to receive some level of treatment before being discharged to the environment. Examples of treatment processes used for stormwater include sedimentation basins, wetlands, and vortex separators (to remove coarse solids). The conventional sewage treatment process typically involves the following three stages: #Primary treatment - to settle out solids #Secondary treatment - to remove the dissolved and emulsified components #Tertiary treatment - to make the effluent fit to be received in the environment. The site where the process is conducted is called a sewage treatment plant. The flow scheme of a sewage treatment plant is generally the same for all countries:
- Mechanical treatment; ::Influx (Influent) ::Removal of large objects ::Removal of sand ::Pre-precipitation
- Biological treatment; ::High-charged and low-charged purification systems ::Oxidation bed (oxidizing bed) ::Aerated systems ::Post precipitation ::Effluent
- Chemical treatment (this step is usually combined with settling and other processes to remove solids, such as filtration. The combination is referred to in the US as physical-chemical treatment. It is rarely used along with biological treatment.).

Primary treatment

Primary treatment is to reduce oils, grease, fats, sand, grit, and coarse (settleable) solids. This step is done entirely with machinery, hence the name mechanical treatment.

Influx (influent) and removal of large objects

In the mechanical treatment, the influx (influent) of sewage water is strained to remove all large objects that are deposited in the sewer system, such as condoms, sanitary towels (sanitary napkins) or tampons, cans, fruit, etc. This is most commonly done using a manual or automated mechanically raked screen. This type of waste is removed because it can damage the sensitive equipment in the sewage treatment plant.

Sand and grit removal

This stage typically includes a sand or grit channel where the velocity of the incoming wastewater is carefully controlled to allow sand grit and stones to settle but still maintain the majority of the organic material within the flow. This equipment is called a detritor or sand catcher. Sand grit and stones need to be removed early in the process to avoid damage to pumps and other equipment in the remaining treatment stages. Sometimes there is a sand washer (grit classifier) followed by a conveyor that transports the sand to a container for disposal. The contents from the sand catcher may be fed into the incinerator in a sludge processing plant but in many cases the sand and grit is sent to a land-fill.

Screening or maceration

The grit free liquid is then passed through fixed or rotating screens to remove floating and larger material such as rags. Screenings are collected and may be returned to the sludge treatment plant or may be disposed of off site by landfilling or incineration. Maceration, in which solids are cut into small particles through the use of rotating knife edges mounted on a revolving cylinder, is used in plants that are able to process this particulate waste. Macerators are, however, more expensive to maintain and are less reliable than physical screens.

Sedimentation

landfill In almost all plants there is a sedimentation stage where the sewage is allowed to pass through large circular or rectangular tanks. The tanks are large enough that faecal solids can settle and floating material such as grease and plastics can rise to the surface and be skimmed off. The main purpose of the primary stage is to produce a generally homogeneous liquid capable of being treated biologically and a sludge that can be separately treated or processed. Primary settlement tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank from where it can be pumped to further sludge treatment stages.

Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the sewage such as are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority of municipal and industrial plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. For this to be effective, the biota require both oxygen and a substrate on which to live. There are number of ways in which this is done. In all these methods, the bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc particles. Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed film or suspended growth. In fixed film systems - such as roughing filters - the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. In suspended growth systems - such as activated sludge - the biomass is well mixed with the sewage. Typically, fixed film systems require smaller footprints than for an equivalent suspended growth system; however, suspended growth systems are more able to cope with shocks in biological loading and provide higher removal rates for BOD and suspended solids than fixed film systems.

Roughing filters

Roughing filters are intended to treat particularly strong or variable organic loads, typically industrial. They are typically tall, circular filters filled with open synthetic filter media to which sewage is applied at a relatively high rate. The design of the filters allows high hydraulic loading and a high flow-through of air. On larger installations, air is forced through the media using blowers. The resultant liquor is usually within the normal range for conventional treatment processes.

Activated sludge

Activated sludge plants use a variety of mechanisms and processes to use dissolved oxygen to generate a biological floc that substantially removes organic material. It also traps particulate material and can, under ideal conditions, convert ammonia to nitrite and nitrate and ultimately to nitrogen gas, (see also denitrification).

Filter Beds (Oxidising beds)

denitrification In older plants and plants receiving more variable loads, trickling filter beds are used where the settled sewage liquor is spread onto the surface of a deep bed made up of coke (carbonised coal), limestone chips or specially fabricated plastic media. Such media must have high surface areas to support the biofilms that form. The liquor is distributed through perforated rotating arms radiating from a central pivot. The distributed liquor trickles through this bed and is collected in drains at the base. These drains also provide a source of air which percolates up through the bed, keeping it aerobic. Biological films of bacteria, protozoa and fungi form on the medias' surfaces and eat or otherwise reduce the organic content.

Rotating plates and spirals

In some smaller plants slowly revolving plates or spirals are used which are partially submerged in the liquor. A biotic floc is created which provides the required substrate.

High-charged and low-charged purification systems

In the high-charged system, the bacteria are fed large quantities of "food" quickly. In a low-charged system the bacteria have a resting period between 'meals'. Differences between high- and low-charged systems:
- High-charged
- Large amount of bacterial mass (a large part is surplus)
- Lifetime of bacteria is short
- Bacteria converting nitrogen to nitrate can't do this because the generation time of the bacteria is much longer than the age of the sludge
- Low-charged
- The bacterial mass will degrade
- Longer lifetime of the bacteria (up to three weeks)
- Less surplus
- Better conversion of nitrogen in nitrate

Secondary sedimentation

The final step in the secondary treatment stage is to settle out the biological floc or filter material and produce an effluent with very low levels of organic material and suspended matter. fungi

Tertiary treatment

Tertiary treatment provides a final stage to raise the effluent quality to the standard required before it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.) More than one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is always the final process.

Effluent polishing

Filtration

Slow sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated carbon removes residual toxins.

Lagooning

Lagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large man-made ponds or lagoons.

Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands include engineered reed beds and a range of similar methodologies, all of which provide a high degree of aerobic biological improvement and can often be used instead of secondary treatment for small communities, also see phytoremediation.

Nutrient removal

Wastewater may also contain high levels of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) that in certain forms may be toxic to fish and invertebrates at very low concentrations(e.g. ammonia) or that can create nuisance conditions in the receiving environment (e.g. weed or algal growth). Weeds and algae may seem to be an aesthetic issue, but algae can produce toxins, and their death and consumption by bacteria (decay) can deplete oxygen in the water and suffocate desirable fish. Where receiving rivers discharge to lakes or shallow seas, the added nutrients can cause severe eutrophication losing many sensitive clean water fish. The removal of nitrogen and/or phosphorus from wastewater can be achieved either biologically or by chemical precipitation.

Nitrogen removal

Biological reduction of nitrogen creates conditions for bacteria to convert the ammonia to nitrate (nitrification), and then allows other bacteria to reduce the nitrate to nitrogen gas (denitrification), which is released to the atmosphere. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to reduce nitrogen. Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment.

Phosphorus removal

The biological removal of phosphorus also creates conditions within a treatment plant to enable specific bacteria to accumulate large quantities of phosphorus. When the bacteria containing the phosphorus are removed, the bacterial biosolids often have a high fertilizer value. Phosphorus can also be removed by chemical precipitation using (commonly) salts of iron (e.g. ferric chloride) or aluminum (e.g. alum). The resulting chemical sludge, however, is difficult to dispose of, and the use of chemicals in the treatment process is expensive and makes operation difficult and often messy.

Disinfection

The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of wastewater is to substantially reduce the number of living organisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., turbitidy, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental variables. Turbid water will be treated less successfully since solid matter can shield organisms, especially from Ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, or UV light. Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in waste water treatment because of its persistence. Chlorination remains the most common form of wastewater disinfection in North America due to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that chlorination of residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and cost of treatment. Ultraviolet (UV) Light is becoming the most common means of disinfection in the UK because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving water. UV radiation is used to damage the genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction. The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect microorganisms from the UV light). Ozone ₃ is generated by passing oxygen ₂ through a high voltage potential resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming ₃. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many disease-causing microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is generated onsite as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and the requirements for highly skilled operators.

Package plants and batch reactors

In order to use less space, treat difficult waste, deal with intermittent flow or achieve higher environmental standards, a number of designs of hybrid treatment plants have been produced. Such plants often combine all or at least two stages of the three main treatment stages into one combined stage. In the UK, where a large number of sewage treatment plants serve small populations, package plants are a viable alternative to building discrete structures for each process stage. For example, one process which combines secondary treatment and settlement is the Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR). Typically, activated sludge is mixed with raw incoming sewage and mixed and aerated. The resultant mixture is then allowed to settle producing a high quality effluent. The settled sludge is run off and re-aerated before a proportion is returned to the head of the works. SBR plants are now being deployed in many parts of the world including North Liberty, Iowa, and Llanasa, North Wales. The disadvantage of such processes is that precise control of timing, mixing and aeration is required. This precision is usually achieved by computer controls linked to many sensors in the plant. Such a complex, fragile system is unsuited to places where such controls may be unreliable, o rpoorly maintained, or where the power supply may be intermittent.

Sludge treatment

The coarse primary solids and secondary biosolids (bacteria) accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. This material is often inadvertently contaminated with toxic organic and inorganic compounds (e.g. heavy metals). The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting.

Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial process that is carried out in the absence of oxygen. The process can either be thermophilic digestion (in which sludge is fermented in tanks heated to about 38°C) or mesophilic digestion (cold digestion of sludge where sludge is maintained in large tanks for weeks to allow natural mineralisation of the sludge). Thermophilic digestion generates biogas with a high proportion of methane that may be used to both heat the tank and run engines or microturbines for other on-site processes. In large treatment plants sufficient energy can be generated in this way to produce more electricity than the machines require. The methane generation is a key advantage of the anaerobic process. Its key disadvantage is the long time required for the process (up to 30 days) and the high capital cost. No treatment plants currently use the process, but under laboratory conditions it is possible to directly generate useful amounts of electricity from organic sludge using naturally occurring electrochemically active bacteria. Potentially, this technique could lead to positive ecological impact power generation, but in order to be effective such a microbial fuel cell must maximize the contact area between the effluent and the bacteria-coated anode surface, which could severely hamper throughput.

Aerobic digestion

Aerobic digestion is a bacterial process occurring in the presence of oxygen. Under aerobic conditions, bacteria rapidly consume organic matter and convert it into carbon dioxide. Once there is a lack of organic matter, bacteria die and are used as food by other bactieria. This stage of the process is known as endogenous respiration. Solids reduction occurs in this phase. Because the aerobic digestion occurs much faster than anaerobic digestion, the capital costs of aerobic digestion are lower. However, the operating costs are characteristically much greater for aerobic digestion because of energy costs for aeration needed to add oxygen to the process.

Composting

Composting is also an aerobic process that involves mixing the wastewater solids with sources of carbon such as sawdust or wood chips. In the presence of oxygen, bacteria digest both the wastewater solids and the added carbon source and, in doing so, produce a large amount of heat. Properly designed and controlled, the heat generated can be sufficient to significantly destroy a sufficient number of the disease-causing microorganisms to enable the resulting composted product to be safely used as a soil amendment material (with similar benefits to peat) for agricultural use. Both anaerobic and aerobic digestion processes can result in the destruction of disease-causing microorganisms and parasites to a sufficient level to allow the resulting digested solids to be safely applied to land or used for agriculture as a fertilizer provided that levels of toxic constituents are sufficiently low. The choice of a wastewater solid treatment method depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. However, in general, composting is most often applied to smaller-scale applications followed by aerobic digestion and then lastly anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale municipal applications.

Thermal depolymerization

Thermal depolymerization uses hydrous pyrolysis to convert reduced complex organics to oil. Basically, the premacerated, grit-reduced sludge is heated to 250C and compressed to 40 MPa. The hydrogen in the water inserts itself between chemical bonds in natural polymers such as fats, proteins and cellulose. The oxygen of the water combines with carbon, hydrogen and metals. The result is oil, light combustible gases such as methane, propane and butane, water with soluble salts, carbon dioxide, and a small residue of inert insoluble material that resembles powdered rock and char. All organisms and many organic toxins are destroyed. Inorganic salts such as nitrates and phosphates remain in the water after treatment at sufficiently high levels that further treatment is required. The energy from decompressing the material is recovered, and the process heat and pressure is usually powered from the light combustible gases. The oil is usually treated further to make a refined useful light grade of oil, such as no. 2 diesel and no. 4 heating oil, and then sold. The process can be made quite efficient.

Sludge disposal

When a liquid sludge is produced, further treatment may be required to make it suitable for final disposal. Typically, sludges are thickened (dewatered) to reduce the volumes transported off-site for disposal. Processes for reducing water content include lagooning in drying beds to produce a cake that can be applied to land or incinerated; pressing, where sludge is mechanically filtered, often through cloth screens to produce a firm cake; and centrifugation where the sludge is thickened by centrifugally separating the solid and liquid. Sludges can be disposed of by liquid injection to land or by disposal in a landfill. There are concerns about sludge incineration because of air pollutants in the emissions, along with the high cost of supplemental fuel, making this a less attractive and less commonly constructed means of sludge treatment and disposal. There is no process which completely eliminates the requirements for disposal of biosolids.

Treatment in the receiving environment

incineration Many processes in a wastewater treatment plant are designed to mimic the natural treatment processes that occur in the environment, whether that environment is a natural water body or the ground. If not overloaded, bacteria in the environment will consume organic contaminants, although this will reduce the levels of oxygen in the water and may significantly change the overall ecology of the receiving water. Native bacterial populations feed on the organic contaminants, and the numbers of disease-causing microorganisms are reduced by natural environmental conditions such as predation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, etc. Consequently in cases where the receiving environment provides a high level of dilution, a high degree of wastewater treatment may not be required. However, recent evidence has demonstrated that very low levels of certain contaminants in wastewater, including hormones (from animal husbandry and residue from human birth control pills) and synthetic materials such as phthalates that mimic hormones in their action, can have an unpredictable adverse impact on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is re-used for drinking water. In the US, uncontrolled discharges of wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law, and strict water quality requirements are to be met.

External links

- [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/msolidwaste.html What happens to all the stuff that goes down the toilet?] (from The Straight Dope)
- [http://maps.google.ca/maps?ll=49.213392,-123.230124&spn=0.016778,0.068167&t=k&hl=en Satellite image of a sewage treatment plant] in Vancouver from Google Maps.
- [http://photos.innersource.com/group/8557 Photos of various waste water treatment plants.]
- [http://www.hkc22.com/watermarketsworldwide.html wastewater treatment worldwide.] Category:Sewerage Category:Environmental engineering

Sewage

:"Waterworks" redirects here. For other uses, see Waterworks (disambiguation). Sewage is domestic, municipal, or industrial liquid waste products disposed of via a pipe or similar structure. The physical infrastructure, including pipes, pumps, screens, channels etc. used to convey sewage from its origin to the point of eventual treatment or disposal is termed sewerage, a term often mistakenly used to refer to sewage.

Composition of sewage

Sewage is a variable liquid mixture comprising material from some or all of the following sources:
- Human waste (faeces, paper, wipes and urine + other bodily fluids) also known as black water
- Washing water (personal, clothes, floors etc.) also known as grey water
- Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standing etc. (traces of oils and fuel but generally clean)
- Ground water infiltrated into sewage pipes
- Surplus manufactured liquids from domestic sources ( drinks, cooking oil, pesticides, lubricating oil, paint, cleaning liquids etc.)
- General urban rainfall run-off from roads, car-parks, roofs, side-walks or pavements (contains oils, animal faeces, litter, fuel residues, rubber residues, metals from vehicle exhausts etc)
- Industrial cooling waters
- Industrial process waters
- Sea water ingress
- Direct ingress of river water
- Direct ingress of man-mad liquids (illegal disposal of pesticides, used oils etc.) The composition of each sewage stream varies widely, but sewage derived from a large city can be expected to contain (the examples given here represent only a small proportion of the rage of materials actually encountered):
- Water ( > 95%)
- Non pathogenic bacteria (> 100,000 / ml)
- Pathogens - (Bacteria, viruses, prions, parasitic worms).
- Organic particles (Faeces, hair, food, vomitus, paper fibres, plant material, humus etc.)
- Soluble organic material (Urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals etc.)
- Inorganic particles ( sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics etc)
- Soluble inorganic material (ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulphide, thiocyanates, thiosulphates)
- Animals (Protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, abandoned pets etc.)
- Macro-solids (sanitary towels, nappies/ diapers, condoms, needles, children's toys, body parts, etc.)
- Gases (hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane)
- Emulsions ( oils in emulsion, paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colourants)
- Toxins (pesticides, poisons, herbicides )

Sewage disposal

(See also sewage treatment) In some urban areas, sewage is carried separately in sanitary sewers while runoff from streets is carried in storm drains. Access to either of these is typically through a manhole. Sewage may drain directly into major watersheds with minimal or no treatment. When untreated, sewage can have serious impacts on the quality of an environment and on the health of people. Pathogens can cause a variety of illnesses. Some chemicals pose risks even at very low concentrations and can remain a threat for long periods of time because of bioaccumulation in animal or human tissue.

Sewage collection and disposal

Urban areas require some method for collection and disposal of sewage.

Collection

Wastewater collection systems consist of buried pipelines which convey the wastewater by gravity to the treatment plant. Where pipeline excavation is difficult (e.g. rock) or there is limited topographic relief (i.e. flat terrain), gravity collection systems may not be practical and the sewage must be pumped through the pipeline (i.e. forcemains) to the treatment plant. For some low-lying communities wastewater may be conveyed by vacuum. Pipelines may range in size from pipes of six inches (150 mm) in diameter to concrete lined tunnels of up to thirty feet (10 Metre) in diameter.

Contaminant source control

Wastewater is collected by sanitary sewer systems (foul sewerage system in the UK) and is typically conveyed to a centralized wastewater treatment facility where it is treated in several stages to reduce the level of some contaminants. Because industrial liquid waste may contain a wide range of chemicals, solvents, and other contaminants that cannot be effectively removed by the centralized wastewater treatment plant, industries are often required to pre-treat their liquid wastes prior to discharging to sewer. Most major municipal jurisdictions in North America with significant industrial liquid waste sources have discharge bylaws that restrict the quantity and maximum level of specific contaminants that may be discharged to sewers. In the UK charges are levied on industries who discharge industrial waste to the sewers. These charges relate to volume, organic strength and their toxic metal content.

Historical sewage conveyance and disposal

As recently as 100 years ago in major cities of developed countries, and up to the present day in many parts of the world, the primary concern with sewage was the matter of conveying it away from inhabited areas. Aside from its unpleasant odor, even early humans were aware that health problems arose when human waste was allowed to contaminate drinking water supplies. Therefore, the historical focus of sewage treatment was on conveyance of raw sewage to a natural body of water, such as a river or ocean, where it would be satisfactorily diluted and dissipated. Early human habitations were often built next to water sources. Rivers could double as a crude form of natural sewage disposal. Higher population densities required more complex sewer collection and conveyance systems in order to maintain (somewhat) sanitary conditions in crowded cities. The city of Mohenjo-daro, constructed around 2600 BC had brick lined sewage drains and also had outdoor toilets connected to this network. Ancient Minoan civilization had stone sewers that were periodically flushed with clean water. Roman towns and garrisons in the UK between 46 BC and 400 AD had complex sewer networks sometimes constructed out of hollowed out Elm logs which were shaped so that they butted together with the down-stream pipe providing a socket for the upstream pipe. A significant development was the construction of a network of sewers to collect waste water. In some cities, including Rome and Istanbul (Constantinople), networked ancient sewer systems continue to function today as collection systems for those cities' modernized sewer systems. Instead of flowing to a river or the sea, the pipes have been re-routed to modern sewer treatment facilities. However, many cities had no sewers and relied on nearby rivers or occasional rain to wash away sewage. In some cities, waste water simply ran down the streets, which had stepping stones to keep pedestrians out of the muck, and eventually drained as runoff into the local watershed. This was enough in early cities with few occupants but the growth of cities quickly overpolluted streets and became a constant source of disease. Even as recently as the late 19th century sewerage systems in parts of the highly industrialised UK were so inadequate that water borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid were still common. In Merthyr Tydfil, a large town in South Wales, most houses discharged their sewage to individual cess-pits which persistently overflowed causing the pavement (sidewalk) to be awash with foul sewage.

External links

- [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/msolidwaste.html What happens to all the stuff that goes down the toilet?] (from The Straight Dope) Category:Sewerage

Toilet

A toilet is a plumbing fixture and a disposal system primarily intended for the disposal of the bodily wastes urine and feces. In addition to this primary purpose, it is frequently used to dispose of other bodily wastes such as menses, semen, and vomit, small items such as cigarette ash, cockroaches, dead fish and other small pets, and in a pinch, contraband. The word toilet can be used to refer to the fixture itself or the room containing it; the latter predominates mainly in British and Commonwealth usage.

Etymology

The word toilet came to be used in English along with other French fashions (first noted 1681), and originally referred to the whole complex of operations of hairdressing and body care that centered on a dressing table covered to the floor with cloth (toile) and lace, on which stood a dressing glass, which might also be draped in lace: the ensemble was a toilette. Alexander Pope in The Rape of the Lock (1717) described the intricacies of a lady's preparation: :‘And now, unveil'd, the toilet stands display'd :Each silver vase in mystic order laid.’ Through the 18th century, everywhere in the English-speaking world, a toilet remained a lady's draped dressing-table. The word was adapted as a genteel euphemism for water-closet, perhaps following the French usage cabinet de toilette, much as powder-room may be coyly used today, and this has been linked to the introduction of public toilets, for example on railway trains, which required a plaque on the door. The original usage has become indelicate and largely replaced by dressing-table. Vestiges of the original meaning continue to be reflected in terms such as toiletries and eau de toilette. This seemingly contradictory terminology has served as the basis for various parodies ranging from Jeff Foxworthy's routine ("If you think that "toilet water" is in fact toilet water, you just might be a redneck!") to Cosmopolitan magazine ("If it doesn't say 'eau de toilette' on the label, it most likely doesn't come from the famed region of Eau de Toilette en France and might not even come from toilets at all.") The word toilet itself may be considered an impolite word in the United States, whilst elsewhere the word is used without any embarrassment. This substitution implies that toilet is a lower-class word even in their marketing: American Standard, the largest manufacturer, sells them as "toilets", yet the higher priced products of the Kohler Company, often installed in higher classes of homes, are sold in the catalog as "commodes" or "closets". When referring to the room or the actual piece of equipment, the word toilet is often substituted with other euphemisms (and dysphemisms) such as: bathroom
bog
can
cloakroom
comfort room
commode
convenience
crapper
dump tank
dunny
facility or facilities
fountain
gentlemen's
gentlemen's club
gents
guest room (which also means "guest bedroom")
the head or heads (originally from naval usage)
khazi
jardine
john
ladies’
ladies’/ men’s room
ladies’/ men’s lounge
latrine
lavatory
little boys'/girls' room
long drop
library
loo
men’s
necessary
outhouse
place of easement poop-house
pot
powder room
privy
reading room
restroom
shit-house
shitter
smallest room
stables
throne
thunder box
washroom
water chamber
water closet
WC As old euphemisms have become accepted, they have been progressively replaced by newer ones, an example of the euphemism treadmill at work.

Khazi

Lexicographer Eric Partridge derives khazi, also spelt karzy, kharsie or carzey, from a low Cockney word carsey originating in the late 19th century and meaning a privvy. Carsey also referred to a den or brothel. It's presumably derived from the Italian casa for house.

Loo

The origin of the (chiefly British) term loo is unknown, but one theory is that it derives from a corruption of the French phrase gardez l'eau loosely translated as “watch out for the water!” The phrase served as a warning to passers-by when chamber pots were emptied from a window onto the street. A much more plausible theory comes from nautical terminology; loo being an old fashioned word for lee. Early ships were not fitted with toilets but the crew would urinate over the side of the vessel. However it was important to use the leeward side. Using the windward side would result in the urine blown back on board. Even on modern yachts, most (male) yachtsmen, whilst at sea, find it more convenient to go to the loo, than to use the heads.

Types of toilets

heads There are many different types of toilets around the world. There are also many different ways to clean yourself after you are finished using the toilet. A lot depends on national mores and local resources. The most common choice in the Western world is toilet paper, sometimes used in conjunction with the bidet; see toilet paper for a discussion of the many alternatives used through history and in different cultures. In most of Asia the custom is to use water rather than paper, traditionally the left hand is used for this for which reason that hand is considered impolite or polluted in many eastern countries. Some toilet areas are specially adapted for people with disabilities. These are wide enough to allow the entry by a person in a wheelchair and often feature hand-holds bolted to the wall, enabling the person to maneuver onto the toilet if necessary. The most common type of toilet in the West is the flush toilet, although the squat toilet is still somewhat common in public restrooms in southern and eastern Europe (including parts of France, Greece, Italy, and the Balkans) as well as East Asia (China and Japan) and other places. However, there are many different types of toilets: Main designs
- Flush toilet
- Squat toilet
- Urinal
- Wall-hung urinal
- Floor-length urinal
- Gutter type urinal
- Female urinal Specialty
- Toilet with built-in bidet
- Chemical toilet
- Dry toilet
- Pit toilet: very commonly in camping grounds in the United States. Also known as an outhouse in the U.S.
- Composting toilet: Very commonly found in camping grounds in Europe, and large climbing parks. Also found in some modern ecologically designed buildings.
- Urine-diverting, dry composting: a source-separation toilet that keeps urine and feces separate and simplifies the composting process. Can also be called an ecosan (from ecological sanitation) toilet, and is a viable alternative to flush sanitation in urban areas [http://ecosanres.org/].
- Incinerating toilet
- Head: a toilet on a boat, which often has a pump to bring cleaning sea water in and move waste outside the hull

Toilets in private residences

In the developed world almost all residences have at least one toilet. In the home, a toilet may or may not be in the same room as a shower, bathtub, and/or wash basin. Recent suggestions in India would make the ownership of a toilet compulsory for all politicians. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4742929.stm].

Public toilets

politicians Public facilities often have many toilets partitioned by stalls (US) or "cubicles" (UK), with the washing facilities in a separate area where other people of the same sex are present. The washing area may be common to both sexes. Facilities for men often also have separate urinals, either wall-mounted fixtures designed for a single user, or a constantly-draining basin or trough for collective use. Wall-mounted urinals are sometimes separated by small partitions or other obstructions for privacy, i.e., to keep the user's genitals hidden from public view. Outdoor public toilets (in the street, around parks, etc.) are a form of street furniture. For mixed sex arrangements, there are cubicles varying from simple devices with little or no plumbing to more luxurious versions that automatically clean themselves after every use. Facilities without walls all around are typically for urination only, and for men only; although passers-by can see the urinating men from the back, they cannot see the genitals. These street urinals are known as "pissoirs" after the French term. Some facilities are mobile and can thus be put in place where and when needed, e.g., for a weekend at an entertainment venue. Additionally, some can be sunk into the ground (and thereby made inoperable) for the periods that they are less needed. The idea behind this is that some people do not like the sight of a public toilet in the street, and they are more easily hidden than repeatedly moved. This type is typically installed in entertainment areas and made operational during weekend evenings and nights. People tend to be less shy about using it at these times, generally, because they are drunk. A Port-a-john is an outdoor public toilet with walls which can either be connected to the local sewage system or store the waste and be emptied from time to time. Many toilets can be cleaned on the spot, or at a central location in the case of a mobile toilet or urinal. In Europe public toilets are also set up for cities as a compensation for advertising permits. They are part of a street furniture contract between the out-of-home advertising company and the city council. The reason for this combination is the shortage in city budgets.

Pay toilets

Main article: pay toilet Some public toilets may be used free of charge, but others require payment. Payment can be accomplished by :
- putting money on an unattended plate
- putting money in a box with a slot
- putting money in the slot of a turnstile or spring-door
- giving the money to a toilet attendant (who is sometimes also in charge of the cleaning) The practice of charging for use of public conveniences is the origin of the British euphemism for urination, to spend a penny; this was the standard charge for public lavatories from the Great Exhibition of 1851, which featured the world's first public water closets, until the decimalisation of Britain's coinage in 1971. Charging for public urination also gives rise to the French term for a urinal, "vespasienne"; this is directly derived from the Roman nickname for a street-side urine collection pot, whose contents were used in laundry and taxed by the Emperor Vespasian. Many train stations and bus terminals have installed pay toilets during the 1950s and 1960s. Most of these have since been removed because of vandalism on the pay lock mechanisms. The use of pay toilets has been made illegal by some municipalities. In other locations, public restrooms must have one free toilet for every 4 to 5 pay toilets. In the United States of America it is illegal to charge for toilet use for any reason. The Supreme Court in a decision stated that you cannot charge a person a fee, because relieving oneself is a biological necessity. In the past some businesses used the payment system to limit access to toilets and this is still accomplished by use of a key system for patrons only or outright denying access to all of the public. In most areas this is illegal for public (stadiums for example) and government buildings. In the United Kingdom it is technically permitted to charge for water closets, but not for the use of gentlemen's urinals.

Gender and public toilets

right right Separation by sex is characteristic of public toilets to the extent that pictograms of a man or a woman are used to indicate where the respective toilets are. These pictograms are sometimes (e.g., in California) enclosed within standard geometric forms to reinforce this information, with a circle representing a women's toilet and a triangle representing a men's facility. Pictograms such as those shown at the right (from the D.O.T.) have been criticized for perpetuating gender stereotypes; however, there may be no practical alternatives. Many European toilet doors used to be (and still sometimes are) only marked "WC", which can cause confusion to non-Europeans. Similarly, in the Philippines the label "CR" (comfort room) is common, which is equally unintuitive to overseas visitors. Sex-separated public toilets are a source of difficulty for some people. For example, people with children of the opposite sex must choose between bringing the child into a toilet not designated for the child's gender, or entering a toilet not designated for one's own. Men caring for babies often find that only the women's washroom has been fitted with a change table. Sex-separated public toilets are often difficult to negotiate for transgendered or androgynous people, who are often subject to embarrassment, harassment, or even assault or arrest by others offended by the presence of a person they interpret as being of the other gender (whether due to their outward presentation or their genital status). Transgendered people have been arrested for using not only bathrooms that correspond to their gender of identification, but also ones that correspond to the gender they were assigned at birth. Many existing public toilets are gender-neutral. Additionally, some public places (such as facilities targeted to the transgendered or homosexual communities, and a few universities and offices) provide individual washrooms that are not gender-specified, specifically in order to respond to the concerns of gender-variant people; but this remains very rare and often controversial. [http://www.mcgill.ca/reporter/36/12/transgender/] Various courts have ruled on whether transgendered people have the right to use the washroom of their gender of identification. [http://www.herizons.ca/magazine/issues/fal01/] A significant number of facilities have additional gender-neutral public toilets for a different reason — they are marked not for being for females or males, but as being accessible to persons with disabilities, and are adequately equipped to allow a person using a wheelchair and/or with mobility concerns to use them. Another recent development in public toilets is the "family restroom". Family restrooms are unisex but unlike other unisex bathrooms that allow only one user at a time, the family restroom contains multiple stalls designed for maximum privacy and communal washing area for use by both genders. The family restroom is designed so that a parent with a young child of the opposite gender can bring the child into the restroom with them without the concerns associated with single-gender restrooms. Family restrooms have started appearing newly-built sports stadiums, amusement parks, shopping malls, and major museums. Toilets in private homes are almost never separated by sex. However, the size of a home or facility bears on the availability of options . Small establishments are limited by their space to the toilet options they can offer; it is more common to find a higher number of choices in a large facility. The same is true for homes; in more affluent households, where the homes are usually larger, bathrooms are also often more spacious than average, and more numerous. In such homes, bathrooms (especially master bathrooms) are increasingly being designed with an small adjoining room exclusively for the toilet, as well as separate washing basins. This makes it easier for couples who share a bathroom to maintain their desired level of privacy and personal space.

Toilets in public transport

public transport There are usually toilets in airlines, regional rail trains, and often in long-distance buses and ferries, but not in metros, trams, and other buses. In trains they may have a reservoir, or the urine and feces may simply fall on the tracks, hence the notice which appears in many train toilets: "Please do not flush while the train is standing at a station". :See also: Passenger train human waste disposal

"High-tech" toilets

Advanced technology is being integrated into toilets with more functions, especially in Japan. The biggest maker of these toilets is Toto. Such toilets can cost from US$2,000 to $4,000. The features are operated by control pads (sometimes with bilingual labels), and even hand-held remote control devices. Some of these features are:
- Water jets, or "bottom washers" like a bidet, as an alternative to toilet paper
- The "Washlet," Toto's portable hand-held bottom washer
- Blow dryers, to dry the body after use of water jets
- Artificial flush sounds, to mask noises such as body functions
- Urine and stool analysis, for medical monitoring. Matsushita's "Smart Toilet" checks blood pressure, temperature, and blood sugar.
- Digital clock, to monitor time spent in the bathroom
- Automatic lid operation, to open and close the lid
- Heated seats
- Deodorizing fans

History

Passenger train human waste disposal] Toilets appeared early in history. In the year 2500 BCE, the people of Harappa in India had water borne toilets in each house that were linked with drains covered with burnt clay bricks. There were also toilets in ancient Egypt and China. In Roman civilization, toilets were sometimes part of public bath houses where men and women were together in mixed company. The invention of the flush toilet is credited to Sir John Harington in 1596, though it took improvements in the Victorian era (likely spearheaded by Alexander Cummings rather than Thomas Crapper as is commonly stated) for flushing toilets to become widely used. Before and during this transitional period (which extended well into the 20th century in some regions), many people used outdoor outhouses instead, particularly in rural areas.

Culture

Disposal

The connection made between toilets and dirt, or distasteful items, has led to them being also used to dispose of wedding rings, letters or critical reviews with which one disagrees (cf. Goethe's example). In this case the use is partly (and in many cultures very strongly) symbolic, as in most human cultures the places used to dispose of feces and urine have some connotation related to dirtiness or rejection.

Graffiti

For thousands of years, public toilets have been associated with graffiti, often of a transgressive, gossipy, or lowbrow humorous nature (cf. toilet humour). Examples were found in the ruins of Pompeii. Here are a couple of well-known modern specimens: :He who writes on bathroom walls :Rolls his shit in little balls :And he who reads these words of wit :Eats those little balls of shit! :Here I sit :Broken-hearted :Came to shit :But only farted :Then one day I took a chance :Tried to fart and shit my pants

Furtive sexual relations

Similarly, toilets have long been associated with furtive sexual relations. These include assignations ("for a good time call..." messages, note-passing between stalls) as well as the acts themselves, for which dalliances toilets provide a convenient (though not necessarily sanitary or romantic) venue. For many years gay men have used them for "cruising" (anonymous sexual contact). When used for such purposes, public toilets are often referred to as "Roman tea rooms". The playwright Joe Orton made reference to this practice in his plays. Particularly associated with toilets is the use of glory holes for peeping, or anonymous fellatio. Another example, equally open to heterosexual participation, would be sex in airplane lavatories, which is reflected in the phrase "Mile High Club".

Social bonding

Additionally, toilets are important arenas of male as well as female social bonding. Boys may use the facilities to smoke, gamble, deal drugs, give one another "swirlies", or experiment with low-grade fireworks. Girls and women may share gossip and make-up advice. Often, boys will sneak into the girls' restroom as an intentional act of boundary-transgression. In many cultures, each gender has its own distinct "toilet etiquette." American women may invite one another to go to the toilet together, and once inside, chat with abandon. Men tend to be more reticent (perhaps out of nervousness at being perceived as gay), and may even experience pee shyness; yet they too may feel a certain camaraderie (though this is often more easily felt during outdoor, toilet-less urination).

Sex- or caste-based cleaning roles

Toilets are important locations where sex- or caste-based division of labor may be observed. In Western tradition, cleaning toilets is considered women's work; in India, such tasks are allocated to the scheduled castes or "untouchables" although now this practise has been antiquated. Such mores may be changing in the wake of modernity; however, progress is slow.

Unusual uses

American President Lyndon Johnson was occasionally wont to receive staff members while he sat on the toilet. In the wake of the cartoon film Finding Nemo, a number of children sought to help their tropical fish "escape" captivity by means of the toilet. Many sewage treatment plants responded by announcing that live animals in the sewer are almost certainly killed by the treatment process. Several movies include comic scenes involving eruptions of water and/or sewage while a character is sitting on the toilet. (E.g. Weird Science). See also Toilet humour.

The "Great Equalizer"

Symbolically, the toilet — like death — is a great equalizer: even kings must bow, and queens curtsy, before this humble receptacle — this "gleaming white throne".

Bibliography

- Temples of Convenience - And Chambers of Delight by Lucinda Lambton
- Thunder, Flush and Thomas Crapper by Adam Hart-Davis Adam Hart-Davis in Arizona.]]

External links

- [http://www.toiletmap.gov.au/ Australian National Public Toilet Map]
- [http://www.plumbingworld.com/toilethistoryindia.html History of Public Toilets]
- http://www.worldtoilet.org - official website of the World Toilet Organisation
- [http://www.boners.com/content/384183.1.jpg Long outdoor urinal]
- [http://www.palmgracht.nl/palmfotoos/plaskruisufo2.html Four-sided transportable street urinal]
- [http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2003/30042--b.htm#71 UK law against sex in a public toilet]
- [http://www.transgenderlawcenter.org/documents/safe_WC_survey_results.html Survey on transgender and gendered washrooms, including discussion of transgendered experience in using public washrooms]
- [http://www.cromwell-intl.com/toilet/ Toilets of the World] - photo gallery and other resources.
- [http://www.all-about-toilets.com/ All About Toilets] - A resource site providing general information about toilets
- [http://tampub.uta.fi/index.php?tiedot=79/ A Brief history of Wells and Toilets] -A short history of wells and toilets, book (2005),free pdf-file
- [http://www.buildings.com/Articles/detail.asp?ArticleID=1701 About family restrooms.] Category:Toilets ja:便所

Bath

and the weir at Bath]] Bath is a city in South West England most famous for its baths fed by three hot springs. The city was first documented as a Roman spa, although tradition suggests that it was founded earlier. The waters from its spring were believed to be a cure for many afflictions. From Elizabethan to Georgian times it was a resort city for the wealthy. As a result of its popularity during the latter period, the city contains many fine examples of Georgian architecture, most notably the Royal Crescent. The city has a population of over 80,000 and is a World Heritage Site.

Geography

Situation and transport

Bath is located at . It is approximately 25 kilometres (15 miles) south-east of the larger city and port of Bristol, to which it is linked by the A4 road, and is a similar distance south of the M4 motorway. Its railway station, Bath Spa, lies on the Great Western Railway, the main line between Bristol and London, as well as the line linking Cardiff with Portsmouth. Bath is connected to Bristol and the sea by the River Avon, navigable via locks by small boats. The river was connected to the River Thames and London by the Kennet and Avon Canal in 1810; this waterway—closed for many years, but restored in the last years of the 20th century—is now popular among users of narrow boats, and was historically an important water route to London.

Physical geography

Bath is centred on the bottom of the Avon Valley, located at the southern edge of the Cotswolds, a range of limestone hills designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The hills that surround and make up the city have a maximum altitude of 238 metres (780 ft) on the Lansdown plateau. It has an area of 29 km² (11 mile²). The surrounding hills give Bath its steep streets and makes its buildings appear to climb the slopes. The flood plain of the River Avon, which runs through the centre of the city, is at an altitude of 17 metres. The river, once an unnavigable series of braided streams broken up by swamps and ponds, has been managed by weirs into a single channel. Nevertheless, periodic flooding was normal until major flood control works in the 1970s; this shortened the life of many buildings in the lowest part of the city. weir

Climate

The climate of Bath is temperate, although significantly warmer than some other locations at a similar latitude due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream. It is on average drier and warmer than more northerly parts of the United Kingdom. The prevailing winds are south-westerly, from the North Atlantic Current. More than 50% of the days are overcast. There are few natural hazards, although there can be strong winds and floods, especially in winter. In 2003 the annual mean temperature was 10.3 °C, with extremes at 14.2 °C and 6.5 °C (50.5 °F, 57.5 °F and 43.7 °F, respectively). There were 1645 hours of sunshine, and 957 millimetres of rainfall. The temperatures, sunshine duration and rainfall are higher than the United Kingdom averages (which are 9.5 °C, or 49 °F, 1587 hours and 901.5 millimetres, respectively).

Politics

millimetre The Liberal Democrat Don Foster is the Member of Parliament for Bath. His election was perhaps the most notable result of the 1992 results, as Chris Patten, the previous Member (and a Cabinet Minister), played a major part, as Conservative Party Chairman, in getting the government of John Major re-elected, but failed to defend his marginal seat in Bath. Don Foster has been re-elected as the MP for Bath in every election since. Historically part of the county of Somerset, Bath came into Avon when that administrative county was created in 1974. Since the abolition of Avon in 1996, Bath has been the main centre of the Unitary Authority of Bath and North East Somerset (B&NES). Bath's city council was abolished in 1996; its ceremonial functions, including the mayoralty, are maintained by the "Charter Trustees", viz. all those B&NES councillors for wards within the city limits. There have been calls to set up a parish council for Bath, but it would be larger than any precedent (the largest, Weston-super-Mare has a population of about 70,000), and many have argued that it would be impractical.

Demographics

According to the UK Government's 2001 census, Bath, combined with the immediate surrounding area, has a population of 169,040, with an average age of 39.9 (the national average being 38.6). According to the same statistics, Bath is overwhelmingly populated by people of a white ethnic background, 97.2%—significantly higher than the national average of 90.9%. Other ethnic groups in Bath, in order of population size, are multiracial at 1%, Asian at 0.5% and black at 0.5% (the national averages are 1.3%, 4.6% and 2.1%, respectively). The city is largely Christian at 71%, with no other religion reaching more than 0.5%. These figures generally compare with the national averages, though the non-religious, at 19.5%, are significantly more prevalent than the national 14.8%. Only 7.4% of the population describe themselves as "not healthy" in the last 12 months, compared to a national average of 9.2%; only 15.8% of the inhabitants say they have had a long-term illness, as against 18.2% nationally.

History

The archaeological evidence shows that the site of the main spring was treated as a shrine by the Celts, and dedicated to the goddess Sulis. The Romans probably occupied Bath shortly after their invasion of Britain in 43 AD. They knew it as Aquae Sulis (literally "the waters of Sulis"), identifying the goddess with Minerva. In Roman times the worship of Sulis continued and messages to her scratched onto metal have been recovered from the Sacred Spring by archaeologists. These are known as [http://www.csad.ox.ac.uk/RIB/RIBIV/jp4.htm curse tablets]. The corpus from Bath is the most important found in Britain. Minerva During the Roman period, increasingly grand temples and bathing complexes were built in the area, including the Great Bath. Rediscovered gradually from the 18th century onward, they have become one of the city's main attractions. The city was given defensive walls, probably in the 3rd century. From the later 4th century on, the western Roman Empire and its urban life declined. However, while the great suite of baths at Bath fell into disrepair, some use of the hot springs continued. It has been suggested that Bath may have been the site of the Battle of Mons Badonicus (circa 500 AD), where King Arthur is said to have defeated the Saxons, but this [http://www.building-history.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/Bath/Saxon/Dobunni.htm#Gildas is disputed]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions Bath falling to the West Saxons in 577 after the Battle of Deorham. The Anglo-Saxons called the town Baðum, Baðan or Baðon, meaning "at the baths," and this was the source of the present name. In 675, Osric, King of the Hwicce, set up a monastic house at Bath, probably using the walled area as its precinct. King Offa of Mercia gained control of this monastery in 781 and rebuilt the church, which was dedicated to St. Peter. Bath had become a royal possession. The old Roman street pattern was by now lost, and King Alfred laid out the town afresh, leaving its south-eastern quadrant as the abbey precinct. King William Rufus granted the city to a royal physician, John of Tours, who became Bishop of Wells and Abbot of Bath in 1088, with permission to move the see of Somerset from Wells to Bath. Bishop John therefore became the first Bishop of Bath. He planned and began a much larger church as his cathedral, to which was attached a priory, with the bishop's palace beside it. New baths were built around the three springs. Later bishops preferred Wells, which regained cathedral status jointly with Bath. By the 15th century, Bath Cathedral was badly dilapidated. Oliver King, Bishop of Bath and Wells, decided in 1500 to rebuild it on a smaller scale. The new cathedral was completed just a few years before Bath Priory was dissolved in 1539. Henry VIII considered the cathedral redundant, and it was allowed to become derelict, but it was restored as the city's parish church in the Elizabethan period, when the city revived as a spa. The baths were improved and the city began to attract the aristocracy in the bathing seasons. Bath was granted city status in 1590. 1590 There was much rebuilding in the Stuart period, but this was eclipsed by the massive expansion of the city in Georgian times. The old town within the walls was also largely rebuilt. This was a response to the continuing demand for elegant accommodation for the city's fashionable visitors, for whom Bath had become a pleasure resort as well as a spa. The builders John Wood and his self-titled son laid out the new quarters in streets and squares, the identical facades of which gave an impression of palatial scale and classical decorum. The creamy gold of Bath stone further unified the city, much of it obtained from the limestone quarries under Combe Down, which were owned by Ralph Allen (1694–1764). The latter, in order to advertise the quality of his quarried limestone, commissioned the elder John Wood to build him a country house on his Prior Park estate. A shrewd politician, he dominated civic affairs and became mayor several times. The early 18th century saw Bath acquire its first purpose-built theatre, pump room and assembly rooms. Master of Ceremonies Beau Nash, who presided over the city's social life from 1705 until his death in 1761, drew up a code of behaviour for public entertainments. However, the city declined as a fashionable resort in the 19th century. Bath elected two members to the Unreformed House of Commons. Between the evening of 25 April and the early morning of 27 April 1942 Bath was subjected to three air raids by the Luftwaffe in reprisal for RAF raids on the German cities of Lübeck and Rostock. The three raids formed part of the Luftwaffe campaign popularly known as the Baedeker Blitz and damaged or destroyed more than 19 000 buildings and killed more than 400 people. Considerable damage was done to noteworthy historical buildings. Houses in the Royal Crescent, Circus and Paragon were burnt out as were the Assembly Rooms while the south side of Queen Square was destroyed. All have since been reconstructed.

Culture

During the 18th century, Bath was an extremely fashionable cultural hub, attracting the aristocracy and gentry from all over the country. This gave the city the finance and incentive to undertake large cultural developments. It was during this time that Bath's Theatre Royal was first built, as well as architectural triumphs such as Lansdown Crescent, the Royal Crescent, The Circus and Pulteney Bridge. Today, Bath has three theatres—Theatre Royal, Ustinov Studio and Rondo Theatre—attracting internationally renowned companies and directors, including Peter Hall. The city also has a long standing musical tradition; Bath Abbey is home to the Klais Organ and is the largest concert venue in the city, with about 20 concerts and 26 organ recitals each year. The city holds the Bath International Music Festival and Mozartfest every year. Other festivals include the annual Bath Film Festival. The city is home to the Victoria Art Gallery, Museum of East Asian Art, and The Holburne Museum of Art, as well as the museums The Bath Postal Museum, The Museum of Costume, The Jane Austen Centre and the Roman Baths.

Bath in the arts

Perhaps the best known resident of Bath was Jane Austen, who lived in the city from 1801 until 1806. However, Jane Austen never liked the city, and wrote to her sister Cassandra "It will be two years tomorrow since we left Bath for Clifton, with what happy feelings of escape." Despite her feelings regarding the city, Bath has honoured her name with the Jane Austen Centre and a city walk based on Austen. After leaving the city, Austen wrote two novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion (written 1816, published 1818), which are largely set in the city and feature descriptions of taking the waters, social life, and cultural resources such as music recitals. Charles Dickens' novel Pickwick Papers also features Bath, and satirises its social life. Pickwick takes the waters and his servant, Sam Weller, comments that the water has "a very strong flavour o' warm flat irons", while the Royal Crescent is the venue for a chase between two of the characters, Dowler and Winkle. Moyra Caldecott's novel The Waters of Sul is set in Roman Bath in 72 AD. Richard Brinsley Sheridan's play The Rivals is also set in Bath. In 2004, a movie version of Thackeray's Vanity Fair was largely filmed in Bath. The 1980s band Tears for Fears is from Bath.

Sport

The city's best known sporting team is Bath Rugby, a rugby union team which is currently in the Guinness Premiership league. It plays in black, blue and white kit with its sponsors' logo, Blackthorn, on the front of the shirts. The team plays at the Recreation Ground in the city, where it has been since the late 19th century, following its establishment in 1865. The team rose to national prestige during the 1980s, and it has remained one of the best rugby teams in the country. Its first major honour was winning the John Player Cup four years consecutively from 1984 until 1987. The team then led the Courage league for six consecutive seasons, from 1988/1989 until 1995/1996, during which time it also won the Pilkington Cup in 1989, 1990, 1992, 1994, 1995 and 1996. It finally won the Heineken Cup in the 1997/1998 season, and the Zurich (now Guinness) Premiership in 2003/2004. Its current squad includes three members who also play in the English national elite team: Steve Borthwick, David Flatman and Danny Grewcock. The current England Rugby Team Manager Andy Robinson used to play for Bath Rugby team and was Captain and later Coach. While in the Bath team , he was a Physical Education, Rugby and Maths teacher at King Edward's School, North Road, Bath. Both of Robinson's predecessors, Clive Woodward and Jack Rowell, were also former Bath coaches and managers. Bath City F.C. and Team Bath F.C. (affiliated with the University of Bath) are the major football teams, both of which are in the Southern Football League. In 2002, Team Bath became the first university team to enter the FA Cup in 120 years, and advanced through four qualifying rounds to the first round proper. Unlike the city's rugby team, Bath City have never attained an elite status in English football; its highest position has been seventh in the Football Conference in the 1992/1993 season. The University's team was established in 1999, while the city team has been in existence since before 1908 (when it entered the Western League). Cricket is played at the Bath Cricket Club, located, like the rugby Recreation Ground, east of the river, near Pulteney Bridge. The cricket ground is the venue for the annual Bath Cricket Festival which sees Somerset County Cricket Club play several games. TeamBath is the umbrella name for all of the University of Bath sports teams, including the aforementioned football club. Other sports for which TeamBath is noted are athletics, badminton, basketball, bob skeleton, bobsleigh, hockey, judo, modern pentathlon, netball, rugby, swimming, tennis and triathlon. Bath is also the home of the [http://www.bathcardinals.co.uk Bath American Football Club], which has been playing American Football in the city since 2001. It has three levels of play: Senior, Youth and Junior.

Business

The city lies at the junction of the Kennet and Avon Canal and the navigable River Avon. It has a station on the main line from London to Bristol, which was built by the Great Western Railway. At one time, it was also served by the Midland Railway, and by the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway. Today, its once-important manufacturing sector is much declined, but it has notable software, publishing and service-oriented industries, in addition to tourism. The magazine publisher [http://www.futureplc.com Future] is one of Bath's bigger employers. The firm publishes over 100 magazines, including many in the computer and video gaming sector. Bath contains many small single-shop or restaurant-based businesses, which fulfil a niche market and are primarily supported by tourism.

Tourism

Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway] Bath's principal industry is tourism. Bath is the most visited city outside of London for tourists travelling to the UK, whose visits mainly fall into the categories of heritage tourism or cultural tourism. All significant stages of the history of England are represented within the city, from the Roman Baths (including their significant Celtic presence), to Bath Abbey and the Royal Crescent, to Thermae Bath Spa in the 2000s. The size of the tourist industry is reflected in the almost 300 places of accommodation—including over 80 hotels, and over 180 Bed and Breakfasts—many of which are located in Georgian buildings and have five-star ratings. The city also contains approximately 100 restaurants, and a similar number of public houses and bars. Several companies offer open-top bus tours around the city, as well as tours on foot and on the river. The tourist season is mainly the summer, though there is a year-round presence of tourists. While many come to Bath to see the city in general, some are attracted to particular aspects of the city, such as the Jane Austen landmarks or the Roman Baths.

Transport

Bath is served by the Bath Spa railway station, which has regular connections to London Paddington, Bristol Temple Meads, Cardiff, Swansea, Plymouth and Penzance (see Great Western Main Line), and also Westbury, Warminster, Salisbury, Southampton, Portsmouth and Brighton (see Wessex Main Line). Services are provided by First Great Western (fast InterCity services) and Wessex Trains (semi-fast or local services). There is a suburban station on the main line, Oldfield Park, which has a limited commuter service to Bristol. The charming Green Park station, once operated by the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway, was closed by Beeching in 1965, but the building survives and is used for shopping. Though Bath does not have an airport, the city is not far from Bristol International Airport, which may be accessed by car and by bus or taxi, and by rail via Bristol Temple Meads or Nailsea & Backwell. National Express operates coach services from Bath to a number of cities. Internally, Bath has a number of bus routes run by the First Group, with services to surrounding towns and cities. The company also runs open-top double decker tour bus services around the city.

Architecture

tour bus at Bath Abbey, Bath, England. Made from local Bath stone, this is a Victorian restoration (made in the 1860s) of the original roof from 1608]] Bath Abbey Of Bath's notable buildings, the oldest is Bath Abbey, but in terms of Britain's many ancient Abbeys and cathedrals, it is comparatively new. Originally a Norman church on earlier foundations, it was rebuilt in 1499, and transformed into a gothic fantasy of flying buttresses with crocketed pinnacles decorating a crenelated and pierced parapet. The style of architecture employed is known as late perpendicular. The interior contains fine fan vaulting by Robert and William Vertue, who designed similar vaulting in the Henry VII chapel at Westminster Abbey. The building is lit by 52 windows. The dominant style of architecture in Bath is Georgian, which is an evolution of the Palladian revival style which became popular in the early 18th century. Many of the prominent architects of the day were employed in the development of the city, and as a result Bath has many fine terraces of what appear to be elegant townhouses. However, the original purpose of much of Bath's fine architecture is concealed by the honey-coloured classical facades; in an era before the advent of the luxury hotel, these apparently elegant residences were frequently purpose-built rooming or lodging houses, where visitors to the city could hire a room, a floor, or (according to their means) an entire house for the duration of their visit, and be waited on by the house's communal servants. "The Circus" is one of the most splendid examples of town planning in the city. Three long, curved terraces designed by the elder John Wood form a circular space or theatre intended for civic functions and games. The games give a clue to the design, the inspiration behind which was the Colosseum in Rome. Like the Colosseum, the three facades have a different order of architecture on each floor: Doric on the ground level, then Ionic on the piano nobile and finishing with Corinthian on the upper floor, the style of the building thus becoming progressively more ornate as it rises. Wood never lived to see his unique example of town planning completed, as he died 5 days after personally laying the foundation stone on May 18 1754. 1754. The contrast between the architectural style of the front and rear of this terrace is clear]] The best known of Bath's terraces is the Royal Crescent, built between 1767 and 1774 and designed by the younger John Wood but all is not what it seems. While Wood designed the great curved facade of what appears to be about 30 houses with Ionic columns on a rusticated ground floor, that was the extent of Wood's input. Each purchaser bought a certain length of the facade, and then employed their own architect to build a house to their own specifications behind it; hence what appears to be two houses is sometimes one. This system of elegant town planning is betrayed at the rear of the crescent: while the front is completely uniform and symmetrical, the rear is a mixturee of differing roof heights, juxtapositions and fenestration. This "all to the front and no rear" architecture occurs repeatedly in Bath. Circa 1770, the eminent neoclassical architect Robert Adam designed Pulteney Bridge, using as the prototype for the three-arched bridge spanning the Avon an original, but unused, design by Palladio for the Rialto Bridge in Venice. Thus Pulteney Bridge became not just a means of crossing the river, but also a shopping arcade, and, along with the Rialto Bridge, is one of the very few surviving bridges in Europe to serve this dual purpose. It has been substantially altered since it was built. It was named after Frances and William Johnstone Pulteney, the owners of the Bathwick estate for which the bridge provided a link to the rest of Bath. The heart of the Georgian city was the Pump Room, which, together with its associated Lower Assembly Rooms, was designed by Thomas Baldwin, a local builder who was responsible for many other buildings in the city, including the terraces in Argyle Street. Baldwin rose rapidly, becoming a leader in Bath's architectural history. In 1776 he was made the chief City Surveyor, and in 1780 became City Architect. In 1776 he designed the Bath Guildhall, where his design of the interior is reputed to be one of the finest neo-classical interiors in the country. However, it is Great Pulteney Street, where he eventually lived, which is one of his finest works: this wide boulevard, constructed circa 1789 and over 300m long and 30m wide, is one of England's most attractive thoroughfares, and is lined on both sides by Georgian terraces. Architecturally, Bath is one of the most balanced cities in England, and is an unusual example of coherent town planning combined with well-executed and diverse architectural styles.

Education

1789 used here is typical of much of the city]] Bath has two universities, the The University of Bath and Bath Spa University. The former was established in 1966 and has grown to become a leading university in the United Kingdom, present in many top 10 lists and rated as excellent, the highest rating on government scales, in 14 subjects. The university is known, academically, for the physical sciences, mathematics and technology. It is also well known for its sports, which it plays under the name Team Bath. In football, Team Bath F.C. was, in the 2002/2003 season, the first university team to enter the FA Cup since 1880. Bath Spa University was first granted degree-awarding powers in 1992 as as a university college (Bath Spa University College), before being granted university status in August 2005. It has schools in the following subject areas: Art and Design, Education, English and Creative Studies, Historical and Cultural Studies, Music and the Performing Arts, and Social Sciences. The city contains one A-Level college, City of Bath College, and several sixth forms (schools which contain A-Level awarding departments) as part of both state , private, and public schools. The oldest school in the city is King Edward's School, Bath, a public school which was founded in 1552. It caters for 3–18 year olds and is known for its academic excellence (GCSE 99% pass rate and 99.7% pass rate at A-Level). Other independent schools in Bath include Prior Park College (11–18), Kingswood School (3–18), Royal High School, (3–18), Monkton Combe and The Paragon School (3–11). Notable state-funded secondary schools include Beechen Cliff School, a boys-only secondary and mixed sixth form which was founded in 1903 and moved to its current location under the name "City of Bath Boys' School" in 1932, Culverhay School (a male-only secondary with sixth form), Hayesfield School Technology College (a female-only secondary with mixed sixth form), Oldfield School (a female-only secondary with sixth form), Ralph Allen School (a mixed secondary and sixth form) and St. Gregory's Roman Catholic School (a mixed secondary). Many notable people, such as Sir Roger Bannister, Ann Widdecombe and Cormac Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor, went to school in Bath.

Media

Bath has two main local newspapers, the Bath Chronicle and the Bath Times. Both of these are published by Bath Newspapers with joint sales of approximately 178,000 per week. The BBC's Where I Live web site for Somerset has featured coverage of news and events within Bath since 2003. In addition to these, The University of Bath has its own newspaper publication called Bath impact.

Bath Chronicle

The Bath Chronicle is an evening newspaper, published since 1760. Owned by the Daily Mail newsgroup, it is a tabloid newspaper with a circulation of 14,633 and a readership of 40,252.

Bath Times

The Bath Times is a free, weekly newspaper, largely based around advertising. Also a tabloid, it has a circulation of