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Eastern Meadowlark

Eastern Meadowlark

The Eastern Meadowlark, Sturnella magna, is a medium-sized blackbird, very similar in appearance to the Western Meadowlark. Adults have yellow underparts with a black "V" on the breast and white flanks with black streaks. The upperparts are mainly brown with black streaks. They have a long pointed bill; the head is striped with light brown and black. Their breeding habitat is grasslands and prairie, also pastures and hay fields, across eastern North America to South America. The ranges of the Eastern and Western Meadowlarks overlap across the centre of the continent. The nest is on the ground, covered with a roof woven from grasses. There may be more than one nesting female in a male's territory. These birds are permanent residents throughout much of their range. Northern birds migrate to the southern parts of the range. These birds forage on the ground or in low vegetation, sometimes probing with its bill. They mainly eat insects, but also seeds and berries. In winter, they often feed in flocks. The song of this bird is simpler and not warbled like that of the Western Meadowlark; this may be the easiest way to tell the two birds apart. The numbers of this birds increased as forests were cleared in eastern North America; their numbers are now shrinking with a decline in suitable habitat. Category:Icteridae

Icterid


24 genera, see text The Icterids are a group of small to medium, often colourful passerine birds restricted to the New World. They include the grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles. Despite the similar names, the latter groups are not related to the Old World Common Blackbird, which is a thrush (Turdidae), or the Old World orioles (Oriolidae). Most species have black as a predominant plumage colour, often enlivened by yellow, orange or red.

Species


- Family Icteridae
  - Genus Dolichonyx
    - Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus
  - Genus Agelaius, American blackbirds
    - Saffron-cowled Blackbird, Agelaius flavus
    - Yellow-winged Blackbird, Agelaius thilius
    - Pale-eyed Blackbird, Agelaius xanthophthalmus
    - Unicolored Blackbird, Agelaius cyanopus
    - Red-winged Blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus
    - Red-shouldered Blackbird, Agelaius assimilis
    - Tricolored Blackbird, Agelaius tricolor
    - Yellow-hooded Blackbird, Agelaius icterocephalus
    - Tawny-shouldered Blackbird, Agelaius humeralis
    - Yellow-shouldered Blackbird, Agelaius xanthomus
    - Chestnut-capped Blackbird, Agelaius ruficapillus
  - Genus Nesopsar
    - Jamaican Blackbird, Nesopsar nigerrimus
  - Genus Sturnella meadowlarks
    - Red-breasted Blackbird, Sturnella militaris
    - White-browed Blackbird, Sturnella superciliaris
    - Peruvian Meadowlark, Sturnella bellicosa
    - Pampas Meadowlark, Sturnella defillippi
    - Long-tailed Meadowlark, Sturnella loyca
    - Eastern Meadowlark, Sturnella magna
    - Western Meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta
  - Genus Xanthocephalus
    - Yellow-headed Blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus
  - Genus Dives
    - Cuban Blackbird, Dives atroviolacea
    - Melodious Blackbird, Dives dives
    - Scrub Blackbird, Dives warszewiczi
  - Genus Euphagus
    - Rusty Blackbird, Euphagus carolinus
    - Brewer's Blackbird, Euphagus cyanocephalus
  - Genus Quiscalus, grackles
    - Boat-tailed Grackle, Quiscalus major
    - Common Grackle, Quiscalus quiscula
    - Great-tailed Grackle, Quiscalus mexicanus
    - Nicaraguan Grackle, Quiscalus nicaraguensis
    - Greater Antillean Grackle, Quiscalus niger
    - Carib Grackle, Quiscalus lugubris
  - Genus Molothrus, cowbirds
    - Bay-winged Cowbird, Molothrus badius
    - Screaming Cowbird, Molothrus rufoaxillaris
    - Shiny Cowbird, Molothrus bonariensis
    - Bronzed Cowbird, Molothrus aeneus
    - Brown-headed Cowbird, Molothrus ater
    - Giant Cowbird, Molothrus oryzivorus
  - Genus Icterus, New World orioles
    - Moriche Oriole, Icterus chrysocephalus
    - Epaulet Oriole, Icterus cayanensis
    - Yellow-backed Oriole, Icterus chrysater
    - Yellow Oriole, Icterus nigrogularis
    - Jamaican Oriole, Icterus leucopteryx
    - Orange Oriole, Icterus auratus
    - Yellow-tailed Oriole, Icterus mesomelas
    - Orange-crowned Oriole, Icterus auricapillus
    - White-edged Oriole, Icterus graceannae
    - Spot-breasted Oriole, Icterus pectoralis
    - Altamira Oriole, Icterus gularis
    - Streak-backed Oriole, Icterus pustulatus
    - Hooded Oriole, Icterus cucullatus
    - Troupial, Icterus icterus
    - Baltimore Oriole, Icterus galbula
    - Bullock's Oriole, Icterus bullockii
    - Black-backed Oriole, Icterus abeillei
    - Orchard Oriole, Icterus spurius
    - Black-cowled Oriole, Icterus prosthemelas
    - Greater Antillean Oriole, Icterus dominicensis
    - Black-vented Oriole, Icterus wagleri
    - St. Lucia Oriole, Icterus laudabilis
    - Martinique Oriole, Icterus bonana
    - Montserrat Oriole, Icterus oberi
    - Audubon's Oriole, Icterus graduacauda
    - Bar-winged Oriole, Icterus maculialatus
    - Scott's Oriole, Icterus parisorum
  - Genus Amblycercus
    - Yellow-billed Cacique, Amblycercus holosericeus
  - Genus Cacicus, caciques
    - Yellow-rumped Cacique, Cacicus cela
    - Red-rumped Cacique, Cacicus haemorrhous
    - Scarlet-rumped Cacique, Cacicus uropygialis
    - Selva Cacique, Cacicus koepckeae
    - Golden-winged Cacique, Cacicus chrysopterus
    - Mountain Cacique, Cacicus chrysonotus
    - Ecuadorian Cacique, Cacicus sclateri
    - Solitary Cacique, Cacicus solitarius
    - Yellow-winged Cacique, Cacicus melanicterus
  - Genus Psarocolius, oropendolas
    - Casqued Oropendola, Psarocolius oseryi
    - Crested Oropendola, Psarocolius decumanus
    - Green Oropendola, Psarocolius viridis
    - Dusky-green Oropendola, Psarocolius atrovirens
    - Russet-backed Oropendola, Psarocolius angustifrons
    - Chestnut-headed Oropendola, Psarocolius wagleri
    - Black Oropendola, Psarocolius guatimozinus
  - Genus Ocyalus
    - Band-tailed Oropendola, Ocyalus latirostris
  - Genus Gymnostinops
    - Montezuma Oropendola, Gymnostinops montezuma
    - Baudo Oropendola, Gymnostinops cassini
    - Amazonian Oropendola, Gymnostinops bifasciatus
  - Genus Gymnomystax
    - Oriole Blackbird, Gymnomystax mexicanus
  - Genus Pseudoleistes, marshbirds
    - Yellow-rumped Marshbird, Pseudoleistes guirahuro
    - Brown-and-yellow Marshbird, Pseudoleistes virescens
  - Genus Amblyramphus
    - Scarlet-headed Blackbird, Amblyramphus holosericeus
  - Genus Hypopyrrhus
    - Red-bellied Grackle, Hypopyrrhus pyrohypogaster
  - Genus Curaeus
    - Austral Blackbird, Curaeus curaeus
    - Forbes' Blackbird, Curaeus forbesi
  - Genus Gnorimopsar
    - Chopi Blackbird, Gnorimopsar chopi
  - Genus Oreopsar
    - Bolivian Blackbird, Oreopsar bolivianus
  - Genus Lampropsar
    - Velvet-fronted Grackle, Lampropsar tanagrinus
  - Genus Macroagelaius
    - Golden-tufted Grackle, Macroagelaius imthurni
    - Mountain Grackle, Macroagelaius subalaris Category:Icteridae

Western Meadowlark

The Western Meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta, is a medium-sized blackbird, very similar in appearance to the Eastern Meadowlark. Adults have yellow underparts with a black "V" on the breast and white flanks with black streaks. The upperparts are mainly brown with black streaks. They have a long pointed bill; the head is striped with light brown and black. Their breeding habitat is grasslands and prairie, also pastures and abandoned fields, across western and central North America to northern Mexico. Where their range overlaps with the eastern species, these birds prefer thinner, drier vegetation; the two birds generally do not interbreed but do defend territory against each other. The nest is on the ground, covered with a roof woven from grasses. There may be more than one nesting female in a male's territory. These birds are permanent residents throughout much of their range. Northern birds migrate to the southern parts of the range; some birds also move east in the southern United States. These birds forage on the ground or in low to semi-low vegetation, sometimes probing with its bill. They mainly eat insects as well as seeds and berries. In winter, they often feed in flocks. This bird has a flute-like warbled song, unlike the simple whistled call of the Eastern Meadowlark. They were considered to be the same species for some time; the western species, having been overlooked for some time, was given the species name neglecta. This is the state bird of Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon and Wyoming. Category:Icteridae Category:United States state birds

Prairie

Prairie refers to an area of land in North America of low topographic relief that principally supports grasses and herbs, with few trees, and is generally of a mesic (moderate or temperate) climate. Most of the Great Plains, most of the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, and much of Missouri and Minnesota is considered prairie. French explorers called these areas prairie, from the French word for "meadow". Almost all of this area has been converted into farmland in the last two hundred years. Sometimes in the USA and Canada distinction is made between the shortgrass vegetation of the High Plains west of the 100th meridian and the tallgrass vegetation to the east from central Texas to Minnesota and southern Manitoba. When this distinction is made, it is common to limit the word "prairie" to the tallgrass area. Manitoba In Canada, the terms Prairie Provinces and the Prairies refer to the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. (See also Canadian prairies for more on this.) Fire is an important part of prairie ecology; natural and human induced fires were common in historic prairie areas. Grazing by animals such as the American Bison and Prairie dogs also helped maintain the original prairie ecology. Small areas of prairies also exist in eastern North America, and it is possible that these were created by Native Americans by periodic burning. One such area was along the southeastern shore of Lake Erie in what is now Pennsylvania and New York; another was between Seneca Lake and Cayuga Lake in present New York. Prairies are considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Other temperate grasslands regions include the Pampas of Argentina, and the steppes of Russia and Ukraine. Significant preserved areas of prairie include:
- Bong Recreational Area, in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
- Nine-Mile Prairie, Nebraska
- Konza Prairie, Manhattan, Kansas
- Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Kansas
- Neal Smith Wildlife Refuge, Iowa Virgin prairie refers to prairie land that has never been plowed. Small virgin prairies exist in the American Midwestern states and in Canada. Restored prairie has been reseeded after plowing or other disturbance.

See also


- Buffalo Commons, a proposal to restore a significant proportion of the Shortgrass Prairie
- Prairie madness
- coastal prairie

External links


- [http://www.texasprairie.org/ The Native Prairies Association of Texas]
- [http://www.npsot.org/ The Native Plant Society of Texas]
- [http://chi.vibary.net/WebDigest/digmain.asp?d=BOTAprairie Find A Prairie around Chicago] from the [http://chi.vibary.net Chicagoland Vibary Network]
- ja:プレーリー

North America

North America is a continent in the northern hemisphere bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean. It covers an area of 24,497,994 km² (9,458,728 sq mi), or about 4.8% of the Earth's surface. As of July 2002, its population was estimated at more than 514,600,000. It is the third largest continent in area, after Asia and Africa, and is fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Both North and South America are named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered (by Europeans) New World. North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America. North America's only land connection is to South America at the narrow Isthmus of Panama. (For geopolitical reasons, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a part of North America alone.) According to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the intervening region called Central America and resting on the Caribbean Plate. Most, however, tend to see Central America as a region of North America, considering it too small to be a continent on its own. Greenland, although a part of North America geographically, is not considered to be part of the continent politically.

Physical features

Greenland, plutonic, metamorphic rock types of North America. ]] Plate tectonics recognizes the vast majority of North America as being the surface of the North American Plate. Parts of California and western Mexico are known for being the edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many sub-regions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf. The western mountains are split in the middle, into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia with the Great Basin – a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts – in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska. Since 1931, Rugby, North Dakota, has officially been recognized as being at the geographic center of North America. The location is marked by a 4.5 metre (15 foot) field stone obelisk. Image:North america terrain 2003 map.jpg|North America bedrock and terrain. Image:North america basement rocks.png|North American cratons and basement rocks. Image:North America Tectonic Elements.jpg|Tectonic elements of North America Image:North america craton nps.gif|North American craton.

Territories and regions

craton On the main continent landmass, there are three large and relatively populous countries:
- Canada - many large islands off the shore of North America belong to Canada, including Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands on the west, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island on the east, and the Canadian Arctic islands (including Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, and Victoria Island) in the north
- Mexico - the Revillagigedo archipelago and numerous smaller islands off its coast belong to Mexico
- The United States - the 48 contiguous states and Alaska are part of North America, while the state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean is not; the Aleutian Islands south of Alaska also belong to the U.S. At the southern end of the continent, in a relatively small area known as Central America, are the countries of:
- Belize
- Costa Rica
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Honduras
- Nicaragua
- Panama 1 At the southeastern end of the continent lies a chain of islands territories called the Antilles, the Caribbean or the West Indies, which include the countries:
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Bahamas
- Barbados
- Cuba
- Dominica
- Dominican Republic
- Grenada
- Haiti
- Jamaica
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Saint Lucia
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
- Trinidad and Tobago 1 And the dependencies:
- Anguilla (British overseas territory)
- Aruba 2 (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Cayman Islands (British overseas territory)
- Guadeloupe (French région d'outre-mer)
- Martinique (French région d'outre-mer)
- Montserrat (British overseas territory)
- Navassa Island (U.S. territory)
- Netherlands Antilles 1 (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Puerto Rico (U.S. commonwealth)
- Turks and Caicos Islands (British overseas territory)
- British Virgin Islands (British overseas territory)
- U.S. Virgin Islands (territory of the USA) Lying in the Atlantic Ocean but considered part of the continent are the dependencies:
- Bermuda, a British overseas territory found about 1,072 km (670 mi.) southeast of New York City
- Greenland, the largest island in the world and a self-governing dependency of Denmark, which is located in the far north of the continent to the east of Nunavut.
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon, a French collectivité d'outre-mer off the south coast of Newfoundland, is the last of France's once vast possessions in America north of the Caribbean. 1 These states and dependencies have territory both in North and South America.
2 These dependencies lie in South America, but are considered North American because of cultural and historical reasons.
See here for details.

Usage

The United States, Canada, and the other English-speaking nations of the Americas (Belize, Guyana, and the Anglophone Caribbean) are sometimes grouped under the term Anglo-America, while the remaining nations of North and South America are grouped under the term Latin America. Alternatively, Northern America is used to refer to Canada and the U.S. together (plus Greenland and Bermuda), while Central America is mainland North America south of the United States. The West Indies generally include all islands in the Caribbean Sea. In this respect, Latin America generally includes Central America and South America and, sometimes, the West Indies. The term Middle America is sometimes used to refer to Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean collectively. The term "North America" may mean different things to different people. The term in common usage is often taken to mean "the United States and Canada, only" by some people of the United States and Canada, excluding Mexico and the countries of Central America, unless the context makes it clear that they are to be included (such as with specific reference to Mexico, when talking about NAFTA). For example, guides to wild flora and fauna published by the National Audubon Society for "North America" frequently include only species found in Canada and the U.S. This may be attributed to the fact that culturally and economically, the U.S. and Canada are more alike to each other than they are to the rest of North America. Mexicans, however, are acutely aware that Mexico is a part of North America and object to this usage. Central Americans, however, are generally content to be called Central Americans – largely because of their shared history, which includes several attempts at supranational integration in the region and in which Mexico, their much larger northern neighbor, was never involved.

Political divisions and regions

Notes:
1 Continental regions as per UN categorisations/map.
2 Depending on definitions, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of North and South America.
3 Due to ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning 1995, much of Plymouth, Montserrat's de jure capital, was destroyed and government offices relocated to Brades.

See also


- Discoverer of the Americas
- Economy of North America
- European colonization of the Americas
- History of North America
- Birds of North America

External links


- http://www.america-norte.com/america-norte-mapa.htm Category:Continents Category:North America zh-min-nan:Pak Bí-chiu ko:북아메리카 ja:北アメリカ simple:North America th:ทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ

Aves


Many - see section below.
Birds are bipedal, warm-blooded, egg-laying vertebrates characterized primarily by feathers, forelimbs modified as wings, and hollow bones. Birds range in size from the tiny hummingbirds to the huge Ostrich and Emu. Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, there are about 8,800–10,200 living bird species (plus about 120–130 that have become extinct in the span of human history) in the world, making them the most diverse class of terrestrial vertebrates. Birds are a very differentiated class, with some feeding on nectar, plants, seeds, insects, rodents, fish, carrion, or other birds. Most birds are diurnal, or active during the day. Some birds, such as the owls and nightjars, are nocturnal or crepuscular (active during twilight hours). Many birds migrate long distances to utilise optimum habitats (e.g., Arctic Tern) while others spend almost all their time at sea (e.g. the Wandering Albatross). Some, such as frigatebirds, stay aloft for days at a time, even sleeping on the wing. Common characteristics of birds include a bony beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, high metabolic rate, and a light but strong skeletons. Most birds are characterised by flight, though the ratites are flightless, and several other species, particularly on islands, have also lost this ability. Flightless birds include the penguins, Ostrich, kiwi, and the extinct Dodo. Flightless species are vulnerable to extinction when humans or the mammals they introduce arrive in their habitat, for example the Great Auk, flightless rails, and the moa of New Zealand.

Bird orders

New Zealand This is a list of the taxonomic orders in the class Aves. The list of birds gives a more detailed summary, including families.
- Struthioniformes, Ostrich, emus, kiwis, and allies
- Tinamiformes, tinamous
- Anseriformes, waterfowl
- Galliformes, fowl
- Sphenisciformes, penguins
- Gaviiformes, loons
- Podicipediformes, grebes
- Procellariiformes, albatrosses, petrels, and allies
- Pelecaniformes, pelicans and allies
- Ciconiiformes, storks and allies
- Phoenicopteriformes, flamingos
- Accipitriformes, eagles, hawks and allies
- Falconiformes, falcons
- Turniciformes, button-quail
- Gruiformes, cranes and allies
- Charadriiformes, plovers and allies
- Pteroclidiformes, sandgrouse
- Columbiformes, doves and pigeons
- Psittaciformes, parrots and allies
- Cuculiformes, cuckoos
- Strigiformes, owls
- Caprimulgiformes, nightjars and allies
- Apodiformes, swifts
- Trochiliformes, hummingbirds
- Coraciiformes, kingfishers
- Piciformes, woodpeckers and allies
- Trogoniformes, trogons
- Coliiformes, mousebirds
- Passeriformes, passerines Note: This is the traditional classification (the so-called Clements order). A more recent, radically different classification based on molecular data has been developed (the so-called Sibley order) and is gaining acceptance.

Evolution

Birds are generally considered to have evolved from theropod dinosaurs. Specifically, birds are members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids. As more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds are discovered, the formerly clear distinction between non-birds and birds becomes less so. Recent discoveries in North-east China (Liaoning Province) demonstrating that many small theropod dinosaurs had feathers contribute to this ambiguity. The basal bird Archaeopteryx, from the Jurassic, is well-known as one of the first "missing links" to be found in support of evolution in the late 19th century. It remains the most primitive known bird. Other Mesozoic birds include the Confuciusornithidae, Enantiornithes, Ichthyornis, and Hesperornithiformes, a group of flightless divers resembling grebes and loons. The recently discovered dromaeosaur, Cryptovolans, was capable of powered flight, contained a keel and had ribs with uncinate processes. In fact, Cryptovolans makes a better "bird" than Archaeopteryx which is missing some of these modern bird features. Because of this, some paleontologists have suggested that dromaeosaurs are actually basal birds whose larger members are secondarily flightless, i.e. dromaeosaurs evolved from birds and not the other way around. Evidence for this theory is currently inconclusive, but digs continue to unearth fossils (especially in China) of the strange feathered dromaeosaurs. It should be noted that although ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the same hip structure as birds, birds actually originated from the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs, and thus arrived at their hip structure condition independently. In fact, the bird-like hip structure developed a third time among a peculiar group of theropods, the Therizinosauridae. Modern birds are classified in Neornithes, which are split into the Paleognathae and Neognathae. The paleognaths include the tinamous (found only in Central and South America) and the ratites. The ratites are large flightless birds, and include ostriches, cassowaries, kiwis and emus; some scientists suspect that the ratites represent an artificial grouping of birds which have independently lost the ability to fly, others contend that the ratites never had the ability to fly and are more directly related to the dinosaurs. The basal divergence from the remaining Neognathes was that of the Galloanseri, the superorder containing the Anseriformes (ducks, geese and swans), and the Galliformes (the pheasants, grouse, and their allies). See the chart. The classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley & Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds (although frequently debated and constantly revised). Evidence for the various orders seems to be fairly good, but the relationships between the orders are in a state of disarray. Evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem but no strong consensus has emerged. See also: Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy.

Reproduction

Although most male birds have no external sex organs, the male does have two testes which become hundreds of times larger during the breeding season to produce sperm. The female's ovaries also become larger, although only the left ovary actually functions. In the males of species without a phallus (see below), sperm is stored within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca prior to copulation. During copulation, the female moves her tail to the side and the male either mounts the female from behind or moves very close to her. He moves the opening of his cloaca, or vent, close to hers, so that the sperm can enter the female's cloaca, in what is referred to as a cloacal kiss. This can happen very fast, sometimes in less than one second. The sperm is stored in the female's cloaca for anywhere from a week to a year, depending on the species of bird. Then, one by one, eggs will descend from the female's ovaries and become fertilized by the male's sperm, before being subsequently laid by the female. The eggs will then continue their development in the nest. cloacal kiss.]] Many waterfowl and some other birds, such as the ostrich and turkey, do possess a phallus. Except during copulation, it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The avian phallus differs from the mammalian penis in several ways, most importantly in that it is purely a copulatory organ and is not used for dispelling urine. After the eggs hatch, parent birds provide varying degrees of care in terms of food and protection. Precocial birds can care for themselves independently within minutes of hatching; altricial hatchlings are helpless, blind, and naked, and require extended parental care. The chicks of many ground-nesting birds such as partridges and waders are often able to run virtually immediately after hatching; such birds are referred to as nidifugous. The young of hole-nesters, on the other hand, are often totally incapable of unassisted survival. "Fledging" is the process of a chick acquiring feathers until it can fly. Some birds, such as pigeons, geese, and Red-crowned Cranes, remain with their mates for life (or for a long period) and may produce offspring on a regular basis.

Mating systems and parental care

Sources for this section include:
- Gowaty, Patricia Adair: Male Parental Care and Apparent Monogamy among Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia Sialis). The American Naturalist 121(2): 149-160 (1983).
- Ketterson, Ellen D. and Nolan, Val: Male Parental Behavior in Birds. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25: 601-28 (1994).
- Zeveloff, Samuel and Boyce, Mark: Parental Investment and Mating Systems in Mammals. Evolution 34(5): 973-982 (1980).
The three predominant mating systems are polyandry, polygyny, and monogamy. Monogamy is seen in approximately 91% of all bird species. Polygyny constitutes 2% of all birds and polyandry is seen in less than 1%. Monogamous species of males and females pair for the breeding season. In some cases, the individuals may pair for life. One reason for the high rate of monogamy among birds is due to the fact that male birds are just as adept at parental care as females. In most groups of animals, male parental care is rare, but in birds it is quite common; it is more extensive in birds than in any other vertebrate class. In fact, male care can be seen as important or essential to female fitness. "In one form of monogamy such as with obligate monogamy a female cannot rear a litter without the aid of a male" (Gowaty, 1983). obligate The parental behavior most associated with monogamy was male incubation. This is very interesting, because male incubation is the most confining male parental behavior. It not only consumes time, but also may require physiological changes that interfere with usual mating. With the extreme loss of mating opportunities, there is a reduction in the reproductive success among males. "This information then suggests that sexual selection may be less intense in taxa where males incubate, hypothetically because males allocate more effort to parental care and less to mating" (Ketterson and Nolan, 1994). It is understood then that the females associated with these males base their choice of mate on parental behaviors rather than physical appearance.

Respiration

Birds respire by means of crosscurrent flow: the air flows at a 90° angle to the flow of blood in the lungs' capillaries. In addition to the lungs themselves, birds have posterior and anterior air sacs (typically nine) which control air flow through the lungs, but do not play a direct role in gas exchange. There are three parts involved in respiration:
- the anterior air sacs (interclavicular, cervicals, and anterior thoracics),
- the lungs, and
- the posterior air sacs (posterior thoracics and abdominals). It takes a bird two full breaths, to completely cycle the air from each inhalation through the lungs and out again. The air flows through the air sacs and lungs as follows:
- First inhalation: air flows through the trachea and bronchi into the posterior air sacs.
- First exhalation: air flows from the posterior air sacs to the lungs.
- Second inhalation: air flows from the lungs to the anterior air sacs.
- Second exhalation: air flows from the anterior sacs back through the trachea and out of the body. Since during inhalation and exhalation fresh air flows through the lungs in only one direction, birds are able to diffuse more oxygen into their blood. Unlike humans and other mammals, there is no mixing of oxygen rich air and carbon dioxide rich air. Thus, the partial pressure of oxygen in a bird's lungs is the same as the environment. This is why you would more likely see a bird on Mount Everest than, say, a mouse. Avian lungs do not have alveoli, as mammalian lungs do, but instead contain millions of tiny passages known as parabronchi, connected at either ends by the dorsobronchi and ventrobronchi. Air flows through the honeycombed walls of the parabronchi and into air capillaries, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are traded with cross-flowing blood capillaries by diffusion.

Other anatomy

mouse Birds possess a ventriculus, or gizzard, that is composed of four muscular bands that act to rotate and crush food by shifting the food from one area to the next within the gizzard. Depending on the species, the gizzard may contain small pieces of grit or stone that the bird has swallowed to aid in the grinding process of digestion. For birds in captivity, only certain species of birds require grit in their diet for digestion. The use of gizzard stones is a similarity between birds and dinosaurs, which left gizzard stones called gastroliths as trace fossils. Birds also have skeletons possessing unique characteristics. See bird skeleton. The region between the eye and bill on the side of a bird's head is called a lore. This region is sometimes featherless, and the skin may be tinted (as in many species of the cormorant family).

Birds and humans

cormorant cormorantcormorant Birds are an important food source for humans. The most commonly eaten species is the domestic chicken and its eggs, although geese, pheasants, turkeys, and ducks are also widely eaten. Other birds that have been utilized for food include emus, ostriches, pigeons, grouse, quails, doves, woodcocks, songbirds, and others, including small passerines such as finches. At one time swans and flamingos were delicacies of the rich and powerful, although these are generally protected now. Many species have become extinct through over-hunting, such as the Passenger Pigeon, and many others have become endangered or extinct through habitat destruction, deforestation and intensive agriculture being common causes for declines. Numerous species have come to depend on human activities for food and are widespread to the point of being pests. For example the common pigeon or Rock Dove (Columba livia) thrives in urban areas around the world. In North America, introduced House Sparrows, Common Starlings, and House Finches are similarly widespread. Other birds have been used by humans: for example Homing pigeons to carry messages (many are still kept for sport), falcons for hunting, cormorants for fishing. Chickens and pigeons are popular subjects in experimental research in biology and comparative psychology. As birds are extra-sensitive to toxins, the Canary was often used in coal mines to indicate the presence of poisonous gases, so that the miners could escape. Colorful, particularly tropical, birds (e.g., parrots, and mynahs) are often kept as pets although this has led to smuggling of some endangered species; CITES does considerable work to deter this. Bird diseases that can be contracted by humans include these: psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis (avian tuberculosis), avian influenza, giardiasis, and cryptosporiadiosis.

Trivia


- To preen or groom their feathers, birds use their bills to brush away foreign particles.
- The birds of a region are called the avifauna.
- Few birds use chemical defences against predators. Tubenoses can eject an unpleasant slime against an aggressor, and some species of pitohui, found in New Guinea secrete a powerful neurotoxin in their feathers.
- Birds are among the most extensively studied animal groups, with hundreds of academic journals devoted to their study.

See also


- Anting
- Archaeopteryx
- Avian pallium
- Bird flight
- Bird intelligence
- Bird migration
- Bird ringing (banding)
- Bird skeleton
- Birdfeeding
- Birding
- Carinatae
- Conservation status
- Egg biology
- Extinct birds
- List of birds
- regional and country bird lists
- Oology
- Ornithology
- Prehistoric birds Bird families and taxonomic discussion are given in list of birds and Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy.

References and external links


- [http://www.bsc-eoc.org/avibase/avibase.jsp?lang=EN&pg=home Avibase - The World Bird Database]
- [http://www.i-o-c.org/IOComm/index.htm International Ornithological Committee]
- [http://www.birdlife.org/ Birdlife International] - Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species
- [http://birdingonthe.net/ Birdingonthe.net]
- [http://www.surfbirds.com/ Surfbirds Birdwatching and World Birding]
- [http://worldtwitch.com/ Worldtwitch - rare bird news around the world]
- [http://www.birdforum.net/ BirdForum] Category:Chordates
- Category:Ornithology ko:새 ms:Burung ja:鳥類 simple:Bird th:นก

Bird migration

Long-distance land bird migration

Many species of land birds migrate very long distances, the most common pattern being for birds to breed in the temperate or arctic northern hemisphere and winter in warmer regions, often in the tropics or the southern hemisphere. There is a strong genetic component to migration in terms of timing and route, but this may be modified by environmental influences. An interesting example where a change of migration route has occurred because of such a geographical barrier is the trend for some Blackcaps in central Europe to migrate west and winter in Britain rather than cross the Alps. The advantage of the migration strategy is that, in the long days of the northern summer, breeding birds have more hours to feed their young on often abundant food supplies, particularly insects. As the days shorten in autumn and food supplies become scarce, the birds can return to warmer regions where the length of the day varies less and there is an all year round food supply. The downside of migration is the hazards of the journey, especially when difficult habitats such as deserts and oceans must be crossed, and weather conditions may be adverse. The risks of predation are also high. The Eleonora's Falcon which breeds on Mediterranean islands has a very late breeding season, timed so that autumn passerine migrants can be hunted to feed its young. Whether a particular species migrates depends on a number of factors. The climate of the breeding area is important, and few species can cope with the harsh winters of inland Canada or northern Eurasia. Thus the Blackbird Turdus merula is migratory in Scandinavia, but not in the milder climate of southern Europe. The nature of the staple food is also important. Most specialist insect eaters are long-distance migrants, and have little choice but to head south in winter. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for migrating birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England. Drift migration of birds blown off course by the wind can result in "falls" of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites. Another cause of birds occurring outside their normal ranges is the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. A mechanism which can lead to great rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range is reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly. Recent research suggests that long-distance passerine migrants are of South American and African, rather than northern hemisphere, evolutionary origins. They are effectively southern species coming north to breed rather than northern species going south to winter.

Broad-winged long distance migrants

Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles and buzzards, but also storks. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals can only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. The Mediterranean and other seas therefore present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which are forced to cross at the narrowest points. This means that massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as Gibraltar, Falsterbo and the Bosphorus at migration times. Commoner species, such as the Honey Buzzard, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants.

Short-distance land bird migration

The long-distance migrants in the previous section are effectively genetically programmed to respond to changing lengths of days. However many species move shorter distances, but may do so only in response to harsh weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as Wallcreeper and White-throated Dipper, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as Merlin and Skylark will move further to the coast or to a more southerly region. Species like the Chaffinch are not migratory in Britain, but will move south or to Ireland in very cold weather. Interestingly, in Scandinavia, the female of this species migrates, but not the male, giving rise to the specific name coelebs, a bachelor. Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those which have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the Chiffchaff, are species of southern hemisphere origins which have progressively shortened their return migration so that they stay in the northern hemisphere. Those species which have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings, are effectively moving in response to winter weather, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.

Wildfowl and waders

The typical image of migration is of northern landbirds such as swallows and birds of prey making long flights to the tropics. Many northern-breeding ducks, geese and swans are also long-distance migrants, but need only to move from their arctic breeding grounds far enough south to escape frozen waters. This means that most wildfowl remain in the Northern hemisphere, but in milder countries. For example, the Pink-footed Goose migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries. Usually wintering grounds are traditional and learned by the young when they migrate with their parents. Some ducks, such as the Garganey, do move completely or partially into the tropics. A similar situation occurs with waders (called "shorebirds" in North America). Many species, such as Dunlin and Western Sandpiper, undertake long movements from their arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as Semipalmated Sandpiper travel huge distances to the tropics. Most of the wildfowl are large and powerful, and even the waders are strong fliers. This means that birds wintering in temperate regions have the capacity to make further shorter movements in the event of particularly inclement weather. The same considerations about barriers and detours that apply to long-distance land-bird migration apply to water birds, but in reverse: a large area of land without bodies of water that offer feeding sites is a barrier to a water bird. Open sea may also be a barrier to a bird that feeds in coastal waters. Detours avoiding such barriers are observed: for example, Brent Geese migrating from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Wadden Sea travel via the White Sea coast and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and northern Scandinavia. For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to "refuel" for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay. Some Alaskan Bar-tailed Godwits have the longest non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km to their New Zealand wintering grounds (BTO News 258: 3, 2005). Prior to migration, 55% of their bodyweight is stored fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey.

Seabirds

New Zealand Much of what has been said in the previous section applies to many seabirds. Some, such as the Black Guillemot and some gulls, are quite sedentary; others, such as most of the terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move south varying distances in winter. The Arctic Tern has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its arctic breeding grounds to the antarctic wintering areas. One Arctic Tern, ringed (banded) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast, reached Melbourne, Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (14,000 miles). Seabirds, of course, have the advantage that they can feed on migration. The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses in general spread thinly over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many of them are also among the longest-distance migrants; Sooty Shearwaters nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (9,000 miles) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway, and some Manx Shearwaters do the same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx Shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km (5 million miles) during its over-50 year lifespan. Pelagic birding trips attract petrels and other procellarids by tipping "chum", a mixture of fish oil and offal, into the sea. Within minutes, a previously apparently empty ocean is full of petrels, fulmars and shearwaters attracted by the food. A few seabirds, such as Wilson's Petrel and Great Shearwater, breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.

The tropics

In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for an adequate food supply. Apart from the seasonal movements of northern hemisphere wintering species, most species are in the broadest sense resident. However many species undergo movements of varying distances depending on the rainfall. Many tropical regions have wet and dry seasons, the monsoons of India being perhaps the best known example. An example of a bird whose distribution is rain associated is the Woodland Kingfisher of west Africa. There are a few species, notably cuckoos, which are genuine long-distance migrants within the tropics. An example is the Lesser Cuckoo, which breeds in India and winters in Africa. In the high mountains, such as the Himalayas and the Andes, there are of course also altitudinal movements of greater or lesser extent by many species.

Australasia

Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern-Hemisphere phenomenon. In the Southern Hemisphere, seasonal migration tends to be much less marked. There are several reasons for this. First, the largely uninterrupted expanses of land mass or ocean tend not to funnel migrations into narrow and obvious pathways, making them less obvious to the human observer. Second, at least for terrestrial birds, climatic regions tend to fade into one another over a long distance rather than be entirely separate: this means that rather than make long trips over unsuitable habitat to reach particular destinations, migrant species can usually travel at a relaxed pace, feeding as they go. Short of banding studies it is often not obvious that the birds seen in any particular locality as the seasons change are in fact different members of the same species passing through, gradually working their way north or south. Relatively few Australasian birds migrate in the way that so many European and North American species do. This is largely a matter of geography: the Australasian climate has seasonal extremes no less compelling than those of Europe; however, they are far less predictable and tend to take place over periods both shorter and longer. A couple of weeks of heavy rain in one part or another of the usually dry centre of Australia, for example, produces dramatic plant and invertebrate growth, attracting birds from all directions. This can happen at any time of year, summer or winter and, in any given area, may not happen again for a decade or more. Broader climatic extremes are highly unpredictable also: expected seasonal heat or rain arrives or does not arrive, depending on the vagaries of El Niño. It is commonplace to have stretches of five or ten years at a time when winter rains do not eventuate during the El Niño cycle, and equally common to have La Niña periods which turn arid zones into areas of lush grass and shallow lakes. Long distance migration requires a heavy investment in time and body mass—and, given the random nature of El Niño, an investment with an uncertain return. In broad terms, Australasian birds tend to be sedentary or nomadic, moving on whenever conditions become unfavourable to whichever area happens to be more suitable at the time. There are many exceptions, however. Some species make the long haul to breed in far distant northern climes every year, notably swifts, and a great many wading birds that breed in the Arctic Circle during the southern winter. Many others arrive for the southern spring and summer to breed, then fly to tropical northern Australia, New Guinea, or the islands of South East Asia for the Southern winter. Examples include cuckoos, the Satin Flycatcher, the Dollarbird, and the Rainbow Bee-eater. Others again are altitudinal migrants, moving to higher country during summer, returning to warmer areas in winter such as several robins, or travel north and south with the seasons but within a relatively restricted range. The tiny 10 cm Silvereye is an example: most of the southernmost Tasmanian race crosses the 200 miles of Bass Strait after breeding to disperse into Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales and even southern Queensland, replacing the normal residents who fly still further north, following the band of fertile country along the coast, feeding through the day and travelling mostly at night. The northernmost populations, however, are nomadic rather than migratory, as are the Silvereyes of southern Western Australia, which is bounded by thousands of miles of desert to the north and east, and sea to the south and west.

Study techniques

Bird migration has been studied by a variety of techniques of which ringing has been the oldest. Color marking, use of radar, satellite tracking and use of stable hydrogen isotopes include some of the newer techniques being used to study the migration of birds.

See also


- Bird ringing

References


- Alerstam, T. (2001). Detours in bird migration. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 209, 319-331.
- Weidensaul, Scott. Living On the Wind: Across the Hemisphere With Migratory Birds. Douglas & McIntyre, 1999.
- Dingle, Hugh. Migration: The Biology of Life on The Move. Oxford Univ. Press, 1996.

External links


- [http://www.trektellen.nl/default.asp?taal=2 Migration counts and ringing records The Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain and France] Category:Ornithology Category:Migratory birds (Eastern hemisphere) Category:Migratory birds (Western hemisphere) ko:철새 ja:渡り鳥

Seed

A seed is the ripened ovule of gymnosperm or angiosperm plants. The importance of the seed relative to more primitive forms of reproduction and dispersal is attested to by the success of these two groups of plants in dominating the landscape.

Seed structure

A fertilized seed contains the embryo from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. It also contains a supply of stored food and is wrapped in the seed coat or testa. The stored food begins as a tissue called endosperm derived from the parent plant. Endosperm becomes rich in oil or starch, and protein. In some species, the embryo is imbedded in the endosperm, which the seedling will use upon germination. In others, the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with this stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm. Some common plant seeds that lack an endosperm are bean, pea, oak, walnut, squash, sunflower, and radish. Plant seeds with an endosperm include all conifers and most monocotyledons (e.g. grasses and palms), and also e.g. brazil nut, castor bean. castor bean See also: Hypocotyl The seed coat develops from tissues (called integument) originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper thin layer (as for example, in the peanut) or something more substantial (as for example, thick and hard in honey locust and coconut). The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury and from drying out. In order for the seed coat to split, the embryo must imbibe (soak up water) which causes it to swell, splitting the seed coat. However, the nature of the seed coat determines how rapidly water can penetrate and subsequently initiate germination. For seeds with a very thick coat, scarification of the seed coat may be necessary before water can reach the embryo. Examples of scarification include: gnawing by animals, freezing and thawing, battering on rocks in a stream bed, or passing through an animal's digestive tract. In the latter case, the seed coat protects the seed from digestion, while perhaps weakening the seed coat such that the embryo is ready to sprout when it gets deposited (along with a bit of fertilizer) far from the parent plant. In species with thin seed coats, light may be able to penetrate into the dormant embryo. The presence of light or the absence of light may trigger the germination process, inhibiting germination in some seeds buried too deeply or in others not buried in the soil. Abscisic acid is usually the growth inhibitor in seeds. The seeds of angiosperms are contained in a hard or fleshy (or with layers of both) structure called a fruit. Gymnosperm seeds begin their development "naked" on the bracts of cones, although the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop. An example of a hard fruit layer surrounding the actual seed is that of the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach).

Seed functions

Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. Consequently, plants have evolved many ways to disperse and spread the population through their seeds (see also vegetative reproduction). A seed must somehow "arrive" at a location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. Those properties or attributes that promote the movement of the next generation away from the parent plant may involve the fruit more so than the seeds themselves. The function of a seed typically is one of serving as a delaying mechanism: a way for the new generation to suspend its growth and allow time for dispersal to occur or to survive harsh, unfavorable conditions of cold or dryness or both. In many if not most cases each plant species achieves success in finding ideal locations for placement of its seeds through the basic approach of producing numerous seeds. This is certainly the approach used by plants, such as ferns, that disperse by spores. However, seeds involve a considerably greater investment in energy and resources than do spores, and the payoff must come in achieving similar or greater success with fewer dispersal units.

See also


- Biological dispersal
- Stratification
- Germination
- Seed company

External links


- [http://www.seedlab.co.nz/NAMESEED.HTM List of Common Botanical Seed Names]
- [http://theseedsite.co.uk/ The Seed Site]: collecting, storing, sowing, germinating, and exchanging seeds, with pictures of seeds, seedpods and seedlings. Category:Plants Category: plant morphology Category:Vegetables Category:Flowers ko:씨 ja:種子 simple:Seed

Habitat (ecology)

Habitat (from the Latin for "it inhabits") is the place where a particular species lives and grows. It is essentially the environment—at least the physical environment—that surrounds (influences and is utilized by) a species population. We use "species population" instead of "organism" here because, while it is possible to describe the habitat of a single black bear, we generally mean not any particular or individual bear, but the grouping of bears that comprise a breeding population and occupy a certain geographical area. Further, this habitat could be somewhat different from the habitat of another group or population of black bears living elsewhere. Thus, it is neither the species, nor the individual, for which the term habitat is typically used. A microhabitat is the immediate surroundings and other physical factors of an individual plant or animal within its habitat. However, the term "habitat" can be used more broadly in ecology. It was originally defined as the physical conditions that surround a species, or species population, or assemblage of species, or community (Clements and Shelford, 1939). Thus, it is not just a species population that has a habitat, but an assemblage of many species, living together in the same place that essentially share a habitat. Ecologists would regard the habitat shared by many species to be a biotope. Habitat destruction is a major factor in causing a species population to decrease, eventually leading to being endangered, or even extinct. A biome is the set of flora and fauna which live in a habitat and occupy a certain geography.

See also


- Ecology
- Natural environment
- Habitat conservation

Reference


- Clements, Frederic E., and Victor E. Shelford. 1939. Bio-ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 425 pp. Category:Ecology

Category:Icteridae

Category:Passeriformes

Sequoiadendron

Mammuttræ-slægten]

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