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1052 Gebeure
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Hierdie Dag In Die GeskiedenisLet wel: Die datums van die Afrikaanse wikipedia ondergaan tans heelwat veranderings. Hier is skakels na twee weergawes van die dae in geskiedenis. Die skakels in die boonste weergawe wys na die artikels wat uiteindelik gebruik sal word. Werk asb dae in die ander twee formate by sodat ons kan standardiseer. Daar is afgespreek dat 1 Junie as templaat gebruik sal word.
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Eksterne Engelse skakels
- [http://www.on-this-day.com/ on-this-day.com]
- [http://www.historychannel.com/today/ The history channel: this day in history]
- [http://www.todayinsci.com/ Today in science]
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GeskiedenisDie geskiedenis is 'n gesistimatiseerde, chronologiese studie van die verlede met die doel om historiese gebeure so feitlik akkuraat moontlik weer te gee.
- Mousteriaans (Europa-Asië) 150,000 v.C. - 35,000 v.C.
- Middelsteentyd (Afrika) 150,000 v.C. - 35,000 v.C.
- Bo-Paleolitikum (Europa) 35,000 v.C. - 12,000 v..
- Laat-Steentyd (Afrika) 25,000 v.C - 2000 v.C.
- Mesolitikum (Europa) 12,000 v.C. 8000 v.C.
- Neolitikum (Midde-Ooste) 12,000 v.C. - 6000 v.C.
- Moderne mens6000 v.C. - 3000 v.C
- Bronstyd 3000 v.C - 750 v.C.
- Ystertyd 750 v.C.
- Antieke geskiedenis
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Artikels met plaaslike inhoud:
- Geskiedenis van Brakpan
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10de eeuEeue
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1049 Gebeure
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AntiMetric MovementSome people oppose metrication in favor of a different, customary system of measurement, typically the American or the similar Imperial one. Others oppose it because of perceived flaws in the metric system itself.
Some opponents of metrication became known colloquially in the UK as “metric martyrs” (the term is used by both supporters and opponents of metrication).
Human scale
One reason that is sometimes stated for opposing metric units is that non-metric systems of measurement were developed organically from actual use. Thus units share names with physical objects, such as the foot, hand, barrel, cord and are therefore properly suited for normal usage, whereas the metric system is based on easy decimal conversion between various units, not natural usage.
While this is an obvious counterargument, there are also counter-counterarguments. First is that dimensions of the parts of body vary a lot from person to person. Then again, one meter is approximately the chest circumference of an adult man, and roughly the pace of an adult man. Likewise, the width of hand is roughly 1 dm, which could as well be called as hand. It is easy to invent such metaphors from body parts or natural phenomena on metric measurements as well.
Multiplication factors
Some people say, incorrectly, that non-metric units are systematically designed to base n. The value n is sometimes quoted as 12 and sometimes as 16. This falsehood is probably due to a confusion of ‘base’ with ‘factor’. There is no inherent base in non-metric units, and in fact standard SI decimal prefixes have been used with non-metric units.
The standard SI base units include the kilogram, meaning that base 10 is part of the standard metric system. In theory, the metric system could function in any base without prefixes or simply by using different prefixes (e.g. the binary prefixes). In practice, even the binary prefixes are pseudo-base 10, using a power of 1024 because it is close to 1000, and there is no evidence that the binary prefixes have ever been used with metric units.
Factors used in non-metric units include:
- 3 (feet in a yard)
- 5½ (yards in a rod)
- 8 (furlongs in a mile)
- 12 (inches in a foot, troy ounces in a troy pound)
- 14 (pounds in a stone)
- 16 (avoirdupois ounces in a pound, US fluid ounces in a US fluid pint)
- 20 (hundredweight in a ton, imperial fluid ounces in an imperial pint)
- 60 (seconds in a minute, minutes in an hour)
- 231 (cubic inches in a US fluid gallon)
Dividing by three is simple in a base-12 system but difficult with a base ten. Even taking a quarter in base ten gives a fraction, whereas in many non-metric systems this too is easy. However, only few parts of the Imperial or US customary systems actually feature the factor twelve, namely the inch-to-foot ratio and the rarely used troy-ounce-to-troy-pound ratio. Powers of two are more common, especially in volume measures, along with other factors (5, 7, 11).
Metric practitioners counter to such arguments that they have a much better solution. Although, the SI standard itself defines no preferred sizes, there exist several widely used guidelines tailored to the needs of particular fields. For example, in the construction industry, a system known as modular coordination is commonly used. It prefers major dimensions that are multiples of 300 mm or 600 mm, leading to component sizes such as 1200 mm × 2400 mm. Any multiple of 600 mm can be divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, 24, 25, 30 far more easily than this is the case with US customary measures, without any need for fractions. Other such guidelines for preferred numbers include the Renard series or the system of metric paper sizes.
Another commonly quoted reason against metrication is the difficulties that conversion to and from old units cause. For everyday usage a 500-gram pound, 4-litre gallon and 25-milimetre inch could suffice, and have been used, see also metrified English unit.
Tradition
For some, anti-metrication is a form of traditionalism, looking to a history of usage that stretches back centuries or even millennia. Sometimes it is even considered part of patriotism. For traditional argument, however, the U.S. system and the Imperial system are based upon older English units, which in turn have largely Roman and French (e.g. Avoirdupois) roots.
The non-metric units have changed values many times throughout history. At the time of the French revolution there were over 5000 variations on the foot alone. Which one would be traditionally correct? The Imperial system is the result of a clean-up in 1824, some 30 years after the founding of the metric system. Even in those days there was resistance to Imperial from users of the abolished older units.
Metric units, however, have not been exempt from redefinitions or refinements. The metre, for instance, was intended to equal 10−7 or one ten-millionth of the length of the meridian through Paris from pole to the equator. However, the first prototype was short by 0.2 millimetres because researchers miscalculated the flattening of Earth due to its rotation. Now it is the length travelled by light in vacuum during the time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. With the exemption of the litre 1902–63 these have been refinements, i.e. definitions to a higher precision, not redefinitions. All English units are nowadays standardised in terms of metric units and thus inherit such improvements.
Aesthetics
Another complaint regarding SI is the alleged unpleasantness of its terms. Supporters of other systems claim that, being designed for scientific use, most metric terms are “cold”, “harsh” and lack the character of their Imperial counterparts.
For example, most common Imperial measurements (except for ‘gallon’ and ‘acre’) are single-syllable (‘inch’, ‘foot’, ‘yard’, ‘mile’, ‘ounce’, ‘pound’, ‘ton’, ‘cup’, ‘pint’, ‘quart’) which would be more “appealing” to the tongue and ear than “lifeless” terms like ‘decimetre’ or ‘millilitre’. In English, the names of the metric units, with their prefixes of multiple origins, are imperfectly domesticated loanwords. The corresponding traditional units, though not all of Anglo-Saxon etymology, have been in use long enough to conform thoroughly to regular English phonology. It is argued that the irregular correspondence between spelling and pronunciation of a foreign word like litre, by contrast, marks it as an intruder.
Several metric units in common (as opposed to primarily scientific) usage are abbreviated in everyday speech. This might be taken as evidence of the ‘unpleasantness’ argument, or it could demonstrate the adaptability of language to such concerns. Additionally, however, the units most abbreviated are those made longer than about two syllables by prefixes. ‘Metre’, for instance, is used as is, but ‘kilometre’ is frequently shortened to ‘klick’ or ‘kay’ (the pronunciation of the letter k). ‘Kilogram’ is shortened to ‘kilo’ or ‘kig’, and both millimetres and millilitres are known as ‘mils’. Abbreviations so derived from the prefix, not the unit itself, can be confusing, although context usually clarifies the meaning.
While there are those who claim this objection is mere parochialism, its existence can be helpful in understanding how much people “hold dear” the units they grew up with, and the difficulties encountered in the metrication process. In countries that have recently gone metric, the Imperial terms continue to be used metaphorically and in fixed expressions, and expressions like “a gram of prevention is worth a kilogram of cure” or “I was a million kilometres away (in my thoughts)” or “Due to the heavy traffic jam, the cars just centimetred their way down the road” have not suddenly become commonplace. However, in countries that metricated a long time ago, expressions involving the metric system are more common: “Don’t feel like you are 2 metres tall” (don't overestimate yourself), “one gram of experience is worth of a kilo of theory”, “millimetric precision”, “the traffic jam slithered ahead cent by cent” and so on.
Government compulsion
Another basic argument is that the adoption of metric units has almost always been a matter of government compulsion, prohibiting people from using units they were used to, and that such policies are wrong in principle. The idea of compulsory standards is hardly new, however; in the mid-1820s, for example, the Act for ascertaining and establishing Uniformity of Weights and Measures, signed by George IV, consolidated the various gallons in use at the time and established a new Imperial gallon, simultaneously prohibiting the use of the older units. Compulsory reforms, e.g. the introduction of the euro, in general have been proven to be much more efficient (quicker, cheaper) than voluntary ones without lesser satisfaction throughout the population afterwards.
In the UK there is widespread non-compliance by small-scale fruit and vegetable traders with the requirement to price in metric. Display of “supplementary units” (the equivalent Imperial price) is permitted (until 31 December 2009) as long as they are no larger than, nor more prominent than, the legally-binding metric price. In many towns, fruit and veg markets display prominent signs in Imperial units, with a very small metric price beside them. There is also some degree of non-compliance by smaller vendors of carpets, despite the great simplification that metrication affords to carpet-buying. Large supermarkets in the UK have also attempted to undermine the metrication process. They place small metric price signs on the edges of shelves and use these to claim they are pricing in metric. However, all around the store are very large signs advertising the products purely in Imperial units. They claim that the law requires them to price in metric but does not require them to advertise in metric. So far, Trading Standards officers have not taken a supermarket to court over this issue and thus its legality remains untested.
Anti-metrication in the UK often manifests itself in conjunction with Euroscepticism because of the belief that the European Union is responsible for compulsory metrication, although metrication had been government policy since 1953 and the process was initiated by the government establishing the Metrication Board in 1969, four years before joining the EC. In more recent times, anti-metrication supporters have claimed that the legal compulsion to adopt the metric system instead of their traditional weights and measures is an infringement of their human rights to freedom of speech, though this claim has been consistently rejected by the courts. Most recently, on 25 February 2004, the European Court of Human Rights rejected an application from British shopkeepers refusing to use metric claiming that their human rights had been violated.
In the US, there is also government compulsion with regard to measurement units. Federal and state laws control the labelling of goods for sale in the supermarket, drugs, wine, liquor etc. For example, US manufacturers are obliged by law to show both metric and non-metric units. It is an offence to have a metric only label, or a non-metric only label. Similarly, a US wine or liquor producer would be committing an offence if the product were delivered in non-metric bottle sizes.
Perception of impracticality in the United States
The United States is a large nation that shares borders with only two other countries, Canada and Mexico. Removed in some sense from the wave of metrication that has occurred throughout the world, many Americans see little practical benefit in making a complete switch to the metric system, generally do not believe that they have been negatively affected by retaining the U.S. customary system, and tend to perceive that switching to metric would bring a considerable cost to taxpayers. In general, US citizens appear to be more or less content with their present status. Other than enforcing the laws about labeling products with metric equivalents (discussed above), there is presently no significant push by the US government to increase the use of the metric system among the American public, nor is there any significant populist movement among the US public to fully adopt the metric system.
Further complicating the matter is that many cities, particularly in the Midwest and Southwest, have been laid out in blocks that are approximately 0.1 mile on a side. For example, the average block size between 15th street and 115th street in Chicago is 0.12 miles. As such, a 10 block journey is about 1.2 miles. A conversion to kilometres would foil this system.
Requiring actions proved impossible in constructive geometry
It is one of the classical Greek proofs that trisecting the angle is impossible with compass and straightedge, and similar ordinary tools. Dividing something into 5 parts accurately is likewise problematic, and requires sophisticated machine tools not found in the field.
Dividing something in half can be done by anyone. For example, half of any standard of length can be easily found by methods such as folding a string or piece of paper in half. The necessary comparison is simple equality.
The supposed advantage of ten is that we have ten fingers on our hands. This criticism states that measurement systems should be based on proven geometric constructability, not biological accident. However, it is because of this accident that almost every culture has come to use a base ten system for counting hence the true advantage of ten is that it fits in with this system making calculations much easier.
Coherence
Prior to the metric system, there were hundreds of local and domain variations of weights and measures. For example, Tudor England had six versions of the ‘pound’. Thirteenth century England had four versions of the ‘foot’. Nineteenth century Germany had 112 versions of the ‘ell’ in the state of Baden alone. The ratio between units was also inconsistent. For example, there were sometimes 10 inches in a foot and sometimes 12.
An objective of a standardised system was to remove the multiple definitions of units and multiple ratios between units. This would permit trade beyond the local town and between different specialisms. It is the same principle as was intended in Magna Carta: "There shall be one measure of wine throughout our whole realm."
The metric system as it now exists is based on the principle of coherence i.e. the units are related by rules of multiplication and division with no numerical factor other than 1.
Category:Measurement
Category:Systems of units
Category:Metrication
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