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200 BC

200 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC - 200 BC - 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC ---- Events
- Rome declares war upon Philip V, king of Macedon. Second Macedonian War begins.
- Roman forces defeat the Gauls of Cisalpine Gaul at Cremona
- Hannibal becomes Chief Magistrate of Carthage.
- The Bacchanalia are introduced in the Roman Empire. (approximate date)
- City of Tiwanaku founded near Lake Titicaca, in what is now modern Bolivia.
- Construction of Wei-Yang Palace in the Han Dynasty capital (Chang'an)
- Euthydemus I of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom dies and is succeeded by his son Demetrius I of Bactria (approximate date).
- The Hsiung-nu appear on the western borders of China.
- The first good measurement on the distance between Earth and the Sun was made by Eratosthenes. By studying lunar eclipses, his result was roughly 150 000 000 km. The currently accepted value is 149 597 870 691 ± 30 metres. Births
- Diophantus, Greek mathematician (approximate date of birth) Deaths
- Euthydemus I of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (approximate date).
- ko:200년

3rd century BC

(2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) ----

Events

- The first two Punic Wars between Carthage and Rome over dominance in western Mediterranean
- Rome conquers Spain
- Gaulish migration to Macedonia, Thrace and Galatia
- 281 BC Antiochus I Soter, on the assassination of his father Seleucus becomes emperor of the Seleucid empire.
- 273 BC to 252 BC Ashoka the Great ruled the Mauryan Empire
- 261 BC Antiochus II Theos, 2nd son, at the death of his father becomes emperor of the Seleucid empire.
- 214 BC Qin Shi Huang Qin Dynasty ordered contruction of the Great Wall of China.
- Indian traders regularly visited Arabia
- Scythians occupy Sogdiana, in modern-day Uzbekistan.
- Han dynasty was founded (202 BC - 8 AD).
- The Pharos of Alexandria is built.

Significant persons

- Mencius, Chinese philosopher and sage (371 - 289 BC).
- Euclid, geometer (c. 365 - 275 BC).
- Ashoka, Mauryan ruler of India 273 BC - 232 BC.
- Archimedes of Syracuse, mathematician, physicist, and engineer (c. 287 - 212 BC).
- The Ptolemaic dynasty rules Egypt
- Ptolemy I Soter (305 BC-282 BC) and his wives Eurydice and
- Ptolemy II Philadelphos (284 BC-246 BC) and his wives Arsinoe I and Arsinoe II Philadelphos.
- Ptolemy III Euergetes I (246 BC-222 BC) and his wife Berenice II.
- Ptolemy IV Philopater (222 BC-204 BC) and his wife Arsinoe III.
- Ptolemy V Epiphanes (204 BC-180 BC) and his wife Cleopatra I.
- Eratosthenes (c. 276 - 194 BC), Greek mathematician, geographer and astronomer.
- Apollonius of Perga, mathematician (c. 262 - 190 BC).
- Qin Shi Huang, Chinese Emperor (259 - 210 BC, reigned 246 - 210 BC).
- Hannibal, military leader of Carthage (247 - 182 BC).
- the "second" Brennus, Gaulish chieftain, invades Macedonia in 279 BC

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- Eratosthenes accurately calculates diameter of the Earth
- Weiqi well-established in China, and may date back to the 2nd millennium BC
- Stone of Canopus (for Ptolemy III), No. 1, in Rosetta Stone Series of 3 stones. Implements Leap year in Egypt. Leap year not formally recognized until Caesar in 55 B.C.

Decades and years

Category:3rd century BC ko:기원전 3세기 ja:紀元前3世紀

2nd century BC

(2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) ----

Events

- 175 BC - Antiochus IV Epiphanes, took possession of the Syrian throne, at the murder of his brother Seleucus IV Philopator, which rightly belonged to his nephew Demetrius I Soter.
- 168 BC - Battle of Pydna - The Macedonian phalanx defeated by Romans
- 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family, restores the Temple in Jerusalem. Events commemorated each year by the festival of Hanukkah.
- 147 BC - Hasmonean victories restore autonomy to Judea.
- 148 BC - Rome conquers Macedonia
- Rome destroys Carthage in the Third Punic War
- Rome conquers Corinth
- 129 BC - collapse of the Seleucid Empire
- 113–101 BC - migration of the Cimbri and the Teutons, defeated at the battles of Aquae Sextiae and Vercellae
- Theravada Buddhism is officially introduced to Sri Lanka by the Venerable Mahinda

Significant persons

- Andriscus, last independent ruler of Macedon.
- Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the last effective ruler of the Seleucid Empire.
- Antiochus VII Sidetes, last King of a United Seleucid Empire.
- Boiorix, King of the Cimbri.
- Flaccus, musical collaborator of Terence.
- Hipparchus, considered the greatest astronomical observer.
- Jonathan Maccabaeus, leader of the Hasmonean rebellion and first autonomous ruler of Judea.
- Judas Maccabeus, leader of the Hasmonean rebellion and its first successful general.
- Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, Roman general and politician.
- Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Roman general and politician.
- Lucius Mummius Achaicus, conqueror of Corinth.
- Marius, Roman general and politician.
- Perseus of Macedon, last King of the Antigonid dynasty.
- Plautus, Latin playwright.
- Quintus Lutatius Catulus, Roman general.
- Scipio Aemilianus Africanus, conqueror of Carthage.
- Terence, Latin playwright.
- Teutobod, King of the Teutons.
- Emperor Wu of Han, considered one of the greatest emperors throughout the History of China.
- Zhang Qian, Chinese diplomat and explorer.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- Silk Road between Europe and Asia
- Hipparchus discovers precession of Earth's equinoxes and compiles first trigonometric tables

Decades and years

Category:2nd century BC ko:기원전 2세기 ja:紀元前2世紀

1st century BC

(2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC starts on January 1, 100 BC and ends on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. This AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. Scientific notation does, however, and uses a minus sign, so '2 BC' is equal to 'year -1'.

Events

- The Roman Republic becomes the Roman Empire
- Birth of Jesus of Nazareth See: Chronology of Jesus' birth and death and Anno Domini for further details
- 57 BC Silla is founded in southeastern Korea (traditional date according to Samguk Sagi)
- 53 BC The Parthians defeat the Romans under Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae
- 44 BC Julius Caesar murdered
- 37 BC Goguryeo is founded in southern Manchuria (traditional date according to Samguk Sagi)
- 31 BC Roman Civil War: Battle of Actium - Off the western coast of Greece, forces of Octavian defeat troops under Mark Antony and Cleopatra.
- 18 BC Baekje is founded in midwestern Korea (traditional date according to Samguk Sagi)

Significant persons

- Caesar Augustus, Roman emperor
- Cicero, Roman politician and writer
- Cleopatra VII of Egypt, Egyptian ruler
- Horace, Roman poet
- Julius Caesar, Roman politician
- Livy, Roman historian
- Lucretius, Roman philosopher
- Marcus Antonius, Roman politician
- Marcus Junius Brutus, Caesar's adopted son, supposedly killed him
- Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Roman statesman and general
- Ptolemy XIII of Egypt, drowned in Nile
- Ovid, Roman poet
- Virgil, Roman poet
- Spartacus, gladiator
- Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Decades and years

Category:1st century BC ko:기원전 1세기 ja:紀元前1世紀

250s BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC - 250s BC - 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC Years: 259 BC 258 BC 257 BC 256 BC 255 BC 254 BC 253 BC 252 BC 251 BC 250 BC ----

Events and trends

- Category:250s BC

240s BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC - 240s BC - 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC Years: 249 BC 248 BC 247 BC 246 BC 245 BC 244 BC 243 BC 242 BC 241 BC 240 BC ----

Events and trends

- Category:240s BC

230s BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC - 230s BC - 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC Years: 239 BC 238 BC 237 BC 236 BC 235 BC 234 BC 233 BC 232 BC 231 BC 230 BC ----

Events and trends

- Mauryan Empire at its peak; Buddhism flourishes in India. Category:230s BC

220s BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC - 220s BC - 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 229 BC 228 BC 227 BC 226 BC 225 BC 224 BC 223 BC 222 BC 221 BC 220 BC ----

Events and trends

- Category:220s BC

200s BC

Events and trends

- Han Dynasty founded in China.
- After severe losses, Roman determination kept them fighting in the Second Punic War against Hannibal. As a result, they wore down Carthaginian forces in Spain and Sicily, then launched a series of raids across the Mediterranean Sea that forced Hannibal to withdraw back to northern Africa, where he was at last decisively defeated in the Battle of Zama. Category:200s BC

190s BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC 190 BC ----

Events and trends

-
- For Ptolemy V of Egypt, the priests erected the "Decree of Memphis (Ptolemy V)", the named Rosetta Stone. Category:190s BC

180s BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC Years: 189 BC 188 BC 187 BC 186 BC 185 BC 184 BC 183 BC 182 BC 181 BC 180 BC ----

Events and trends

- Category:180s BC

160s BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC - 160s BC - 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 169 BC 168 BC 167 BC 166 BC 165 BC 164 BC 163 BC 162 BC 161 BC 160 BC ----

Events and trends

- Roman victory at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC brings an end to the Macedonian Kingdom. Category:160s BC

150s BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC - 150s BC - 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC Years: 159 BC 158 BC 157 BC 156 BC 155 BC 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC 150 BC ----

Events and trends

- Category:150s BC

Year

A year is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. By extension, this can be applied to any planet: for example, a "Martian year" is a year on Mars.

Seasonal year

A seasonal year is the time between successive recurrences of a seasonal event such as the flooding of a river, the migration of a species of bird, the flowering of a species of plant, the first frost, or the first scheduled game of a certain sport. All of these events can have wide variations of more than a month from year to year.

Calendar year

A calendar year is the time between two dates with the same name in a calendar. Solar calendars usually aim to predict the seasons, but because the length of individual seasonal years varies significantly, they instead use an astronomical year as a surrogate. For example, the ancient Egyptians used the heliacal rising of Sirius to predict the flooding of the Nile. The Gregorian calendar aims to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21; hence it follows the vernal equinox year. The average length of its year is 365.2425 days. No astronomical year has an integer number of days or months, so any calendar that follows an astronomical year must have a system of intercalation such as leap years. In the formerly used Julian calendar, the average length of a year was 365.25 days. This is still used as a convenient time unit in astronomy, see below.

Astronomical years

Julian year

The Julian year, as used in astronomy and other sciences, is a time unit defined as exactly 365.25 days. This is the normal meaning of the unit "year" (symbol "a" from the Latin annus, annata) used in various scientific contexts. The Julian century of 36525 days and the Julian millennium of 365250 days are used in astronomical calculations. Fundamentally, expressing a time interval in Julian years is a way to precisely specify how many days (not how many "real" years), for long time intervals where stating the number of days would be unwieldy and unintuitive.

Sidereal year

The sidereal year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution of its orbit, as measured in a fixed frame of reference (such as the fixed stars, Latin sidus). Its duration in SI days of 86,400 SI seconds each is on average: :365.256 363 051 days (365 d 6 h 9 min 9 s) (at the epoch J2000.0 = 2000 January 1 12:00:00 TT).

Tropical year

A tropical year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution with respect to the framework provided by the intersection of the ecliptic (the plane of the orbit of the Earth) and the plane of the equator (the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis of the Earth). Because of the precession of the equinoxes, this framework moves slowly westward along the ecliptic with respect to the fixed stars (with a period of about 26,000 tropical years); as a consequence, the Earth completes this year before it completes a full orbit as measured in a fixed reference frame. Therefore a tropical year is shorter than the sidereal year. The exact length of a tropical year depends on the chosen starting point: for example the vernal equinox year is the time between successive vernal equinoxes. The mean tropical year (averaged over all ecliptic points) is: :365.242 189 67 days (365 d 5 h 48 min 45 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Anomalistic year

The anomalistic year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution with respect to its apsides. The orbit of the Earth is elliptical; the extreme points, called apsides, are the perihelion, where the Earth is closest to the Sun (January 2 in 2000), and the aphelion, where the Earth is farthest from the Sun (July 2 in 2000). Because of gravitational disturbances by the other planets, the shape and orientation of the orbit are not fixed, and the apsides slowly move with respect to a fixed frame of reference. Therefore the anomalistic year is slightly longer than the sidereal year. It takes about 112,000 years for the ellipse to revolve once relative to the fixed stars. The anomalistic year is also longer than the tropical year (which calendars attempt to track) and so the date of the perihelion gradually advances every year. It takes about 21,000 years for the ellipse to revolve once relative to the vernal equinox, thus for the date of perihelion to return to the same place (given a calendar that tracks the seasons perfectly). The average duration of the anomalistic year is: :365.259 635 864 days (365 d 6 h 13 min 52 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Draconic year

The draconitic year, eclipse year or ecliptic year is the time for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to the same lunar node (a point where the Moon's orbit intersects the ecliptic). This period is associated with eclipses: these occur only when both the Sun and the Moon are near these nodes; so eclipses occur within about a month of every half eclipse year. Hence there are two eclipse seasons every eclipse year. The average duration of the eclipse year is: :346.620 075 883 days (346 d 14 h 52 min 54 s) (at the epoch J2000.0). :This term is sometimes also used to designate the time it takes for a complete revolution of the Moon's ascending node around the ecliptic: 18.612 815 932 years (6798.331 019 days).

Fumocy

The full moon cycle or fumocy is the time for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to the perigee of the Moon's orbit. This period is associated with the apparent size of the full moon, and also with the varying duration of the anomalistic month. The duration of one full moon cycle is: :411.784 430 29 days (411 d 18 h 49 min 34 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Heliacal year

A heliacal year is the interval between the heliacal risings of a star. It equals the sidereal year only if the star is on the ecliptic. It differs from the sidereal year for stars north or south of the ecliptic because of the significant angle (23.5°) between Earth's celestial equator and the ecliptic.

Sothic year

The Sothic year is the interval between heliacal risings of the star Sirius. Its duration is very close to the mean Julian year of 365.25 days.

Gaussian year

The Gaussian year is the sidereal year for a planet of negligible mass (relative to the Sun) and unperturbed by other planets that is governed by the Gaussian gravitational constant. Such a planet would be slightly closer to the Sun than Earth's mean distance. Its length is: :365.256 898 3 days (365 d 6 h 9 min 56 s).

Besselian year

The Besselian year is a tropical year that starts when the fictitious mean Sun reaches an ecliptic longitude of 280°. This is currently on or close to 1 January. It is named after the 19th century German astronomer and mathematician Friedrich Bessel. An approximate formula to compute the current time in Besselian years from the Julian day is: :B = 2000 + (JD - 2451544.53)/365.242189

Great year

The Great year, Platonic year, or Equinoctial cycle corresponds to a complete revolution of the equinoxes around the ecliptic. Its length is approximately 25,770.639 22 years (9,412,725 d 23 h 22 min).

Variation in the length of the year and the day

The exact length of an astronomical year changes over time. The main sources of this change are: #The precession of the equinoxes changes the position of astronomical events with respect to the apsides of Earth's orbit. An event moving toward perihelion recurs with a decreasing period from year to year; an event moving toward aphelion recurs with an increasing period from year to year. #The gravitational influence of the Moon and planets changes the shape of the Earth's orbit. Tidal drag between the Earth and the Moon and Sun increases the length of the day and of the month. This in turn depends on factors such as continental rebound and sea level rise. It is also suspected that changes in the effective mass of the sun, caused by nuclear fusion, could have a significant impact on the earth year over time.

Summary of various kinds of year

- 353, 354 or 355 days — the lengths of regular years in some lunisolar calendars
- 354.37 days — 12 lunar months; the average length of a year in lunar calendars
- 365 days — a common year in many solar calendars; ~31.53 million seconds
- 365.24219 days — a mean tropical year near the year 2000
- 365.2424 days — a vernal equinox year.
- 365.2425 days — the average length of a year in the Gregorian calendar
- 365.25 days — the average length of a year in the Julian calendar; the light year is based on it; it is 31,557,600 seconds
- 365.2564 days — a sidereal year
- 366 days — a leap year in many solar calendars; 31.62 million seconds
- 383, 384 or 385 days — the lengths of leap years in some lunisolar calendars
- 383.9 days — 13 lunar months; a leap year in some lunisolar calendars An average Gregorian year is 365.2425 days = 52.1775 weeks, 8,765.82 hours = 525,949.2 minutes = 31,556,952 seconds (mean solar, not SI). A common year is 365 days = 8,760 hours = 525,600 minutes = 31,536,000 seconds. A leap year is 366 days = 8,784 hours = 527,040 minutes = 31,622,400 seconds. An easy to remember approximation for the number of seconds in a year is

\begin\pi\end

×10⁷ seconds. The 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar has 146097 days and hence exactly 20871 weeks. See also Numerical facts about the Gregorian calendar.

204 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC - 204 BC - 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC ---- Events
- Second Punic War:
- Cato the Elder goes to Sicily to serve as the quaestor of Scipio Africanus Major, and publicly objects to Scipio's lavish spending.
- Scipio Africanus Major lands in Africa to fight the Carthaginians on their own soil, and apparently Hanno Barca was killed in an cavalry ambush set by Scipio near Utica
- Hannibal fights a drawn battle against the Roman general Sempronius in the Battle of Crotona.
- Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax led an large army against Scipio, but instead an armistice was arranged between the opponents
- In Rome, the Lex Cincia forbids courtroom advocates from accepting fees for services rendered. Births
- Deaths
- Livius Andronicus, pioneer Latin epic poet
- Pharaoh Arsinoe III of Egypt of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (murdered)
- Hanno Barca, Carthaginian general, killed in combat Category:200s BC ko:204년

203 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC - 203 BC - 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC ---- Events
- Second Punic War:
- Scipio's surprise night attack destroyed the first Carthaginian army under Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax
- The Romans under Scipio again defeat the second Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax in the Battle of Bagbrades.
- Syphax is captured and imprisoned at Alba Fucens, Masinissa, ally of Scipio, became sole ruler of Numidia
- Mago was defeated and badly wounded by the Romans in a battle fought in the territory of the Insubres
- Hannibal was recalled to Carthage. Births
- Polybius, Greek historian Deaths
- Mago, brother of Hannibal
- Fabius Maximus Cunctator, Roman general and statesman Category:200s BC ko:203년

202 BC

Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC ---- Events
- October 19 - In an epic showdown between the two greatest generals of their age, Scipio Africanus Major defeats Hannibal in the Battle of Zama. On Hannibal's advice, Carthage sues for peace, ending the Second Punic War. Carthage is reduced to a client state.
- The Han emperor Liu Bang moves his capital from Luoyang to Chang'an (Xian), Construction of the new capital city Chang'an started. He gives the area of today's Fujian Province to Wuzhu as his kingdom. Wuzhu started construction of his own capital Ye (Fuzhou).
- Construction of Changsha started. Births
- Deaths
- Xiang Yu, rebel against the Qin Dynasty Category:200s BC

201 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC - 201 BC - 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC ---- Events
- Philip V of Macedon is defeated at sea by the Egyptians, Rhodians, and Pergamese in the Battle of Chios.
- In Rome, according to Livy, land was distributed to veterans of the Second Punic War, in the first instance of a practice that later became commonplace.
- Construction of Nanchang started. Births
- Deaths
- Category:200s BC ko:201년

199 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC - 199 BC - 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC ---- Events
- Gnaeus Baebius Tamphilus attacks the Insubres in Gaul, but loses over 6,700 soldiers in the process.
- In Rome, the Lex Porcia gives citizens in Italy and the provinces a right of appeal in capital cases.
- Lucius_Cornelius_Lentulus and Publius_Villius_Tappulus are consuls in Rome. Births
- Deaths
- Naevius, Latin poet
- ko:199년

198 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC - 198 BC - 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC ---- Events
- Battle of Panium Antiochus III the Great secures the conquest of Coele-Syria and Judea from Egypt with this victory
- Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeat the Macedonians under Philip V
- Abdera becomes a free city under Roman rule. Births
- Deaths
-
- ko:198년

196 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC - 196 BC - 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC ---- Events
- March 27 - Council of Priests at Memphis pass a decree praising the deeds of Ptolemy V, which is recorded on the Rosetta Stone.
- At the Isthmian Games, the Roman Titus Quinctius Flamininus proclaims the Greeks to be a free people.
- Rome subjugates Comum in northern Italy.
- Lucius Stertinius erects triumphal arches in Rome to commemorate his victories in Spain.
- A new category of Roman priests, the tresviri epulones, are elected to supervise the feasts of the gods; the first three are Gaius Licinius Lucullus, Publius Manlius, and Publius Porcius Laeca.
- Hannibal takes control of the government of Carthage in order to end widespread corruption. Births
- Deaths
- Han Xin Chinese military leader under Liu Bang, who founded the Han dynasty.
- ko:196년

Philip V of Macedon

).]] Philip V was king of Macedonia from 221 BC to 179 BC. He belonged to the Antigonid dynasty. The son of Demetrius II and Chryseis, Philip was nine years old at his father's death in 230-229 BC. His cousin, Antigonus Doson, administered the kingdom as regent until his death in 221 BC-220 BC, when Philip was eighteen years old. Philip then ascended the throne and reigned until 179 BC. His reign was occupied in the vain struggle to maintain the old Macedonian supremacy in the Balkan peninsula, which became hopeless after the intervention of Rome, during the First Macedonian War, and the decisive battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC), during the Second Macedonian War. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Perseus who ruled as the last king of Macedon.

References

- Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies Category:Macedonian monarchs Category:179 BC deaths

Macedon

For the modern history of this area, see Macedonia (region). Macedonia (region) Macedon (or Macedonia from Greek ; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was the name of an ancient kingdom on the northern edge of ancient Greece, bordering the Greek kingdom of Epirus on the west and the non-Greek state of Thrace to the east. For a brief period it became the most powerful state in the ancient Near East after Alexander the Great conquered Persia and Greece, inaugurating the Hellenistic period of Greek history.

Early history

The first Macedonian state emerged 8th or early 7th century BC under the Argead Dynasty, when the Macedonians are said to have migrated to the region from further west. Their first king is recorded as Perdiccas I. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Macedonians started to expand into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Pieria, Mygdonia, and Almopia. Near the modern city of Edessa, Perdiccas I (or, more likely, his son, Argaeus I) built his capital, Aigai (modern Vergina). After a brief period of Persian overlordship under Darius Hystaspes, the state regained its independence under King Alexander I (495-450 BC). Prior to the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region approximately corresponding to the province of Macedonia of modern Greece. It became increasingly Hellenised during this period, though prominent Greeks appear to have regarded the Macedonians as being uncouth and somewhat barbaric. A unified Macedonian state was eventually established by King Amyntas III (c. 393-370 BC), though it still retained strong contrasts between the cattle-rich coastal plain and the fierce isolated tribal hinterland, allied to the king by marriage ties. They controlled the passes through which barbarian invasions came from Illyria to the north and northwest. Amyntas had three sons; the first two, Alexander II and Perdiccas III reigned only briefly. Perdiccas III's infant heir was deposed by Amyntas' third son, Philip II of Macedon, who made himself king and ushered in a period of Macedonian dominance of Greece.

Expansion

Under Philip II, (359-336 BC), Macedon expanded into the territory of the Paionians, Thracians, and Illyrians. This brought into its orbit the Monastir (now Bitola) and Gevgelija districts of what is now the Republic of Macedonia. Macedon became more politically involved with the south-central city-states of Ancient Greece, but it also retained more archaic features like the palace-culture, first at Aegae (modern Vergina) then at Pella, resembling Mycenaean culture more than classic Hellenic city-states, and other archaic customs, like Philip's multiple wives in addition to his Epirote queen Olympias, mother of Alexander. Another archaic remnant was the very persistence of a hereditary monarchy which wielded formidable – sometimes absolute – power, although this was at times checked by the landed aristocracy, and often disturbed by power struggles within the royal family itself. This contrasted sharply with the Greek cultures further south, where the ubiquitous city-states possessed more-or-less democratic institutions; the de facto monarchy of tyrants, in which heredity was usually more of an ambition rather than the accepted rule; and the limited, predominantly military and sacerdotal, power of the twin hereditary Spartan kings. The same might have held true of feudal institutions like serfdom, which may have persisted in Macedon well into historical times. Such institutions were abolished by city-states well before Macedon's rise (most notably by the Athenian legislator Solon's famous seisachtheia laws). seisachtheia Philip's son Alexander III (the Great) (336-323 BC) managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states, but also to the Persian empire, including Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. Alexander's adoption of the styles of government of the conquered territories was accompanied by the spread of Greek culture and learning through his vast empire. Although the empire fell apart shortly after his death, his conquests left a lasting legacy, not least in the new Greek-speaking cities founded across Persia's western territories, heralding the Hellenistic period. Despite the empire's collapse into feuding kingdoms ruled by Alexander's generals, Macedonia itself remained a key and fiercely contested territory. It was ruled for a while by Demetrius I (294-288 BC) but fell into civil war. Antipater and his son Cassander gained control of Macedonia but it slid into a long period of civil strife following Cassander's death in 297 BC. Demetrius' son Antigonus II (277-239 BC) successfully restored order and prosperity and repelled a Galatian invasion, though he lost control of many of the formerly subjugated Greek city-states. He established a stable monarchy and gave rise to the Antigonid dynasty. His successor Antigonus II (239-221 BC) built on these gains by re-establishing Macedonian power across the region.

Decline

Under Philip V of Macedon (221–179 BC) and his son Perseus of Macedon (179–168), the kingdom clashed with the rising power of the Roman Republic. During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Macedon fought a series of wars with Rome. They resulted in the defeat of Macedon, the deposition of the Antigonid dynasty and the dismantling of the Macedonian kingdom. Andriscus' brief success at reestablishing the monachy in 149 BC was quickly followed by his defeat the following year and the establishment of direct Roman rule and the organization of Macedon as the Roman province of Macedonia.

Calendar

The Ancient Macedonian calendar year consisted of 12 synodic Lunar months (i.e. 354 days per year), which needed intercalary months to stay in step with the seasons. By the time the calendar was being used across the Hellenistic world, 7 total embolimoi (intercalary months) were being added in each 19-year Metonic cycle.
- Δίος (Dios, moon of October)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2311830 Απελλαίος] (Apellaios, moon of November, also a Dorian month - Apellaiōn was a Tenian month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2317337 Αυδναίος or Αυδηναίος] (Audnaios or Audēnaios, moon of December)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2382372 Περίτιος] (Peritios, moon of January)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2329555 Δύστρος] (Dystros, moon of February)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2371432 Ξανδικός or Ξανθικός] (Xandikos or Xanthikos, moon of March)
- Ξανδικός Εμβόλιμος (Xandikos Embolimos, intercalated 6 times over a 19-year cycle)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315602 Αρτεμίσιος or Αρταμίτιος] (Artemisios or Artamitios, moon of April, also a Spartan, Rhodian and Epidaurian month - Artemisiōn was an Ionic month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2323255 Δαίσιος] (Daisios, moon of May)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2377238 Πάνημος or Πάναμος] (Panēmos or Panamos, moon of June, also an Epidaurian, Miletian, Samian and Corinthian month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.reflang=greek;layout.refembed=2;layout.refwordcount=1;layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057;layout.reflookup=lwi%2Fwn;layout.refcit=entry%3Da%29ga%5Eqo%2Fs;doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2364336 Λώιος] (Lōios, moon of July - Ομολώιος, Homolōios, was an Aetolian, Beotian and Thessalian month)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2322702 Γορπιαίος] (Gorpiaios, moon of August)
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23107328 Υπερβερεταίος] (Hyperberetaios, moon of September - Hyperberetos was a Cretan month)
- Υπερβερεταίος Εμβόλιμος (Hyperberetaios Embolimos, intercalated once over a 19-year cycle)

Language

See main article: Ancient Macedonian language. The language spoken by the area's inhabitants prior to the 5th century BC, and continued into the early centuries of the Common Era by the rural population, is attested in some hundred words from various glosses (mainly those of Hesychius of Alexandria, 5th century AD), as well as placenames and personal names. The majority of these words can be confidently identified as Greek, and the language was either closely related to Greek, or perhaps even a dialect of Greek. There are words, however, that are not easily identifiable as Greek, a number of which for example show voiced stops where Greek has voiceless aspirates. There was probably linguistic contact with speakers of Doric Greek (whom Herodotus considered akin to Macedonians, see also Pella katadesmos), and from the 5th century BC Macedonia was closely associated with Southern Greek cultural and political development, resulting in the adoption of the Attic dialect.

Hellenic controversy

The controversy whether or not ancient Macedonia should be considered a Hellenic state is addressed variously: based on ancient sources, and on linguistic evidence. Neither approach is conclusive, Herodotus seems to assert that the Macedonian aristocracy was of Achaean origin while Macedonian people were of Dorian stock. Linguistics seems to point inconclusively to either Macedonian as an archaic form of Greek, Macedonian as part of a Graeco-Macedonian subfamily of Indo-European, or Macedonian as an independent member of the Paleo-Balkan Sprachbund. The Macedonians were sometimes spoken of as a tribe of Thrace, the land north-east of Greece (Sir William M. Ramsay). Rather than a Greek origin, some argue that the ancient Macedonians had an Illyrian or Thracian origin. It is also possible that the ancient Macedonians were originally a distinct people, later absorbing Greek, Illyrian, and Thracian elements (cf. Borza, et al.). This controversy concerns the early kingdom before the time of Philip II exclusively. It is undisputed that Macedon was heavily Atticized from the time of Alexander the Great (see Hellenism).

Herodotus

Herodotus considers the Macedonians a Hellenic tribe left behind during the Dorian invasion: :for during the reign of Deucalion, Phthiotis was the country in which the Hellenes dwelt, but under Dorus, the son of Hellen, they moved to the tract at the base of Ossa and Olympus, which is called Histiaeotis; forced to retire from that region by the Cadmeians, they settled, under the name of Macedonians, in the chain of Pindus. Hence they once more removed and came to Dryopis; and from Dryopis having entered the Peloponnese in this way, they became known as Dorians. (Histories, 1.53.1) On the other hand, a series of passages in book five of Herodotus' Histories (5:22) indicate to many classical scholars that the Macedonians were customarily excluded from panhellenic events such as the Olympic Games, entry to which apparently was confined to Greeks. The Macedonian aristocracy, however, clearly saw itself as Greek and Macedonian kings were permitted to participate on that basis. This was evidently somewhat controversial: when Alexander I attempted to compete at Olympia, Herodotus relates: :Now that the men of this family [of Alexander I] are Greeks, sprung from Perdiccas, as they themselves affirm, is a thing which I can declare of my own knowledge, and which I will hereafter make plainly evident. That they are so has been already adjudged by those who manage the Pan-Hellenic contest at Olympia. For when Alexander wished to contend in the games, and had come to Olympia with no other view, the Greeks who were about to run against him would have excluded him from the contest- saying that Greeks only were allowed to contend, and not barbarians. But Alexander proved himself to be an Argive, and was distinctly adjudged a Greek; after which he entered the lists for the foot-race, and was drawn to run in the first pair. Thus was this matter settled. (Histories, 5:22) In book eight, Herodotus counts the allied Macedonians as part of the Greek fleet. Some view this as proof that the Macedonians were considered Hellenes before Philip's conquests and Macedon's rise to power. Titus Livius (lived 59 BC-14 AD) in his Ab urbe condita (31.29) is quoting a Macedonian ambassador from the late 3rd century BC, implying that Macedonians had been a Greek-speaking tribe: :The Aetolians, the Acarnanians, the Macedonians, men of the same language, are united or disunited by trivial causes that arise from time to time; with aliens, with barbarians, all Greeks wage and will wage eternal war; for they are enemies by the will of nature, which is eternal, and not from reasons that change from day to day.---

Linguistics

The classification of the ancient Macedonian language is disputed, but it appears that Macedonian has not participated in at least one sound change common to every other known Greek dialect (the unvoicing of voiced aspirates, leading to
- Pherenikē as opposed to Macedonian Berenikē). Eugene Borza (1999) concludes that the Macedonians were "a unique people in antiquity who gradually became Hellenized, and who are unrelated to any modern people". On the other hand, Olivier Masson in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (1996) saw the phonological peculiarities mentioned above as "local pronunciations" due to Macedon's "marginal position" and concluded that Macedonian is "a dialect related to North-West Greek"[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/FAQ.html]. The late Nicholas G. L. Hammond, a classicist, also suggested that Macedonian was a Greek dialect: :"What language did these `Macedones' speak? The name itself is Greek in root and in ethnic termination. It probably means `highlanders', and it is comparable to Greek tribal names such as `Orestai' and `Oreitai', meaning 'mountain-men'. A reputedly earlier variant, `Maketai', has the same root, which means `high', as in the Greek adjective makednos or the noun mekos... At the turn of the sixth century the Persians described the tribute-paying peoples of their province in Europe, and one of them was the `yauna takabara', which meant `Greeks wearing the hat'. There were Greeks in Greek city-states here and there in the province, but they were of various origins and not distinguished by a common hat. However, the Macedonians wore a distinctive hat, the kausia. We conclude that the Persians believed the Macedonians to be speakers of Greek. Finally, in the latter part of the fifth century a Greek historian, Hellanicus, visited Macedonia and modified Hesiod's genealogy by making Macedon not a cousin, but a son of Aeolus, thus bringing Macedon and his descendants firmly into the Aeolic branch of the Greek-speaking family. Hesiod, Persia, and Hellanicus had no motive for making a false statement about the language of the Macedonians, who were then an obscure and not a powerful people. Their independent testimonies should be accepted as conclusive."

External links

- [http://www.macedonia.com/english/history/ History of Macedon]
- [http://vergina.eng.auth.gr/macedonia/ Macedonia, The Historical Profile]

References

- Eugene N. Borza: Before Alexander: constructing early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 1999. Pp. 89. ISBN 0-941690-96-0 (pb)
- [http://www.trentu.ca/ahc/bmcr2001enb.html Review by Konrad H. Kinzl (Trent University)]
- Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, 1973.
- Nicholas G. L. Hammond, The Macedonian State, Oxford University Press, 1989, ISBN 0198148836. Pg. 12-13. Category:Ancient Greece ja:マケドニア王国

Gaul

Gaul (from Latin Gallia, c.f. Greek Galatia) is the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. In English the word Gaul also refers to a Celtic inhabitant of that region in ancient times, but the Gauls were widespread in Europe by Roman times, speaking the Gaulish language. Besides the Gauls living on the territory of modern-day France, there were the Lepontii who had settled in the plains of northern Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), and the Helvetii who settled to the north of the alps, in Raetia. Gauls under Brennus sacked Rome circa 390 BC. In the Aegean world, a huge migration of Eastern Gauls appeared in Thrace, north of Greece, in 281 BC. Another Gaulish chieftain named Brennus, at the head of a large army, was only turned back from desecrating the Temple of Apollo at Delphi at the last minute, alarmed, it was said, by portents of thunder and lightning. At the same time a migrating band of Celts, some 10,000 fighting men, with their women and children and slaves, were moving through Thrace. Three tribes of Gauls crossed over from Thrace to Asia Minor at express invitation of Nicomedes I, king of Bithynia, who required help in a dynastic struggle against his brother. Eventually they settled down in eastern Phrygia and Cappadocia in central Anatolia, a region henceforth known as Galatia. The Gauls were called
- walha by Germanic tribes, a generic term for "foreigners" (see Etymology of Vlach).

Roman Gaul

:See main article: Roman Gaul. Roman rule in Gaul was established by Julius Caesar, who defeated the Celtic tribes in Gaul 58-51 BC and described his experiences in De Bello Gallico (About the Gallic War). The war cost the lives of more than a million Gauls, and a million further were enslaved. The area conquered by Caesar was called Gallia Comata: literally, "long-haired Gaul." The area was subsequently governed as a number of provinces. On December 31, 406 the Vandals, Alans and Suebians crossed the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia, and Roman rule in Gaul ended with the defeat of the Roman governor Syagrius by the Franks in AD 486.

Gaulish tribes

Caesar divided the people of Gaul into three broad groups: the Aquitani; Galli (who in their own language were called Celtae); and Belgae. In the modern sense, Gaulish tribes are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be counted among the Gaulish tribes. Julius Caesar's comments on these people from his book, The Gallic Wars, are worth quoting;

"All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are called Celts, in our Gauls, the third.

All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws.

The river Garonne separates the Gauls from the Aquitani; the Marne and the Seine separate them from the Belgae.

Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are furthest from the civilization and refinement of [our] Province, and merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germans, who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war; for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in valor, as they contend with the Germans in almost daily battles, when they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage war on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the river Rhone; it is bounded by the river Garonne, the ocean, and the territories of the Belgae; it borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the river Rhine, and stretches toward the north.

The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the river Rhine; and look toward the north and the rising sun.

Aquitania extends from the river Garonne to the Pyrenaean mountains and to that part of the ocean which is near Spain: it looks between the setting of the sun, and the north star." 1

Source for The Gallic Wars

- http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.html

Battle of Cremona (200 BC)

The Battle of Cremona was fought in 200 BC between the Roman Republic and Cisalpine Gaul. The Roman force was victorious. Cremona 200 Cremona 200

Carthage

:This article is about the ancient city-state of Carthage in North Africa. For other uses of the word, see Carthage (disambiguation). Carthage (disambiguation)). The map also shows Italy and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.]] Carthage (from the Phoenician Qart-Hadasht "New City" (written without vowels as QRT HDŠT קרת חדשת), was an ancient city in North Africa located on the eastern side of Lake Tunis, across from the center of modern Tunis in Tunisia. It remains a popular tourist attraction.

Founding of Carthage

In approximately 814 BC, Carthage was founded by Phoenician settlers from the city of Tyre, bringing with them the city-god Melqart. Traditionally, the city was founded by Dido, and a number of foundation myths have survived through Greek and Roman literature. (See Byrsa for one example.) Carthage's early years were defined by a long rivalry between the landholding and maritime families. In general, due to the city's dependence on maritime trade, the maritime faction controlled the government, and during the 6th century BC, Carthage began to acquire dominance over the Western Mediterranean. Merchants and explorers established a vast network of trade, bringing wealth and power to the city-state. In the early 6th century BC, Hanno the Navigator is supposed to have sailed down the African coast as far as Nigeria. Meanwhile, under a leader named Malchus, the city began a systematic conquest of both the African interior and the coastal lands. In 509 BC a treaty was signed between Carthage and Rome indicating a division of influence and commercial activities. It is the first known source that indicated Carthage had gained control over Sicily and Sardinia. By the beginning of the 5th century BC, Carthage was the commercial center of the region, a position it would retain until overthrown by the Roman Republic. The city had conquered the territory of the old Phoenician colonies, such as Hadrumetum, Utica and Kerkouane, and the Libyan tribes, spreading its control along the North African coast from modern Morocco to the borders of Egypt. Its influence had also spread into the Mediterranean, with control over Sardinia, Malta, the Balearic Islands and the western half of Sicily. Colonies had also been established in Iberia. Iberia

Life in Carthage

Carthaginian Commerce

The early trading empire of Carthage depended heavily on its trade with Tartessos and other cities of the Iberian peninsula, from which it obtained vast quantities of silver and, even more importantly, tin ore, which was essential to the manufacture of bronze objects by the civilizations of antiquity. Carthage followed trade routes already established by her parent city, Tyre. When Tartessos fell, the Carthaginian ships went directly to the primary sources of tin in the northwestern section of the Iberian peninsula and further north, in Cornwall in the British Isles. Other Carthaginian ships went down the Atlantic coast of Africa and brought back gold from Senegal. One account has a Carthaginian trading vessel exploring Nigeria, including identification of distinguishing geographic features, such as a coastal volcano and an encounter with gorillas. (See Hanno the Navigator.) Non-permanent trade relations were established as far west as Madeira and the Canary Islands, and as far south as southern Africa. If the epic poetry of Greece and the contemporary historians of imperial Rome record the military opposition of Carthage to the forces of the Greek city states, and later to Rome, then it is very much to the Greek theatre and Greek comedies that we are indebted for depictions of the generic Carthaginian merchant, hawking cloth, pots and jewellery. He was usually portrayed as an amusing scoundrel, a relatively peaceful and colourful trader intent on making a profit and cheating noble but innocent Greeks of every spare penny they might have. Diggings show evidence of all kinds of exchanges, from the vast quantities of tin needed for a bronze-based metals civilization to all manner of textiles, ceramics and fine metalwork. Before and in between the wars Carthaginian merchants were in every port in the Mediterranean, buying and selling, establishing warehouses where they could, or just bargaining in open-air markets after getting off their ship. The Etruscan language has not yet been deciphered, but archaeological excavations of Etruscan cities show that the Etruscan civilization was for several centuries a customer and a vendor to Carthage, long before the rise of Rome. The Etruscan city-states were, at times, both commercial partners of Carthage and military allies.

Carthaginian Government

Carthage's government was an oligarchy, not unlike that of republican Rome, but few details are known. Roman writers referred to its heads of state as reges "kings"; Punic inscriptions and Greco-Roman accounts show the indigenous term was Sōfetīm "Judges" (the same name early rulers are given in the Bible), which might originally have been the title of the city's governor installed by the mother city of Tyre. Later, one sōfet or two sōfetêm, who were believed to have exercised judicial and executive (but not military) functions, were elected annually from among the most wealthy and influential families. These aristocratic families were represented in a supreme council comparable to the Roman senate that had a wide range of powers. However, it is not known whether the sōfetīm were elected by this council or by an assembly of the people. Although the city's administration was firmly controlled by oligarchs, democratic elements were to be found as well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unions and town meetings. There was a system of checks and balances, as well as public accountability: the Head of the Admiralty would have to pay with his life for military defeat. Eratosthenes, head of the Greek library of Alexandria, noted that the Greeks had been wrong to describe all non-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as well as the Romans had a constitution. Aristotle also knew and wrote about the Carthaginian constitution in his Politics (Book II, Chapter 11).

Carthaginian Religious Practices

Carthage under the Phoenicians was notorious to its neighbors for child sacrifice. Plutarch (ca. 46-120 CE) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius and Diodorus Siculus. Livy and Polybius do not. Modern archeological excavations could be taken to confirm Plutarch's view. In a single child cemetery called the Tophet an estimated 20,000 urns were deposited between 400 BC and 200 BC, with the practice continuing until the early years of the Christian period. The urns contained the charred bones of newborns and in some cases the bones of fetuses and 2-year-olds. These remains have been interpreted to mean that in the cases of stillborn babies, the parents would sacrifice their youngest child. There is a clear correlation between the frequency of sacrifice and the well-being of the city. In bad times (war, poor harvests) sacrifices became more frequent, indicating an increased assiduousness in seeking divine appeasement. It is sometimes argued, however, that these bodies were merely the cremated remains of children that died naturally, although in light of other Canaanite evidence this seems less likely. The few Carthaginian texts which have survived make absolutely no mention of child sacrifice. It has been argued by some modern scholars that evidence of Carthaginian child sacrifice is sketchy at best and that it is far more likely to have been part of Roman propaganda against the Carthaginians to justify their conquest and destruction. The debate is ongoing among modern archeologists and other antiquarians. While the surviving Punic texts mention no practices of religious sacrifices, they are detailed enough to give a portrait of a very well organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions, for a variety of prices. Carthage had many gods. The supreme divine couple was that of Tanit and Ba`al Hammon. Priests were clean shaven, unlike most of the population. In the first centuries of the city ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived from Phoenician traditions. The goddess Astarte seems to have been popular in early times. At the height of its cosmopolitan era Carthage seems to have hosted a large array of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations of Greece, Egypt and the Etruscan city-states.

Conflict with the Greeks and Romans

First Sicilian War

Carthage's success led to the creation of a powerful navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations. This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the Greeks, the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean. The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the arena on which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large island, establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts. Small battles had been fought between these settlements for centuries. By 480 BC, Gelon, the tyrant of Greek Syracuse, backed in part by Greek support, was attempting to unite the island under his rule. This imminent threat could not be ignored, and Carthage - possibly as part of an alliance with Persia, then engaged in a war with Greece - fielded its largest military force to date, under the leadership of the general Hamilcar. Traditional accounts give Hamilcar's army a strength of three hundred thousand men; though these are almost certainly exaggerated, it must nonetheless have been of formidable force. En route to Sicily, however, Hamilcar suffered losses (possibly severe) due to poor weather. Landing at Panormus (modern-day Palermo), he was then decisively defeated by Gelon at the Battle of Himera. He was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. The loss severely weakened Carthage, and the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted, replaced by the Carthaginian Republic.

Second Sicilian War

By 410 BC Carthage had recovered under a series of successful rulers. It had conquered much of modern day Tunisia, strengthened and founded new colonies in North Africa, and sponsored Mago Barca's journey across the Sahara Desert and Hanno the Navigator's journey down the African coast. Although, in that year, the Iberian colonies seceded—cutting off Carthage's major supply of silver and copper—Hannibal Mago, the grandson of Hamilcar, began preparations to reclaim Sicily, while expeditions were also led into Morocco and Senegal, and also into the Atlantic. In 409 BC, Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with his force. He was successful in capturing the smaller cities of Selinus (modern