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Indonésie

Indonésie

Indonésie je ostrovní stát v jihovýchodní Asii. Jeho sousedy jsou Malajsie, Papua Nová Guinea a Východní Timor. Kategorie:Indonésie ja:インドネシア ko:인도네시아 ms:Indonesia simple:Indonesia th:ประเทศอินโดนีเซีย zh-min-nan:Ìn-nî

Asie

Asie je kontinent tvořící součást větší Eurasie. Ačkoliv hranice Asie nejsou přesně určitelné, všeobecně se jako hranice udává Ural na západě, pak dále směrem k jihu Kaspické moře, pohoří Kavkaz, Černé moře, Marmarské moře, Dardanely a Suezský kanál. Vše směrem na východ od této pomyslné hranice se považuje za asijský subkontinent.

Seznam států

right
- Afghánistán
- Arménie
- Ázerbájdžán
- Bahrajn
- Bangladéš
- Bhútán
- Brunej
- Čína
- Filipíny
- Gruzie
- Indie
- Indonésie
- Irák
- Írán
- Izrael
- Japonsko
- Jemen
- Jižní Korea
- Jordánsko
- Kambodža
- Katar
- Kazachstán
- Kuvajt
- Kypr
- Kyrgyzstán
- Laos
- Libanon
- Malajsie
- Maledivy
- Mongolsko
- Myanmar (dříve Barma)
- Nepál
- Omán
- Pákistán
- Rusko
- Saúdská Arábie
- Severní Korea
- Singapur
- Spojené arabské emiráty
- Srí Lanka
- Sýrie
- Tádžikistán
- Thajsko
- Turecko
- Turkmenistán
- Uzbekistán
- Vietnam
- Východní Timor

Podívejte se také na


- Tři království Koreje Kategorie:Asie ja:アジア ko:아시아 ms:Asia simple:Asia th:ทวีปเอเชีย zh-min-nan:A-chiu

Papua Nová Guinea

Papua Nová Guinea je stát v Oceánii. Sousedí s Indonésie. Kategorie:Papua Nová Guinea ja:パプアニューギニア ko:파푸아 뉴기니 ms:Papua New Guinea th:ประเทศปาปัวนิวกินี zh-min-nan:Papua Sin Guinea

Východní Timor

Východní Timor je malý stát na východě ostrova Timor v souostroví Malé Sundy. Od 16. století byl portugalskou kolonií, v roce 1975 po dekolonizaci vyhlásil nezávislost, ale vzápětí ho obsadila Indonésie, jíž patří západní polovina ostrova. Následovala dlouhá partyzánská válka, při níž indonéské síly postupovaly i proti civilistům s velkou krutostí, systematicky porušovaly lidská práva a dopouštěly se masakrů; z populace 800 000 obyvatel zahynulo nejméně 100 000, možná až třikrát tolik. Teprve zesílení mezinárodního tlaku, který se v 80. letech omezoval na formální protesty s předchozím tichým schválením invaze, a politické změny v Indonésii způsobily, že se stáhla a 20. května 2002 se Východní Timor stal nezávislou republikou. Dnes se zaměřuje na vývoz kávy, bílého santálu a mramoru. Zemědělství: kukuřice a maniok... Kategorie:Východní Timor ja:東ティモール ko:동티모르 ms:Timor Timur th:ประเทศติมอร์ตะวันออก zh-min-nan:Tang Timor

Kategorie:Indonésie

Hlavní článek: Indonésie Kategorie:Státy Asie zh-min-nan:Category:Ìn-nî ko:분류:인도네시아 ms:Kategori:Indonesia ja:Category:インドネシア simple:Category:Indonesia th:Category:ประเทศอินโดนีเซีย

IBM OS/2

OS/2 is an operating system created by Microsoft and IBM and later developed by IBM exclusively. The name stands for "Operating System/2", because it was introduced as the preferred operating system for IBM's "Personal System/2 (PS/2)" line of second-generation Personal Computers. OS/2 was intended as a protected mode successor of MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows. Notably, basic system calls were modeled after MS-DOS calls; their names even started with "Dos" and it was possible to link text mode applications in such a way that they could work on both systems ("bound" programs). Because of this heritage, in terms of look, feel and features, OS/2 is not unlike Windows in many ways; but it also shares similarities with Unix and XENIX.

Development history

Enthusiastic beginnings

IBM and Microsoft signed the Joint Development Agreement in August 1985. OS/2 1.0 was announced in April 1987 and released in December, as a text mode-only OS. It however featured a rich API for controlling the video display (VIO) and getting keyboard and mouse events, a sort of a protected-mode BIOS. Not surprisingly, the video and keyboard APIs were also available to "bound" programs on MS-DOS. The promised GUI, Presentation Manager, was introduced with OS/2 1.1 in November 1988. Version 1.2 introduced the HPFS filesystem. OS/2 and Windows-related books of the late 1980s acknowledged the existence of both systems and promoted OS/2 as the system for the future.

Breakup

The collaboration between IBM and Microsoft unravelled in 1990, between the releases of Windows 3.0 and OS/2 1.3. Initially, at least publicly, Microsoft continued to insist the future belonged to OS/2. Steve Ballmer of Microsoft even took to calling OS/2 "Windows Plus". It was the public, however, that chose Windows over OS/2. The increasing popularity of Windows prompted Microsoft to shift its development focus from OS/2, and IBM grew concerned about delays in development of OS/2 2.0. Initially, the companies agreed that IBM would take over maintenance of OS/2 1.0 and development of OS/2 2.0, while Microsoft would continue development of OS/2 3.0, then known as "NT OS/2", which supposedly stood for New Technology. However, Microsoft decided to recast NT OS/2 as Windows NT, leaving all future OS/2 development to IBM. Windows NT's OS/2 heritage can be seen in its initial support for the HPFS filesystem (although write support was dropped in Windows NT 4.0 and read support was dropped in Windows 2000) and text mode OS/2 1.x applications (support dropped in Windows XP).

Competition with Windows

OS/2 2.0, released in 1992, was touted by IBM as "a better DOS than DOS and a better Windows than Windows". Indeed, because of the limitations of the Intel 80286 processor, OS/2 1.x could only run one "DOS box" at a time, and did this in an insecure way by ping-ponging the entire processor between real and protected modes, using the undocumented LOADALL machine instruction. A problem in DOS mode would crash the entire computer. In contrast, OS/2 2.0 could benefit from the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 processor in order to create a potentially totally secure virtual machine for DOS to run inside. However, such a secure VM incurs a significant performance hit compared to original hardware, and unsecuring some parts of the VM (OS/2 was very configurable in this area) to make it more usable again allowed DOS programs to crash the computer. Just like Windows, OS/2 could not run protected mode DOS programs using the older VCPI interface; it only supported programs written according to DPMI. Compatibility with Windows was achieved by adapting Windows GUI code to run inside a 16-bit OS/2 process, rather than above the original Windows kernel. For this reason, Windows could not run in the so-called "386 enhanced" mode (which did not matter very much, since OS/2 managed virtual memory and DOS virtual machines independently). Originally, Windows code was included in the distribution, but later red OS/2 versions reused whatever Windows version the user had installed previously, patching it on the fly. This process containing Windows could either run full-screen, using its own set of video drivers, or "seamlessly", where Windows programs would appear directly on the OS/2 desktop. Again, this required specially enabled drivers. To achieve isolation between Windows programs, OS/2 needed to run several copies of Windows in parallel. This approach provided poor stability. For example, switching between the OS/2 desktop and the Windows desktop could easily hang the machine and required considerable system resources, especially memory. Microsoft used a simpler approach in Windows NT, translating Win16 system calls to Win32 ones by the means of a Windows-on-Windows adaptation layer. Windows-on-Windows OS/2 2.0 also provided a new GUI called the Workplace Shell and a 32-bit API for native programs, though the OS itself was a mixture of 16-bit and 32-bit code (as Windows 95 would be). Windows 95 OS/2 Warp 3, released in 1994, was a fully 32-bit OS. It offered a host of benefits, notably broader hardware support, greater multimedia capabilities, Internet-compatible networking, and a basic office application suite. In 1996, Warp 4 added Java and voice recognition software. IBM also released server editions of Warp 3 and Warp 4. The UK-distributed free demo CD-ROM of OS/2 Warp essentially contained the entire OS and was easily, even accidentally, cracked, meaning that even people who liked it didn't have to buy it.

Fading out

Overall, OS/2 failed to catch on in the mass market and is today little used outside certain niches where IBM traditionally had a stronghold. For example, many banks, especially Automated Teller Machines, run OS/2 with a customized user interface; French SNCF national railways used OS/2 1.x in thousands of ticket selling machines. Nevertheless, OS/2 still maintains a small and dedicated community of followers. IBM, unlike Microsoft, charged ISVs for the OS/2 development kit, while Microsoft gave the Windows SDK away free. Although IBM began indicating shortly after the release of Warp 4 that OS/2 would eventually be withdrawn, the company has only recently published a definite end-of-support date (December 31 2006). Sales of OS/2 will stop on December 23 2005. The latest IBM version is 4.52, which was released for both desktop and server systems in December 2001. A company called Serenity Systems has been reselling OS/2 since 2001, calling it eComStation. The latest version is 1.2, released in 2004, and version 2.0 is due for release early in 2006. IBM is still delivering fixes and updates on a regular basis. IBM urges customers to migrate their often highly complex applications to e-business technologies such as Java in a platform-neutral manner. Once application migration is completed, IBM recommends migration to a different operating system, suggesting Linux as an alternative. One of the reasons why OS/2 may be doomed more than other legacy x86 operating systems is its extensive reliance on the full set of features of the CPU. The result is that it is impossible to run OS/2 inside a VMware virtual machine. Although a beta of VMWare 2.0, released a few years ago, was the first emulator which could run OS/2 at all, it did so very slowly. Later, the company decided to explicitly drop OS/2 support, presumably because it would require serious work that cannot be economically justified. Ironically, Microsoft continues to support OS/2 as a hosted operating system in its Virtual PC product. Presumably this support is present to encourage OS/2 users to migrate to a Microsoft Windows server based platform.

Security niche

OS/2 is virtually free of computer viruses. Its design possibly could have made it as vulnerable as Windows, but its reduced market share appears to have discouraged virus writers. There are, however, OS/2-based antivirus programs, dealing with DOS viruses and Windows viruses that could pass through an OS/2 server.

Future

There is a community of OS/2 users and developers, along with loyal company customers, hoping that IBM will release OS/2 or a significant part of it as open source. It is unlikely, though, that the entire OS will be open because it contains third-party code, much of it from Microsoft. Indeed, although the 32-bit version of OS/2 is often believed to be IBM's own work, a beta version of 2.0, accompanied by an SDK, was actually released by Microsoft in the second half of 1990. OS/2 32-bit executable files have almost exactly the same format as Windows 3.0 VxD device drivers, older 16-bit executables have the format of Windows executables, etc. This suggests that the design and coding was still done by Microsoft. IBM's contribution mostly resides in the GUI components (notably, IBM has driven the revamping of the Windows interface according to Systems Application Architecture standards after the signature of the JDA, between the release of 1.x and 2.x versions; later some of the important people from their team split away to form Citrix). The aborted PowerPC port however did not involve Microsoft, and has been proposed as the basis for an open-source 64-bit version of OS/2. Still, the community has suggested that, even if only the IBM portion of it is made open, the missing parts could be written by the same community to form a next-generation version of the OS. There is an ongoing petition to open parts of the OS arranged by OS2 World.Com. See [http://www.os2world.com/petition/ Petition to open] With the possibility of an open-source future for OS/2, the OS may be given a new lease of life. IBM's current and heavy involvement with several open source projects indicate that opening parts of OS/2 will not be difficult for the company. But until then, OS/2's future remains in limbo. Open source operating systems such as Linux have already profited from OS/2 indirectly through IBM's release of the improved JFS file system which was ported from the OS/2 code base.

Technology

The graphic system has a layer named Presentation Manager that manages windows, fonts, and icons. This is similar in functionality to a non-networked version of X11. On top of this lies the Workplace Shell (WPS), introduced in OS/2 2.0, which is an object-oriented shell allowing the user to access files and printers, and launch programs. WPS follows IBM's Common User Access user interface standards. In recent years, IBM decided not to support the plethora of graphic cards, and licensed a reduced version of Scitech drivers. WPS represents objects such as disks, folders, files, program objects, and printers using the System Object Model (SOM), which allows code to be shared among applications, possibly written in different programming languages. A distributed version called DSOM allowed objects on different computers to communicate. DSOM is based on CORBA. SOM is similar to, and a direct competitor to, Microsoft's Component Object Model. SOM and DSOM are no longer being developed. OS/2 also includes a compound document technology called OpenDoc, which was developed with Apple. OpenDoc is also no longer being developed. The multimedia capabilities of OS/2 are accessible through Media Control Interface commands. The last update (bundled with the IBM version of Netscape Navigator plugins) added support for MPEG files. Support for newer formats like PNG, progressive JPEG, DivX, OGG, MP3 comes from third parties. Sometimes it is integrated with the multimedia system, but in other offers it comes as standalone applications. The TCP/IP stack is based on the open source BSD stack.

Quotations

During the next 10 years, millions of programmers and users will utilize this system Bill Gates, November 1988 (in the Foreword to the Inside OS/2 book by Gordon Letwin, Microsoft's architect for OS/2). This quotation can be interestingly compared with another one, by Dave Cutler and coming from his introduction to the Inside Windows NT book: In the summer of 1988, I received an interesting call from Bill Gates at Microsoft. He asked whether I'd like to come over and talk about building a new operating system at Microsoft for personal computers. [...] What Bill had to offer was the opportunity to build another operating system, one that was portable [...].

See also


- History of the graphical user interface
- REXX
- eComStation

External links


- [http://www-306.ibm.com/software/os/warp/ IBM's official OS/2 page]
- [http://www.os2world.com/ Community of OS/2 users]
- [http://www.os2world.com/petition/ Petition to make OS/2 open source]
- [http://www.ecomstation.com eComStation official site]
- [http://pages.prodigy.net/michaln/history/ History of OS/2]
- [http://www.millennium-technology.com/HistoryOfOS2.html A Short History of OS/2]
- [http://www.netlabs.org/ netlabs.org - OpenSource Software for OS/2 and eCS]
  - [http://wiki.netlabs.org/ Nikipedia], the Netlabs wiki based on Mediawiki
- [http://www.mit.edu/activities/os2/faq/os2faq-toc.html OS/2 FAQ (including version history details and marketing information)]
- [http://www.os2ezine.com OS/2 Ezine (for OS/2 evangelism, news updates, and other articles)]
- [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/OS-2/ "OS/2" category in the Open Directory]
- [http://eepjm.newcastle.edu.au/os2/concepts.html Some fundamental OS/2 concepts by Peter Moylan]
- [http://www.edm2.com/index.php/Main_Page Electronic Developer Magazine/2], developer information. Currently running on Mediawiki.
- [http://pages.prodigy.net/michaln/history/os2ppc/index.html OS/2 Warp, PowerPC Edition], about an aborted port to PowerPC machines.
- [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/comp.virus/msg/5e789b3db8fad8a8?dmode=source&hl=en Usenet post by Joern Dierks showing that OS/2 viruses exist]
- [http://vx.netlux.org/vl.php?dir=Virus.OS2 Listing of OS/2 viruses on VX Heavens]
- [http://www2.warptech.info:81/forum/viewtopic.php?showtopic=11&fromblock=yes An estimation of the costs of open-sourcing OS/2]
- [http://hobbes.nmsu.edu hobbes.nmsu.edu]The OS/2 software repository Category:IBM software Category:Operating systems Category:Discontinued Microsoft software ja:OS/2

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