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Northwest Territories

Northwest Territories

:For other geographical names that use the term "Northwest," see Northwest. One of the territories of Arctic Canada, the Northwest Territories (NWT; French, les Territoires du Nord-Ouest) has a landmass of 1,171,918 square kilometres and a population of 42,944 as of January 1, 2005. Its capital has been Yellowknife since 1967; see also List of Northwest Territories capitals and List of communities in the Northwest Territories. The Northwest Territories are located east of Yukon, west of Nunavut, and north of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. Geographical features include the vast Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes, as well as the immense Mackenzie River and the canyons of the Nahanni River, a national park and UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the Arctic Archipelago, the Northwest Territories includes Banks Island, Parry Peninsula, Prince Patrick Island, and parts of Victoria Island and Melville Island. The highest point is Mount Nirvana near the border with Yukon at elevation 2773 m (9098 ft).

Official languages

The territory's [http://www.canlii.org/nt/sta/pdf/type66.pdf Official Languages Act] recognizes eight official languages, more than any other political division in Canada:
- Chipewyan;
- Cree;
- Dogrib or Tlicho;
- English;
- French;
- Gwich'in;
- Inuktitut, including
  - Inuktitut proper,
  - Inuvialuktun
  - Inuinnaqtun;
- Slavey, including
  - Bearlake
  - Hare
  - Mountain, and
  - Slavey (proper) Citizens of the NWT have a right to use any of the above languages:
- when receiving services from the government;
- in court;
- in debates and proceedings of the legislature.

History of Northwest Territories official languages

French was made an official language in 1877 by the appointed government, after lengthy and bitter debate resulting from a speech from the throne in 1888 by Lt. Governor Joseph Royal. The members voted on more than one occasion to nullify and make English the only language used in the assembly. After some conflict with Ottawa and a decisive vote on January 19, 1892, the issue was put to rest as an English-only territory. In the early 1980s, the government of the Northwest Territories was again under pressure by the federal government to reintroduce French as an official language. Some native members walked out of the assembly, protesting that they would not be permitted to speak their own language. The executive council appointed a special committee of MLAs to study the matter. They decided that if French was to be an official language, then so must the other languages in the Territories.

External links


- [http://www.ualberta.ca/~eaunger/pubs/Justifying2001.htm Justifying the end of Official Billingualism in the Northwest Territories]
- [http://www.gov.nt.ca/langcom/home.htm Language Commissioner of the Northwest Territories]
- [http://www.nwt.literacy.ca/aborig/land/contents.htm NWT Literacy Council: Languages of the Land]

History

The Northwest Territories were created in 1870, when the Hudson's Bay Company transferred Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to the government of Canada. These formed the Northwest Territories. This immense region comprised all of modern Canada except British Columbia, the coast of the Great Lakes, the Saint Lawrence River valley and the southern third of Quebec, the Maritimes, Newfoundland, and the Labrador coast. It also excluded the Arctic Islands except the southern half of Baffin Island; these remained under direct British rule until 1880. After the transfer, the Territories were gradually whittled away. The province of Manitoba was created in 1870, a tiny square around Winnipeg, and then enlarged in 1881 to a square region composing the modern province's south. 1881 In 1876, the District of Keewatin, at the centre of the territory, was separated from it. In 1882 and again in 1896, the remaining portion was divided into the following districts (corresponding to the following modern-day areas):
- Alberta (southern Alberta);
- Assiniboia (southern Saskatchewan);
- Athabaska (northern Alberta and Saskatchewan);
- Franklin (the Arctic islands and Boothia and Melville Peninsulas);
- Mackenzie (mainland NWT and western Nunavut);
- Saskatchewan (central Saskatchewan);
- Ungava (modern-day northern Quebec and inland Labrador, as well as an offshore area in Hudson Bay);
- Yukon (modern Yukon Territory). Keewatin would be returned to the NWT in 1905. See also: Districts of the Northwest Territories In the meantime, Ontario was enlarged northwestward in 1882. Quebec was also extended, in 1898, and Yukon was made a separate territory in the same year to deal with the Klondike Gold Rush, and remove the NWT government from administering the sudden boom of population, economic activity and influx of non-Canadians. Alberta and Saskatchewan were created in 1905, and Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec acquired the last of their modern territories from the NWT in 1912. This left only the districts of Mackenzie, Franklin (which absorbed the remnants of Ungava in 1920), and Keewatin. However, in 1925 the boundaries of the NWT were extended all the way to the North Pole on the sector principle, vastly expanding its territory onto the northern ice cap. In 1912 the Government of Canada dropped the hyphen in the North-West Territories name to Northwest Territories. Between 1925 and 1999, the Northwest Territories measured 3 439 296 km² – larger than India. India.]] Finally, on April 1, 1999, the eastern three-fifths of the Northwest Territories (including all of Keewatin district and much of Mackenzie and Franklin) became a separate territory called Nunavut. There was some discussion of changing the name of the Northwest Territories after the separation of Nunavut, possibly to a term from an Aboriginal language. One proposal is "Denendeh" ("our land" in Dene). The idea is favoured by former premier Stephen Kakfwi among others, but a poll conducted prior to division showed strong support for retaining the name "Northwest Territories". This name arguably became more appropriate following division, than it was when the territory extended far into Canada's northeast. [http://www.caldercup.com/CNEWSNunavut/feature11.html] [http://imprint.uwaterloo.ca/issues/112699/4Features/Features2.shtml] In Inuktitut, the Northwest Territories are referred to as ᓄᓇᑦᓯᐊᖅ (Nunatsiaq), "beautiful land."

Economy

The territory enjoys vast geological resources including diamonds, gold, and natural gas. In particular, NWT diamonds are touted as an ethical alternative that allays risks of supporting conflicts by purchasing blood diamonds. However, their exploitation has raised environmental concerns, not least the potential havoc that a spill from tailings ponds would cause to unspoiled wilderness areas such as the Nahanni National Park Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Major Territorial Mines
- Con Mine - 1938-2003 (gold)
- Giant Mine - 1948-2004 (gold)
- Ptarmigan and Tom Mine - 1941-1942, 1986-1997 (gold)
- Negus Mine - 1939-1952 (gold)
- Thompson-Lundmark Mine - 1941-1943, 1947-1949 (gold)
- Discovery Mine - 1950-1969 (gold)
- Camlaren Mine - 1962-1963, 1980-1981 (gold)
- Eldorado Mine - 1933-1940, 1942-1960, 1976-1982 (radium, uranium, silver, copper)
- Echo Bay Mine - 1964-1975 (silver and copper)
- Ekati Diamond Mine - 1998-current (diamonds)
- Diavik Diamond Mine - 2003-current (diamonds)
- Pine Point Mine - 1964-1988 (lead and zinc)
- Cantung Mine - 1962-1986, 2002-2003, 2005-current (tungsten)
- Rayrock Mine - 1957-1959 (uranium)
- Terra Mine - 1969-1985 (silver and copper)
- Tundra Mine - 1964-1968 (gold)
- Salmita Mine - 1983-1987 (gold)
- Colomac Mine - 1990-1992, 1994-1997 (gold)

Politics

As a territory, the Northwest Territories has fewer rights than the provinces do. During his term, Premier Kakfwi pushed to have the federal government accord more rights to the territory, including having a greater share of the returns from the territory's natural resources go to the territory. [http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030703.wnwt0703/BNStory/National/] Devolution of powers to the territory was an issue in the Northwest Territories general election, 2003, and has been ever since the territory began electing members in 1881. The Commissioner of the NWT is the chief executive and is appointed by the federal Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. The position used to be more administrative and governmental but with the devolution of more and more powers to the elected assembly since 1967 the position has become symbolic. Since 1985 the Commissioner no longer chairs meetings of the Executive Council (or cabinet) and the federal government has instructed commissioners to behave like a provincial lieutenant-governor. Unlike lieutenant-governors, the commissioner is not a formal representative of the Queen of Canada. Unlike provincial governments, the Government of the Northwest Territories does not have political parties, except for the period between 1898 and 1905. It is a consensus government called the Legislative Assembly. This group is composed of one democratically elected member from each of the nineteen constituencies. After each general election, the new parliament elects a premier and speaker by secret ballot. Seven MLAs are also chosen as cabinet ministers, with the remainder forming the opposition. The territory's most recent general election was on November 24, 2003. The head of state for the territories is a Commissioner appointed by the federal government. The Commissioner had full governmental powers until 1980 when the territories were given greater self government. The legislature then began electing a cabinet and Head of Government later known as the Premier. The Premier of the Northwest Territories is Joe Handley. The member of Parliament for the Western Arctic, the riding that comprises the Northwest Territories, is Ethel Blondin-Andrew.

Aboriginal issues

Aboriginal issues in the NWT include the fate of the Dene who, in the 1940s, were employed to carry radioactive uranium ore from the mines on Great Bear Lake. Their cancer rates skyrocketed due to lack of safety procedures that were available to their white colleagues. Another issue is historic racial tension based on the bloody history between the Dene and the Inuit, who nevertheless have taken recent steps towards reconciliation. Land claims in the NWT culminated with the creation of the Inuit homeland of Nunavut, the result of the largest land claim in Canadian history. Another land claims agreement with the Dogrib nation created a region within the NWT called Tli Cho, between Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes, which will give the Dogrib their own legislative bodies, taxes, resource royalties, and other affairs, though the NWT will still maintain control over such areas as health and education. This area includes the only diamond mines in Canada.

See also


- Aurora College
- Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories
- Provinces and territories of Canada
- List of cities in Canada
- List of Northwest Territories lieutenant-governors
- List of Northwest Territories commissioners
- List of Northwest Territories general elections
- List of Northwest Territories premiers
- List of Northwest Territories Plebiscites
- List of Northwest Territories highways
- List of Northwest Territories capitals
- List of Northwest Territories Legislative Assemblies
- List of communities in the Northwest Territories
- List of abandoned communities in the Northwest Territories
- List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
- List of Canadian national parks
- Nunavut zh-min-nan:Sai-pak Léng-thó· ko:노스웨스트 준주 ja:ノースウェスト準州

Northwest

Northwest is the ordinal direction halfway between West and North on a compass. It is the opposite of Southeast. Some terms use the word Northwest or a varation of it:
- Northwest School, arts high school in Seattle
- Northwest Territories, Canadian territory
- North-West Frontier Province, Pakistani province
- North West England, English region
- North West Province, a province of South Africa
- The Northwest Territory, historical region roughly overlapping today's Midwestern United States. Derived company names include Norwest Bank (now Wells Fargo), Northwestern University and Northwest Airlines.
- North-Western Territory, historical British North American territory
- Pacific Northwest, unofficial region in the United States
- The Nor'wester, a weather pattern in southern New Zealand Category: Orientation

Canadian Arctic

The Canadian Arctic is a vast region of northern Canada. Technically, the term covers that portion of Canada north of the Arctic Circle. An alternate, more practical definition is that portion north of the tree line (a definition that includes Canada's geographical centre): covering most of Nunavut, and the northernmost parts of the Northwest Territories, Yukon, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and Labrador. A political definition, referred to as The North or Northern Canada, consists of Canada's three territories: Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut (which includes all islands in Hudson Bay).

Territoriality

Since 1925, Canada has [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1 claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60°W and 141°W] longitude, extending all the way north to the North Pole: all islands in this region are Canadian territory and the territorial waters claimed by Canada surround these islands. This claim is recognized by most countries with some exceptions, particularly the United States; Denmark, Russia, and Norway have made claims similar to those of Canada in the Arctic and are opposed by the EU and the US. This is especially important with the Northwest Passage. Canada asserts control of this passage because it is within 20 km of Canadian islands; the US asserts that it is an international waterway. Today ice and freezing temperatures makes this a minor issue, but global warming may make the passage more accessible to shipping, something that concerns the Canadian government and inhabitants of the environmentally sensitive region. Similarly, the disputed Hans Island (with Denmark), in the Nares Strait west of Greenland, may be a flashpoint for challenges to overall Canadian sovereignty in The North.

Topography

While the largest part of the Arctic is composed of seemingly non-stop permanent ice and tundra north of the tree line, it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the Innuitian Region (with the British Empire Range and the United States Range on Ellesmere Island) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world and is geologically distinct from the Arctic Region (which consists largely of lowlands). The Arctic and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often considered part of the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole geological area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible. The Arctic watershed (or drainage basin) drains northern parts of Manitoba, Alberta and British Columbia, most of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut as well as parts of Yukon into the Arctic Ocean, including the Beaufort Sea and Baffin Bay. With the exception of the Mackenzie River, Canada's longest river, this watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity. The Peace and Athabasca Rivers, and the Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed within Canada), are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie so that it thereby drains the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.

Human geography

The entire region is very sparsely populated with only about 105,000 people living in a vast area the size of Western Europe. It is heavily endowed with natural resources, but in most cases they are too expensive to extract to be worthwhile. Though GDP per person is higher than elsewhere in Canada, the region remains relatively poor, due largely to the extremely high cost of most consumer goods, and is heavily subsidised by the Canadian government. Aboriginal peoples in the Canadian Arctic constitute roughly half of the Inuit population in Canada. The region also contains several groups of First Nations, who are mainly Chipewyan peoples. About 69% of the population of the three territories is Aboriginal, and the three territories each have a greater proportion of Aboriginal inhabitants than any of Canada's provinces. There are also many more recent immigrants from around the world; of the territories, Yukon has the largest percentage of non-Aboriginal inhabitants. [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/Aboriginal/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&View=1a&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=14&B1=Distribution01&B2=Total]

Related topics


- Canadian Arctic Islands
- Territories of Canada
- Arctic Circle
- Tree line

External link


- [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=artic&lang=En Atlas of Canada - Arctic] Category:Regions of Canada category:Arctic

French language

French (French: français) is the third of the Romance languages in terms of number of speakers, after Spanish and Portuguese, being spoken by about 67 million people as a mother tongue, and altogether by some 128 million people, which includes second-language speakers who use French for daily communication. French is thus the 18th most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, and 9th in terms of daily speakers. It is an official language in 29 countries. It is also an official or administrative language in various communities and organisations (such as the European Union, IOC, United Nations and Universal Postal Union). Before World War II, French was considered the international language, particularly in such fields as diplomacy, trade, shipping, and transportation.

History

The Roman invasion of Gaul

The French language is a Romance language, meaning that it is descended from Latin. Before the Roman invasion of what is modern-day France by Julius Cæsar (58–52 BC), France was inhabited largely by a Celtic people that the Romans referred to as Gauls, although there were also other linguistic/ethnic groups in France at this time, such as the Iberians in southern France and Spain, the Ligurians on the Mediterranean coast, Greek colonies such as Massalia (i.e. present-day Marseille), Phoenician outposts, and the Vascons on the Spanish/French border. Although in the past many Frenchmen liked to refer to their descent from Gallic ancestors (nos ancêtres les Gaulois), perhaps fewer than 200 words with a Celtic etymological origin remain in French today (largely place and plant names and words dealing with rural life and the earth). In the reverse direction, some words for Gallic objects which were new to the Romans and for which there were no words in Latin were imported into Latin – for example, clothing items such as les braies. Latin quickly became the lingua franca of the entire Gallic region for mercantile, official and educational purposes, yet it should be remembered that this was Vulgar Latin, the colloquial dialect spoken by the Roman army and its agents and not the literary dialect of Cicero.

The Franks

From the third century on, Western Europe was invaded by Germanic tribes from the east, and some of these groups settled in Gaul. For the history of the French language, the most important of these groups are the Franks in northern France, the Alemanni in the German/French border, the Burgundians in the Rhone valley and the Visigoths in the Aquitaine region and Spain. These Germanic-speaking groups had a profound effect on the Latin spoken in their respective regions, altering both the pronunciation and the syntax. They also introduced a number of new words: perhaps as much as 15% of modern French comes from Germanic words, including many terms and expressions associated with their social structure and military tactics.

Langue d'Oïl

Linguists typically divide the languages spoken in medieval France into three geographical subgroups: Langue d'oïl and Langue d'oc are the two major groups; the third group, Franco-Provençal, is considered a transitional language between the two other groups. The Oïl–Oc divide is broadly comparable to the divide illustrated by the use of "yes" in English and "aye" in Scots. Langue d'oïl, the languages which use oïl (in modern usage, oui) for "yes", is the language group in the north of France. These languages, like Picard, Walloon, Francien and Norman, were influenced by the Germanic languages spoken by the Frankish invaders. From the time period Clovis I on, the Franks extended their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl language found around Paris (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the lingua franca theory). Langue d'oc, the languages which use oc for "yes", is the language group in the south of France and northern Spain. These languages, such as Gascon and Provençal, have relatively little Frankish influence. (Modern French has two words for "yes", oui and si; the latter is used to contradict negative statements. Si derives from Latin sic "thus", and is cognate to the word for "yes" in Spanish, Italian, and Catalan. Oïl/oui derive, according to Larousse, from Latin hoc ille "thus he (did)".)

Other linguistic groups

The early middle ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects of France: From the 5th to the 8th centuries, Celtic-speaking peoples from southwestern Britain (Wales, Cornwall, Devon) travelled across the English Channel, both for reasons of trade and as a result of the Anglo-Saxon invasions of England. They established themselves in Bretagne (Brittany). Their language was a dialect of the Brythonic languages, which has been named Breton in more recent centuries. It is part of the larger Celtic language family, though the modern dialects reflect a noticeable influence from French in their vocabulary. From the 6th to the 7th centuries, the Vascons crossed over the Pyrénées, a mountain range in the south of France. Their presence influenced the Occitan language spoken in southwestern France, resulting in the dialect called Gascon. Scandinavian vikings invaded France from the 9th century onwards and established themselves in what would come to be called Normandie (Normandy). They took up the langue d'oïl spoken there and contributed many words to French related to maritime activities, amongst other things. With their conquest of England in 1066, the Normans brought their language. The dialect that developed there as a language of administration and literature is referred to as Anglo-Norman. Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until 1362, when the use of English became dominant again. Because of the Norman Conquest, the English language has borrowed a considerable amount of its vocabulary from French. The Arab peoples also supplied many words to French around this time period, including words for luxury goods, spices, trade stuffs, sciences and mathematics.

History of French

For the period up to around 1300, some linguists refer to the oïl languages collectively as Old French (ancien français). The earliest extant text in French is the Oaths of Strasbourg from 842; Old French became a literary language with the chansons de geste that told tales of the paladins of Charlemagne and the heroes of the Crusades. By the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts in 1539 King Francis I made French the official language of administration and court proceedings in France, ousting the Latin that had been used before then. With the imposition of a standardised chancery dialect and the loss of the declension system, the dialect is referred to as Middle French (moyen français). Following a period of unification, regulation and purification, the French of the 17th to the 18th centuries is sometimes referred to as Classical French (français classique), although many linguists simply refer to French language from the 17th century to today as Modern French (français moderne). The foundation of the Académie française (French Academy) in 1634 by Cardinal Richelieu created an official body whose goal has been the purification and preservation of the French language. This group of 40 members is known as the Immortals, not, as some erroneously believe, because they are chosen to serve for the extent of their lives (which they are), but because of the inscription engraved on the official seal given to them by their founder Richelieu—"À l'immortalité" ("to the Immortality (of the French language)"). The foundation still exists and contributes to the policing of the language and the adaptation of foreign words and expressions. Some recent modifications include the change from software to logiciel, packet-boat to paquebot, and riding-coat to redingote. The word ordinateur for computer was however not created by the Académie, but by a linguist appointed by IBM (see :fr:ordinateur). From the 17th to the 19th centuries, France was the leading power of continental Europe; thanks to this, together with the influence of the Enlightenment, French was the lingua franca of educated Europe, especially with regards to the arts, literature, and diplomacy; monarchs like Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia could both speak and write in French. Through the Académie, public education, centuries of official control and the role of media, a unified official French language has been forged, but there remains a great deal of diversity today in terms of regional accents and words. For some critics, the "best" pronunciation of the French language is considered to be the one used in Touraine (around Tours and the Loire River valley), but such value judgments are fraught with problems, and with the ever increasing loss of lifelong attachments to a specific region and the growing importance of the national media, the future of specific "regional" accents is difficult to predict.

Modern issues

There is some debate in today's France about the preservation of the French language and the influence of English (see franglais), especially with regard to international business, the sciences and popular culture. There have been laws (see Toubon law) enacted which require that all print ads and billboards with foreign expressions include a French translation and which require quotas of French-language songs (at least 40%) on the radio. There is also pressure, in differing degrees, from some regions as well as minority political or cultural groups for a measure of recognition and support for their regional languages.

Geographic distribution

regional language
French is an official language in the following countries or parts thereof: La Francophonie is an international organization of French-speaking countries and governments.

Legal status in France

Per the Constitution of France, French is the official language of the Republic since 1792 [http://www.languefrancaise.net/dossiers/dossiers.php?id_dossier=50]. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education outside of specific cases (though these dispositions are often ignored) and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. See Toubon Law. Contrary to a misunderstanding common in the American and British media, France does not prohibit the use of foreign words in websites or any other private publication, which would anyway contradict constitutional guarantees on freedom of speech. The misunderstanding may have arisen from a similar prohibition in the Canadian province of Quebec which made strict application of the Charter of the French Language between 1977 and 1993, although these regulations addressed language used in advertising and the provision of commercial services offered within the province, not the language of private communication. There exist in addition to French a variety of languages spoken in France by minorities; see Languages of France.

Legal status in Canada

About 12% of the world's francophones are Canadian, and French is one of Canada's two official languages, with English; various provisions of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms deal with the right of Canadians to access services in English and French all across Canada. By law, the federal government must operate and provide services in both English and French; proceedings of the Parliament of Canada must be translated into both English and French; and all Canadian products must be labelled in both English and French. Overall about 22% of Canadians speak French as a first language and 18% are bilingual. French has been the only official language of Quebec since 1974, although it is commonly (and incorrectly) believed that the designation of French as the sole official language occurred in 1977 with the adoption of the Charter of the French Language (which is popularly referred to as Bill 101). By far the provision of Bill 101 with the most significant impact has been that which mandates French-language education, unless a child's parents or siblings have received the major part of their own education in English within Canada. That provision has reversed a historical trend whereby a large number of immigrant children were being sent to English schools by their parents. In so doing, Bill 101 has greatly contributed to the "visage français" (French face) of Quebec. Other provisions of Bill 101, on the other hand, have been ruled unconstitutional over the years, including those mandating French-only commercial signs, court proceedings, and debates in the legislature. Some of those provisions have remained in effect, for a while, using the constitutional "notwithstanding" clause that permits a non-compliant law to temporarily remain. No "notwithstanding provision" is currently in effect. In 1993 the Charter was changed to allow signage in other languages so long as French is markedly "predominant". The Charter also provides for a measure of access by Anglophones to health and social services in their own language. The only province which has French as an official language is New Brunswick. In Ontario and Manitoba, French does not have full official status, although the provincial governments do provide full French-language services in all communities where significant numbers of francophones live. All of the other provinces do make some effort to accommodate the needs of their francophone citizens, although the level and quality of French-language service varies significantly from province to province.

Legal status in Switzerland

French is an official language in Switzerland. It is spoken in the part of Switzerland called Romandy.

Dialects of French


- Acadian French
- African French
- Belgian French
- Cajun French
- Canadian French
- Cambodian French
- Louisiana Creole French
- français d'Aoste
- français-germanique
- Indian French
- Levantine French
- Maghreb French
- Newfoundland French
- North American French
- Oceanic French
- Quebec French
- South East Asian French
- Swiss French
- West Indian French
- [http://www.linguasphere.org/langues_romanes.pdf linguasphere on Romance languages]

Languages derived from French


- Antillean Creole
- Haitian Creole
- Lanc-Patuá
- Mauritian Creole
- Michif
- Louisiana Creole French
- Réunionese Creole
- Seychellois Creole
- Tay Boi

Sounds

:Main article: French phonology and orthography French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:
- liaison or linking: Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n and m, are normally silent. (The final letters 'c', 'r', 'f', and 'l' however are normally pronounced.) When the following word begins with a vowel, though, a silent consonant may once again be pronounced, to provide a "link" between the two words and avoid a glottal stop between them. Some liaisons are mandatory, for example the s in les amants or vous avez; some are optional, depending on dialect and register, for example the first s in deux cents euros or euros irlandais; and some are forbidden, for example the s in beaucoup d'hommes aiment. The t of et is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases like pied-à-terre. Doubling a final consonant and adding a silent e at the end of a word (e.g. Parisien → Parisienne) makes it clearly pronounced, always.
- elision or vowel dropping: Monosyllabic words such as je or que drop their final vowel before another word beginning with a vowel. The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g. je ai is instead pronounced and spelt → j'ai)
- nasal "n" and "m". When "n" or "m" follows a vowel combination, the "n" and "m" become silent and cause the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e. pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the "n" or "m" is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel. The prefixes en- and em- are always nasalized. The rules get more complex than this but may vary between dialects.
- digraphs French does not introduce extra letters or diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and diphthongs, rather it uses specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended. (See French phonology and orthography or [http://www.languageguide.org/francais/grammar/pronunciation/ French Pronunciation Guide] for more details.)
- accents are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for etymology alone.
  - Accents that affect pronunciation:
    - "é", is pronounced instead of the defaults or,
    - "è" (e.g., secrète) means that the vowel is pronounced (as usual),
    - dieresis (e.g. naïve, Noël) as in English, specifies that this vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding one (or following one in some cases), not combined,
    - the "ç" means that the letter c is pronounced in front of A, O, or U. ("c" is otherwise hard before a hard vowel.)
    - The circumflex (e.g. pâté, forêt) shows that an e is pronounced and that an o is pronounced . In some dialects it also signifies a pronunciation of for the letter a, but this differentiation is disappearing. It usually indicates a former long vowel created by the dropping of an "s" from the Latin root (as in English "paste", "forest"),
  - Accents with no pronunciation effect:
    - The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters i or u, and in most dialects, a as well.
    - All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words or for etymological reasons, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs là and où ("there", "where") from the article la and the conjunction ou ("the fem. sing.", "or") respectively.

Grammar

:Main article: French grammar French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including:
- the loss of Latin's declensions
- only two grammatical genders
- the development of grammatical articles from Latin demonstratives
- new tenses formed from auxiliaries French word order is Subject Verb Object, except when the object is a pronoun, in which case the word order is Subject Object Verb.

Vocabulary

Word origins

The majority of French words derive from vernacular or "vulgar" Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. There are often pairs of words, one form being popular (noun) and the other one savant (adjective), both originating from Latin. Example:
- brother: frère (brother) / fraternel
- finger: doigt / digital
- faith: foi (faith) / fidèle
- cold: froid / frigide
- eye: œil / oculaire The French words which have developed from Latin are usually less recognisable than Italian words of Latin origin because as French developed into a separate language from Vulgar Latin, the unstressed final syllable of many words was dropped or elided into the following word. It is estimated that 12 percent (4,200) of common French words found in a typical dictionary such as the Petit Larousse or Micro-Robert Plus (35,000 words) are of foreign origin. About 25 percent (1,054) of these foreign words come from English and are fairly recent borrowings. The others are some 707 words from Italian, 550 from ancient Germanic languages, 481 from ancient Gallo-Romance languages, 215 from Arabic, 164 from German, 160 from Celtic languages, 159 from Spanish, 153 from Dutch, 112 from Persian and Sanskrit, 101 from Native American languages, 89 from other Asian languages, 56 from Afro-Asiatic languages, 55 from Slavic languages and Baltic languages, and 144 from other languages (3 percent of the total). Source: Henriette Walter, Gérard Walter, Dictionnaire des mots d'origine étrangère, 1998.

Levels of register

French, like many other languages, possesses a continuum of several levels of register. The colloquial register is used in almost any circumstance of life, and should not be confused with slang or rude talk. Formal French is used in writing or in formal occasions (when people make official speeches or when they are interviewed on television, for instance). Some level of formality is also normally used in classrooms in France, although colloquial French is now spoken by more and more professors with their students. Colloquial French differs from formal French in terms of grammar. For instance, the negation in formal French is "ne... pas", whereas in colloquial French it is simply "... pas", such as "I don't think so", which is "Je ne crois pas" in formal French, and "Je crois pas" in colloquial French. Another example of change in grammar is the way to ask a question: by inverting verb and subject in formal French, or also by using "est-ce que", whereas in colloquial French a question is phrased exactly as an affirmation, with the voice rising in the end. E.g.: "Is he sick?" would be "Est-il malade?" or "Est-ce qu'il est malade?" in formal French, and "Il est malade?" in colloquial French. On the other hand, questions with "est-ce que" are more colloquial than using inversion. Secondly, colloquial French differs from formal French in terms of pronunciation. Some words undergo shortening, or sound change, whereas some syllables are dropped altogether. For instance, "yes" is "oui" in formal French, and becomes "ouais" in colloquial French; "I" is "je" in formal French, but becomes "j' " in colloquial French; so a sentence like "I think he'll come" is "Je pense qu'il viendra" in formal French, and "J'pense qu'i'viendra" in colloquial French. There are many instances of shortening of words, such as "teacher", which is "professeur" in formal French, but becomes "prof'" in colloquial French.

Counting system

The French counting system is partially vigesimal: twenty () is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 70-99. So for example, means 4 times 20, i.e. is the French word for 80, and (literally "sixty-fifteen") means 75. This is comparable to archaic English use of "score", as in "fourscore and seven" (87), or "threescore and ten" (70). Belgian French and Swiss French are different in this respect.

Writing system

French is written using the Latin alphabet, plus five diacritics (the circumflex accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis, and cedilla) and two ligatures (æ, œ). French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling. However, some conscious changes were also made to restore Latin orthography:
- Old French doit > French doigt "finger" (Latin digitum)
- Old French pie > French pied "foot" (Latin pedem) As a result, it is nearly impossible to predict the spelling on the basis of the sound alone. Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel. For example, all of these words end in a vowel sound: nez, pied, aller, les, finit, beaux. The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: beaux-arts, les amis, pied-à-terre. On the other hand, a given spelling will almost always lead to a predictable sound, and the Académie française works hard to enforce and update this correspondence. In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic predictably leads to one phoneme. The diacritics have phonetic, semantic, and etymological significance.
- grave accent (à, è, ù): Over a or u, used only to distinguish homophones: à ("to") vs. a ("has"), ou ("or") vs. où ("where"). Over an e, indicates the sound .
- acute accent (é): Over an e, indicates the sound , the ai sound in such words as English hay or neigh. It often indicates the historical deletion of a following consonant (usually an s): écouter < escouter.
- circumflex (â, ê, î, ô û): Over an e or o, indicates the sound or , respectively. Most often indicates the historical deletion of an adjacent letter (usually an s or a vowel): château < castel, fête < feste, sûr < seur, dîner < disner. By extension, it has also come to be used to distinguish homophones: du ("of the") vs. dû (past participle of devoir "to owe"; note that dû is in fact written thus because of a dropped e: deu).
- diaeresis or tréma (ë, ï, ü): Indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: naïve, Noël. Diaeresis on ÿ only occurs in some proper names (such as l'Haÿ-les-Roses) and in modern editions of old French texts. Since the 1990 orthographic rectifications, the diaeresis in words containing guë (such as aiguë or ciguë) was moved onto the u: aigüe, cigüe. Words coming from German retain the old Umlaut if applicable but uses French pronounciation, such as capharnaüm(mess).
- cedilla (ç): Indicates that an etymological c is pronounced when it would otherwise be pronounced /k/. Thus je lance "I throw" (with c = before e), je lançai "I threw" (c would be pronounced before a without the cedilla). The ligature œ is a mandatory contraction of oe in certain words (sœur "sister" , œuvre "work [of art]" , cœur "heart" , cœlacanthe "Coelacanth" ), sometimes in words of Greek origin, spelled with an οι diphthong which became oe in Latin, pronounced in French (and other Romance languages): œsophage , œnologie . It may also appear in œu digraph (or œ alone in œil "eye"), in words that were once written with eu digraph (which could be read or , depending on the word): bœuf "ox" (Old French buef or beuf), mœurs "custom", œil "eye" , etc. In these cases, the Latin etymon must be spelled with an o where the French word has œu: bovem > bœuf, mores > mœurs, oculum > œil. Some attempts have been made to reform French spelling, but few major changes have been made over the last two centuries.

Some common phrases


- French: français ("fran-seh")
- hello: bonjour ("bon-zhoor")
- I love you.: Je t'aime. ("jhe tem")
- My name is _____: Je m'appelle _____ ("jhe-ma-pelle")
- good-bye: au revoir ("o-ruh-vwar")
- please: s'il vous plaît (Literally: if it please you) ("sill voo pleh")
- thank you: merci ("mairr-see")
- you are welcome: de rien (Literally: Of nothing) ("duh ryeh"), je vous en prie, il n'y a pas de quoi (France); bienvenue ("byeh-venuh") (Quebec)
- that one: celui-là ("su-lwee la"), colloq. ("swee la"), or celle-là (feminine) ("cell-la")
- how much?: combien? ("kom-byen")
- English: anglais ("ahng-gleh")
- yes: oui ("wee"), colloq. ouais (seldom written) ("way")
- no: non ("non")
- I am sorry: Je suis désolé(e). (add the "e" if the speaker is feminine); ("zhahn swee deh-zo-leh"), colloq. ("shswee deh-zo-leh"). Pardon ("par-dohn")
- I do not understand: Je ne comprends pas. ("zhuh nuh comprahn pa"), colloq. Je comprends pas (with dropping of "ne") ("shcomprahn pa")
- Where are the toilets?: Où sont les toilettes ? ("oo son leh twa-let")
- Cheers (toast to someone's health): Tchin ("chin"), Santé ("san-teh") or À la vôtre ("a la votr")
- Do you speak English?: Parlez-vous anglais ? ("par-leh voo ang-gleh") OR "Est-ce que vous parlez anglais?" ("voo par-leh ang-leh")
- Excuse me: Excusez-moi. ("eh-skyu-zay mwa")
- Good night: Bonne nuit ("bun nwee")
- Hi!: Salut ! ("sal-oo")
- I am tired: Je suis fatigué(e). (add the "e" if the speaker is feminine) ("jhe swee fah-tee-gay")
- Are you coming?: Venez vous ?, Est-ce que vous venez ? (or with close friends and relatives: tu viens?)
- I am thinking about it: J'y pense. ("jhee pahnss")
- I am going to the grocery store: Je vais à l'épicerie. ("jhe vay a lay-pee-ser-ee")
- We are going to school: On va à l'école. (colloquial) ("ohn va a lay-cohl")
- She is so pretty.: Elle est si jolie. ("el ay see jho-lee")
- our neighbors to the South: Nos voisins du sud ("noh vwah-zen due sued")
- Could you help me?: Pourriez-vous m'aider ? ("poo-ree-ay voo may-day")
- May I help you?: Puis-je vous aider? ("pwee-jha voo zay-day")
- It is the best of worlds: C'est le meilleur des mondes. ("say le may-yuhr day mohnd")
- Go to bed!: Va te coucher ! ("vah te coo-shay")
- I'm watching TV.: Je regarde la télé. ("jhe re-gard lah tay-lay")
- Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. ("wee-kee-pay-dee-ah, lahns-ee-kloh-pay-dee lee-bruh")
- I am the state.: L'État, c'est moi. ("leh-tah seh-mwa")

See also


- Académie française
- common phrases in different languages
- List of English words of French origin
- List of French phrases
- French in the United States
- French Language Wikipedia
- French phrases used by English speakers
- French proverbs
- Reforms of French orthography
- Morphology of the French verb
- Louchebem
- Verlan
- French Creole languages

External links


-
- [http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=33 All free French dictionaries] Collection of free French dictionaries.
- [http://www.declan-software.com/french French language learning audio software]
- [http://www.window.to/french/ Learn French online]
- [http://www.academie-francaise.fr/ Académie Française]
- [http://french.about.com/library/begin/bl_begin_vocab.htm Beginning French Vocabulary]
- [http://radio-canada.ca/education/francaismicro/ Capsules linguistiques - Radio-Canada.ca]
- [http://www.moelc.moe.edu.sg/french/ Département de Français, Ministry of Education Language Centre, Singapore]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=fra Ethnologue report for French]
- [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/f.htm Free online resources for learners]
- [http://www.lexilogos.com/french_language_dictionary.htm French-English : all online dictionaries]
- [http://www.jump-gate.com/languages/french/ French Language Course]
- [http://www.ielanguages.com/french.html French Language Tutorial at ielanguages.com]
- [http://www.intuxication.org/~webtypo/le_francais_facile.htm Le français facile]
- [http://portal.wikinerds.org/rapidfrench How to learn French in 10 months]
- [http://dhost.info/defu/wiki/index.php?id=French_accentuation_rules Basic tips of French accentuation]
- [http://www.languagehelpers.com/words/french/basics.html LanguageHelpers]
- [http://www.lightandmatter.com/french/ Liberté, an online first-year French textbook]
- [http://www.listenandlearn.org/learn/french/index.php Learn French by reading and listening]
- [http://www.how-to-learn-any-language.com/e/languages/french/index.html A profile of the French language]
- [http://dhost.info/defu/wiki/index.php?id=Virtual_French_Keyboard A virtual French keyboard]
- [http://linearb.co.uk:8080/memory/ Searchable French-English dictionary, with example sentences]
- [http://atilf.atilf.fr/ Le Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé] (very comprehensive)
- [http://truckspeak.monsite.wanadoo.fr Truck Drivers' French - English, English - French Dictionary]
- [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=3&learn-French/ Listen to useful French expressions]
- [http://www.FrenchLanguageTips.com/ Learn French Fast & Easy]
- [http://www.wordreference.com/ Wordreference.com dictionary]
- [http://www.my-french-dictionary.com/ My French Picture Dictionary] Category:French language Category:Oïl languages Category:Languages of Belgium Category:Languages of Canada Category:Languages of France Category:Languages of Luxembourg Category:Languages of Switzerland Category:Languages of French Guiana Category:Languages of Morocco Category:Languages of French Polynesia Category:Languages of Wallis and Futuna Category:Languages of New Caledonia Category:Synthetic languages Category:Guttural R als:Französische Sprache zh-min-nan:Hoat-gí ko:프랑스어 ja:フランス語 simple:French language th:ภาษาฝรั่งเศส

Yellowknife, Northwest Territories

Yellowknife ( MST) is the capital of Canada's Northwest Territories, and the only city in the territory, with a population of over 18,000. Located on the north shore of Great Slave Lake on the west side of Yellowknife Bay near the outlet of the Yellowknife River, Yellowknife and its surrounding waterbodies were named after the copper knives used by the local Chipewyan and Dene who moved into the area in the early 1800s. The current population is ethnically mixed. Of the eight official languages of the Northwest Territories, five are spoken in significant numbers in Yellowknife: Chipewyan, Dogrib, South and North Slavey, English, and French. In Dogrib, the city is called Somba K'e ("where the money is").

History

Traditionally, First Nations people had occupied this region and by the 1800s they had a settlement on a point of land on the east side of Yellowknife Bay, a community now known as Dettah. The current settlement was occupied as a result of work by prospectors who ventured into the region in the mid-1930s. Gold was first reported in the area of Yellowknife Bay in the late 19th century when a Klondike bound prospector named E.A. Blakeney found some gold samples. The discovery was viewed as unimportant in those days because of the Klondike stampede and because Great Slave Lake was too far away to attract attention. In the late 1920s, aircraft were being used to explore Canada's arctic regions. Interesting showings of radium and silver were being uncovered at Great Bear Lake in the early 1930s, and prospectors began fanning out to find additional metals. In 1933 two prospectors, Herb Dixon and Johnny Baker, canoed down the Yellowknife River from Great Bear Lake to survey for possible mineral deposits. In that season they found an interesting gold showing at Quyta Lake, about 30 km (19 mi) up the Yellowknife River, and another gold find at Homer Lake. The following year, Johnny Baker returned as part of a larger crew to develop the previous gold finds and search for more. Gold was found on the east side of Yellowknife Bay in 1934 and the short-lived Burwash Mine was developed. When government geologists uncovered gold in more favourable geology on the west side of Yellowknife Bay in the fall of 1935, a small staking rush occurred. The Con Mine was the most impressive gold deposit and its development created the excitement that led to the first settlement of Yellowknife in 1936-1937. The Con Mine entered production on September 5 1938. The population of Yellowknife grew quickly to 1000 by 1940 and by 1942 five gold mines were in production in the Yellowknife region. By 1944 gold production had ceased as workers were needed in the war effort. By 1944, an exploration program at the Giant Mine property on the north end of town had suggested a sizable gold deposit. This new find resulted in a massive post-war staking rush to Yellowknife. It also resulted in new discoveries at the Con Mine, extending the life of the mine greatly. The Yellowknife townsite expanded from the Old Town waterfront, and the new townsite was established during 1945-1946. Between 1939 and 1953, Yellowknife was controlled by the Northern Affairs department of the Government of Canada. A small council, partially elected and partially appointed, made decisions. By 1953, Yellowknife had grown so much it was made a municipality with its own council and town hall. In 1967 Yellowknife became the capital of the Northwest Territories. This important new status provided what has been coined as the third boom in Yellowknife, as housing went up in new subdivisions of town to accommodate an influx of government workers. In 1991 a new mining rush and fourth building boom for Yellowknife began with the discovery of diamonds 300 km (188 mi) north of the city. The Ekati Diamond Mine opened in 1998. A second mine, Diavik Diamond Mine, began production in 2003. Production from the two operating mines in 2004 was 12,618,000 carats valued at over C$2.1 billion[http://www.stats.gov.nt.ca/Statinfo/Industry/non_renew/shipment.otp]. This ranked Canada third in world diamond production by value, and sixth by weight. A third mine, De Beers' "Snap Lake" project, received final approval and funding in 2005, with plans for production in 2007. The last of the gold mines closed in Yellowknife in 2004. Today Yellowknife is primarily a government town and a service centre for the diamond mines. 2004 2004

Culture

Yellowknife, like other frontier mining towns, has a colourful culture and society.
- The Wildcat Cafe
- The Gold Range
- The Yellowknife dump is a big attraction for residents, many people scavenge daily for found treasures. [http://iht.com/articles/2005/07/13/news/dump.php International Herald Tribune]
- Events such as the Float Plane Fly-In, Folk On the Rocks.
- The Ingraham Trail, local fishing lodges, aviation culture, Old Town architecture.

Regional Mines


- Con Mine - 1938-2003 (gold) includes Rycon
- Giant Mine - 1948-2004 (gold)
- Ptarmigan and Tom Mine - 1941-1942, 1985-1997 (gold)
- Negus Mine - 1939-1952 (gold)
- Burwash Mine - 1935 (gold)
- Thompson-Lundmark Mine - 1941-1943, 1947-1949 (gold)
- Discovery Mine - 1950-1969 (gold)
- Camlaren Mine - 1962-1963, 1980-1981 (gold)
- Beaulieu Mine - 1947-1948 (gold)
- Outpost Island Mine - 1941-1942, 1951-1952 (gold, copper, tungsten)
- Ruth Mine - 1942, 1959 (gold) "The Government of the NWT has expressed significant concerns about coverage related to the 2001 census and completed its own population survey[http://www.stats.gov.nt.ca/Statinfo/Census/2002NWTPopSurve/_2002PopSurvey.html] to assess the level of undercoverage in the 2001 census. Since it appears that about 10% of the population may have been missed in the 2001 census, results from this census should be used with caution. In particular, analysis of absolute values with previous census years should be avoided". Populations estimates for Yellowknife from the NWT Bureau of Statistics were 17,758 for the year 2001 and 19,056 for 2004. [http://www.stats.gov.nt.ca/Statinfo/Demographics/population/popest.html].

See also


- List of Northwest Territories capitals

External links


- [http://www.yellowknife.ca/ Official website]
- [http://www.copanational.org/PlacesToFly/airport_view.php?pr_id=8&ap_id=198 Entry about Yellowknife Airport on the Canadian Owners and Pilots Association's Places to Fly Airport Directory]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=62.472382,-114.364243&spn=0.153454,0.468361&t=k&hl=en Satellite picture by Google Maps] Category:Cities in Northwest Territories ja:イエローナイフ

List of Northwest Territories capitals

The Northwest Territories, Canada, has had seven capital cities since being purchased by Canada from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. The territory has changed the seat of government for numerous reasons, due to civil conflict, development of infrastructure, and revised territorial boundaries. The resulted is a unique and complex history unlike that of any other Canadian province or territory. A number of communities in Northwest Territories have also unsuccessfully tried to become the capital. The Northwest Territories has had the unique occurence of the seat of government being outside of the territorial boundaries twice. The term capital refers to cities which have served as home for the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories, the legislative branch of Northwest Territories government. In Canada it is customary for provincial and territorial level government to have the civil service administer from the same city as the legislative branch. The Northwest Territories, however, had an administrative capital and a legislative capital officially exist between 1911 and 1967. civil service

Capitals and candidates summary

History of Northwest Territories capital cities

Fort Garry, Manitoba (1870 - 1876)

civil serviceIn 1869, under the Rupert's Land Act, William McDougall went to Fort Garry, Manitoba to establish governance over the newly puchased North-Western Territory and Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company. The take-over of land was delayed until 1870 because of the Red River Rebellion. Louis Riel, leader of the Métis, negotiated a small section of land in the new territory to create the Province of Manitoba in 1870. In 1870, Manitoba and the Northwest Territories entered the Canadian confederation. Under the Temporary Government Act, 1870, a temporary Northwest Territories council was appointed from members of the new Manitoba Legislative Assembly. The territory was also run under the Manitoba Act. The "temporary government" was renewed each year until 1876, when the first capital inside the Northwest Territories was decided upon, just outside the Manitoba border. Fort Garry would grow up to become modern day Winnipeg, Manitoba. See also: Upper Fort Garry and Lower Fort Garry

Fort Livingstone, Northwest Territories (1876 - 1877)

Lower Fort GarryIn 1875, a new permanent government for the council was appointed to take effect on October 7, 1876. The new permanent government was to administer the territory for the first time under the Northwest Territories Act 1875. The Temporary North-West Council was dissolved, and a new seat of government was decided upon just outside of the Manitoba border. Fort Livingstone was more of a small frontier outpost then a capital city, and the site was only chosen as a temporary measure. Fort Livingstone served as the headquaters for the newly formed North-West Mounted Police. In 1877, Lieutenant Governor David Laird ordered the outpost to be packed up. The capital was moved out to Battleford a year later to meet up with the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), which was under construction. Council sessions were held at Swan River North-West Mounted Police Barracks. The nearest town to Fort Livingstone is Pelly, Saskatchewan, four kilometres to the south. The fort is sometimes referred to as Fort Pelly or Swan River. Today Fort Livingstone is a provincial historical site and contains no resident population.

Battleford, Northwest Territories (1877 - 1883)

Pelly, SaskatchewanThe Northwest Territories council moved to Battleford in 1877 on the order of David Laird to what was supposed to be the permanent capital of the territories. After consultation with CPR officals, Edgar Dewdney made the decision to move the capital in June of 1882. The government in Battleford saw the first elected members join the Northwest Territories council. The city was also host to the first royal visit in western Canada, when the Marquis of Lorne and Princess Louise Caroline Alberta toured the territories in 1881. The first Northwest Territories legislature building, named "NWT Government House", was built in Battleford, and used until 1883. The building stood until it was destroyed in a fire in 2003. See also: Fort Battleford, Northwest Territories

Regina, Northwest Territories (1883 - 1905)

Fort Battleford, Northwest TerritoriesRegina was confirmed as the new territorial capital on March 27, 1883, and Edgar Dewdney ordered the city moved south to meet the railway in Regina. Construction of a new legislature began. In Regina, the government continued to grow, as settlement increased rapidly. The legislature had the most sitting members in Northwest Territories history after the fifth general election in 1902. Rapid growth in the territories and desire for more autonomy led to the creation of the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta from Northwest Territories in 1905. The remaining parts of the territory fell back to 1870's constitutional status, with a severely limited population, and fell under control of the federal government. A new council was convened in Ottawa, Ontario. The remains of the Territorial Government Building were declared a historical site by the Saskatchewan government; parts of the building remain standing to this day. Regina continues to serve as capital for the province of Saskatchewan.

Ottawa, Ontario (1905 - 1967)

In 1905, the seat of government was moved to Ottawa, Ontario, the capital of Canada. This change was made when Northwest Territories defaulted back to 1870 constitutional status after Alberta and Saskatchewan were carved from the territory. At the time of this change, there were very few towns left in the territory with any significant population. The remaining non-Inuit population was around 1,000. Inuit had no status as under Canadian law, and were not yet in settled in towns or villages. The council during this period was primarily composed of high-level civil servants who lived in Ottawa. After the sixth general election in 1951, the council began to exist in a vagabond state and alternate sittings in Ottawa, and communities in Northwest Territories. The council held meetings in school gymnasiums, community halls and board rooms or any suitable infrastructure. The council brought the speakers chair and mace with them. The civil service that administered the Northwest Territories, was based in Fort Smith. When the sessions were held in Ottawa, the council sat in an office building on Sparks Street. The Northwest Territories government continues to hold an office in Ottawa to this day.

Fort Smith, Northwest Territories (1911 - 1967)

Sparks Street While not an official capital, Fort Smith became the official administration and transportation hub for the Northwest Territories in 1911 after the government sent a Department of Indian Affairs agent and a medical doctor, and opened an Royal Canadian Mounted Police station. Fort Smith housed the civil service working in the territories officially until 1967. Fort Smith continued to host the civil service after Yellowknife was picked as capital because government infrastructure was not yet in place. During this time, the legislative council was based in Ottawa, and later alternated sessions in the north with various communities. Fort Smith was considered as a potential capital by the Carrothers Commission. The commission ultimately decided upon Yellowknife as it was closer to the centre of the Northwest Territories, and the feedback from residents in the territories preferred Yellowknife as a potential capital.

Yellowknife, Northwest Territories (1967 - present)

Carrothers Commission Yellowknife became the capital on January 18, 1967 after the Carrothers commission, led by Dean Carrothers, completed a three-year study of the future of the north. From 1967 to 1993, the Northwest Territories government carried on the tradition of alternating legislative sessions with Northwest Territories communities. The Northwest Territories government moved into the newly-constructed legislature building on November 17, 1993. The new legislature was the first built specifically for the Northwest Territories government since the government sat in Regina. The new legislature for the first time featured themes derived around the vast Inuit culture of the north.

Carrouthers Commission and Nunavut

The Carrouthers Commission marked a significant mile-stone in modern Northwest Territories history. For the first time the Federal Government enacted sweeping changes including picking a new seat of government based on consultation with territory residents. In prior years the decision to change seats of government had always been made without consulting Northwest Territories residents. Edgar Dewdney who made the decision to change the capital from Battleford to Regina faced controversy because he owned property in Regina. After the territorial government moved to Ottawa, the government was often resented for being so far away. The Carrouthers Commission visited nearly every community in the territories to consult with residents, and local leaders. The feedback collected from nearly two years worth of consultation was used to influence the location of the new capital. In 1995 in parts of Northwest Territories that were to become the new territory of Nunavut, for the first time a historic plebiscite was held let the people decide by direct democracy to choose a seat of government. The 1995 Nunavut Capital Plebiscite was conducted so that ballots would all be counted at one source so polling station results could never be released and create animosity between communities vying to become capital. Iqaluit beat out Rankin Inlet in a narrow victory.

References

# [http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl?term=RED%20RIVER%20REBELLION Red River Rebellion negotiations lead to the creation of Manitoba] # [http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ma_1870.html Manitoba Act 1870] # [http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/trts/hti/t1-2/bkg_e.html Historical background on the creation of Manitoba and Northwest Territories] # [http://www.saskarchives.com/web/seld/1-00.pdf Northwest Territories appointments and election results page 7] # [http://www.assembly.ab.ca/lao/library/lt-gov/capitals.htm Seats of Government of the Northwest Territories] # [http://www.pelly.ca/ftlivingstone.html Fort Livingstone historical site] # [http://www.reginalibrary.ca/politics_government.html#govern NWT Government House Battleford Saskatchewan] # [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/confederation/023001-2245-e.html History of Northwest Territories in confederation] #[http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/VisitorInfo/ImageGallery/VirtualTour/SpeakersChair.html Old Speakers Chair] # [http://132.206.96.4/academics/coursenotes/scott/cdnspeech/article21.htm March 1998 speech by Bernard Funston on Canada's north] # [http://www.gov.nt.ca/utility/contact/contact.html Government of Northwest Territories Ottawa office] # [http://collections.ic.gc.ca/canoe/smith.htm Fort Smith History] # [http://www.nunanet.com/~nunat/pages/nunavut1.html#10 How they chose the capital] # [http://www.statoids.com/uca.html Canada Stats] # [http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/VisitorInfo/NWTStyleOfGovernment/History.html History of Northwest Territories legislative assembly] # [http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/VisitorInfo/NWTStyleOfGovernment/BuildingALegislature.html Building a legislature]

See also


- List of Northwest Territories general elections
- List of Northwest Territories Plebiscites
- List of Northwest Territories highways

External links


- [http://www.yellowknife.ca/Home.html City of Yellowknife Homepage]
- [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/fortgarry/index_e.asp Fort Garry, Manitoba Historical site]
- [http://www.saskatchewancentennial.com/facts/skfactsresults.asp?ID=514 Sask 2005 facts Fort Livingstone]
- [http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/VisitorInfo/NWTMapandHistory/FortSmith.html Fort Smith Community Profile] Category:Northwest Territories
- Category:Lists of communities in Canada

List of communities in the Northwest Territories

Communities of the Northwest Territories, Canada

The Northwest Territories contains one city, four towns, four charter communities, one village, ten designated authorities, ten hamlets, and three settlements.
- Aklavik
- Colville Lake
- Deline (previously Fort Franklin)
- Dettah
- Enterprise
- Fort Good Hope
- Fort Liard
- Fort McPherson
- Fort Providence
- Fort Resolution
- Fort Simpson
- Fort Smith
- Hay River
- Holman
- Inuvik
- Jean Marie River
- Kakisa
- Lutselk'e (previously Snowdrift)
- Nahanni Butte
- Norman Wells
- Paulatuk
- Rae Lakes (also called Gameti)
- Rae-Edzo (also Behcho Ko or Rae Mbehcho Ko)
- Sachs Harbour
- Tuktoyaktuk
- Tulita (previously Fort Norman)
- Trout Lake
- Tsiigehtchic
- Tungsten
- Wekweti (previously Snare Lakes)
- Wha Ti
- Wrigley
- Yellowknife

External links


- [http://www.stats.gov.nt.ca/CPWeb/NNWThome.html NWT Community Profiles (Statistics NWT)] Category:Communities in the Northwest Territories Category:Lists of communities in Canada

Nunavut

Nunavut (Inuktitut syllabics: ᓄᓇᕗᑦ, Inuktitut syllabics) is the largest and newest of the territories of Canada; it was separated officially from the vast Northwest Territories on April 1, 1999 via the [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28.6/fulltoc.html Nunavut Act] and the [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28.7/ Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act], though the actual boundaries were established in 1993. The creation of Nunavut marked the first major change to Canada's map since the establishment of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949. The capital of Nunavut is Iqaluit (formerly Frobisher Bay) on Baffin Island in the east. Other major communities include Rankin Inlet and Cambridge Bay. Nunavut also includes Ellesmere Island in the north and the east of Victoria Island in the west. Nunavut is both the least populated and the largest of the provinces and territorities of Canada. It has a population of only about 29,300 spread over an area the size of Western Europe. If Nunavut were a sovereign nation, it would be the least densely populated in the world: nearby Greenland, for example, has almost the same area and twice the population. Nunavut means 'our land' in Inuktitut, the language of the Inuit. Its inhabitants are called Nunavummiut, singular Nunavummiuq. Along with Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, English, and French are also official languages.

History

The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of Baffin Island with the Helluland described in Norse sagas, so it is possible that the inhabitants of the region had occasional contact with Norse sailors. For more information on the earliest inhabitants and explorers of Nunavut, see Paleoeskimo, Neoeskimo and Helluland. The recorded history of Nunavut began in 1576. Martin Frobisher, while leading an expedition to find the Northwest Passage, thought he had discovered gold ore in what is now known as Frobisher Bay on the coast of Baffin Island. The ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit. The contact was hostile, with Frobisher capturing four Inuit people and bringing them back to England, where they quickly perished. Other explorers in search of the elusive Northwest Passage followed in the 17th century, including Henry Hudson, William Baffin and Robert Bylot. In 1976, negotiations for a land claim agreement and the new territory between the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada and the federal government began. In April 1982, a majority of Northwest Territories residents voted in favour of a division, and the federal government gave a conditional agreement seven months later. A land claims agreement was reached in September, 1992 and ratified by nearly 85% of the voters in Nunavut. In June 1993 the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act and the Nunavut Act were passed by the Canadian Parliament, and the transition was completed on April 1, 1999. Nunavut's small and sparse population makes it unlikely the territory will be granted provincial status in the foreseeable future, although this may change if the Yukon, which is only marginally more populous, becomes a province.

People

As of 2004, Nunavut has a population of approximately 29,300, of whom around 85% are native peoples, primarily Inuit.

Geography

The territory covers approximately 1.9 million square kilometers of land and water including part of the mainland, most of the Arctic Islands, and all of the islands in Hudson Bay, James Bay, and Ungava Bay (including the Belcher Islands) which were formerly attached to the Northwest Territories. If Nunavut were treated as a single country, the area would be ranked 13th, after Democratic Republic of the Congo. The creation of Nunavut created Canada's only "four corners", at the intersection of the boundaries of Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, at 60°00' north, 102°00' west, on the southern shore of Kasba Lake. This is not the tourist spot it might be, as it is extremely remote and inaccessible, although there is a marker (albeit an out of date one) at the point, and some have made the trek. The highest point in Nunavut is Barbeau Peak on Ellesmere Island at a height of 2616 m (8583 ft). Arctic tundra covers virtually all of Nunavut, the only exceptions being a tiny area in the extreme southwest near the "four corners" alluded to above, where a marginal taiga forest exists, and small zones of permanent ice caps, found on some of the larger Arctic Islands (especially Baffin, Devon and Ellesmere) at sites having a relatively high elevation. Nunavut's vegetation is partially composed of rare berries, lichens, arctic willows, moss, tough grass, and small willow shrubs. Map of the territory [http://www.gov.nu.ca/education/eng/images/Nunavutmap.gif Alternative map from Nunavut Government website] (shows regions) 10 Largest Municipalities by population

Major Territorial Mines


- Lupin Mine - 1982-current (gold, currently in the process of shut-down)
- Polaris - 1982-2002 (lead and zinc)
- Nanisivik Mine - 1976-2002 (lead and zinc)
- Rankin Inlet Mine - 1957-1962 (nickel and copper) Several mining projects are in the works and Tahera Diamonds' Jericho property will become Nunavut's first diamond mine. As of May 2005 Miramar Mining Corporation's Doris gold project and Cumberland Resource's Meadowbank gold project were in the process of review for approval.

Regions of Nunavut

It is a commonly-held misconception that Nunavut is made up of some of the former regions of the NWT, separated in their entirety. This is not the case; the dividing line did not follow region boundaries, although boundaries have been subsequently finessed so that three former NWT regions collectively constitute Nunavut. They serve as census divisions, but have no autonomous governments:
- Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut or Baffin Region
- Kivalliq Region (formerly "Keewatin region")
- Kitikmeot Region The former NWT's Baffin region was entirely transferred to Nunavut. The former Kitikmeot region is mostly in Nunavut, except two southwestern areas. Likewise, the former Keewatin region is largely in Nunavut, except a southwestern rectangle. Fort Smith region and Inuvik region remain census divisions of the Northwest Territories. A small right triangle of the former Fort Smith region is in Nunavut now, while none of the Inuvik region was transferred to Nunavut. The aforementioned regional divisions are distinct from the district system of dividing