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| Oceanografi |
OceanografiOceanografi eller oceanologi er læren om havet.
Se også
- ekstrem havbølge, havstrøm, tsunami
Eksterne henvisninger
- [http://dmoz.org/World/Dansk/Videnskab/Naturvidenskab_og_matematik/Geovidenskab/Oceanografi/ DMOZ: Oceanografi]
- [http://www.dmi.dk/vejr/oceanografi/Oceanografi-forside.html DMI: Oceanografi]
- [http://www.fomfrv.dk/ifm/oceanografi/oceanografi.htm Farvandsvæsenet: oceanografi]
- [http://www.mavicanet.com/directory/dan/3527.html?iss=0 MavicaNET: Oceanografi], [http://www.mavicanet.com/directory/dan/ MavicaNET - Multilingual Search Catalog]
Kategori:Oceanografi
ja:海洋学
ko:해양학
HavMindre have:
- Adriaterhavet
- Middelhavet
- Rødehavet
- Sortehavet
Se også
- Verdenshave
- Havstrømme
- Kontinent
- Nordpolen
- Pladetektonik
- Sydpolen
- Tektonik
- Ocean
- Verdens lande
- Ækvator
Eksterne henvisninger
- [http://www.underwatertimes.com/oceans/oceans.php underwatertimes.com: oceans]
Kategori:Have
ja:海
ko:바다
ms:Laut
simple:Sea
zh-min-nan:Hái
Ekstrem havbølgeEkstreme havbølger eller monster havbølger er relativt store og spontane havoverfladebølger, som kan sænke op til middelstore skibe. De blev før nytårsnat 1995 anset for at være en myte, men er idag et almindeligt anerkendt fænomen. ESA satelliter, Project MaxWave, og GKSS Research Centre har bekræftet at disse 30 meter høje bølger eksisterer.
De kan have været årsag til havgående skibes uforklarlige forsvinden. Se København.
Det skal bemærkes at en ekstrem havbølge ikke er det samme som en tsunami.
Historie
Det er normalt for stormhavbølger at nå 7 meters højde; under ekstreme betingelser kan sådanne havbølger nå 15 meters højde. Igennem århundreder har maritim folklore fortalt om eksistensen af massive havbølger på op til 30 meter højde, som kunne dukke op i havet uden advarsel, mod havstrømmen og med en anden bølgeretning og ofte i klart vejr.
Den første videnskabeligt anerkendte ekstreme havbølge blev målt på den norske boreplatform Draupner-E nytårsnat 1995. Her blev almindelige stormhavbølger målt til at være 12 meter, men med en enkelt undtagelse på 26 meter!
Som et eksempel blandt mange fik to skibe (Caledonian Star og Bremen) ødelagt deres skibsbroer i Sydatlanten af en 30 meter høj ekstrem bølge marts 2001.
Ekstreme havbølger siges at bestå af en næsten lodret væg af vand med en dyb forløber, som virker som et havhul for skibet. Et skibsskrog, som møder en ekstrem havbølge af en sådan styrke, antages ikke at kunne klare det - skroget er ikke bygget til det, og skibet vil normalt synke på sekunder efter et møde med en ekstrem havbølge.
Videnskaben har gennem længere tid afvist eksistensen af ekstreme havbølger fordi den daværende lineære teori, statistisk kun sandsynliggjorde havbølger på mere end 15 meters højde én gang hver 10.000 år. Det viser sig at høje bølger (f.eks. mere end 27 meter) sandsynligvis er ret almindelige i forbindelse med orkaner.
Satellitbilleder har i de senere år videnskabeligt bekræftet at havbølger med 30 meters højde er mere almindelige end statistikken for den lineære teori forudsiger. Faktisk forekommer de ekstreme havbølger mange gange hvert år. Dette har forårsaget en revision af årsagen til de ekstreme havbølgers eksistens.
En ekstrem havbølge er kun et lokalt fænomen, som kun optræder langt ude på dybt hav.
Kilder/referencer
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/07/040721084137.htm 2004-07-21, Sciencedaily: Ship-sinking Monster Waves Revealed By ESA Satellites] Citat: "...Despite the relatively brief length of time the data covered, the MaxWave team identified more than ten individual giant waves around the globe above 25 metres in height...current ships and offshore platforms are built to withstand maximum wave heights of only 15 metres..."
- [http://seastead.org/localres/misc-articles/lawton_newsci_06_30_01.html New Scientist magazine, vol 170 issue 2297, 30/06/2001: Monsters of the deep. Authored by: Graham Lawton] Citat: "...Linear modeling-based on the idea that waves simply add up-has clearly failed. So maybe some kind of non-linear interaction, also known as chaos, is the cause..."
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4739741.stm 5 August 2005, BBC News: Hurricane caused 'tallest wave'] Citat: "...The observations suggest prior estimates for extreme waves are too low, researchers warn in Science...The distance between the crest of the biggest wave and its trough was 91 ft (27.7 metres) but they suspect the instruments missed some waves that were as tall as 132 ft (40 metres)..."Our results suggest that waves in excess of 90 ft are not rogue waves but actually are fairly common during hurricanes,"..."
Eksterne henvisninger
- [http://www.dmi.dk/dmi/index/viden/oceanografiske_emner-2/ekstreme_boelger/hvad_er_ekstreme_boelger.htm DMI: Ekstreme bølger - havets spøgelser]
- [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMGOEM26WD_Denmark_0.html 21 Juli 2004, ESA: Monsterbølger afsløret fra rummet]
- [http://www.math.uio.no/~karstent/extrwave/ Modellering av ekstreme havbølger og havbølgeklima på mesoskala]
- Billede af gigantbølge, lige før den vælter over et skib: [http://bell.mma.edu/~achase/NS-221-Big-Wave.html Maine Maritime Academy: G. A. Chase Home Page: Picture of an extreme wave about to hit a ship] Citat: "...We were on the wing of the bridge, with a height of eye of 56 feet, and this wave broke over our heads..."
- [http://ism.fb12.tu-berlin.de/MT/Forschung/maxwave.html MAXWAVE, Rogue waves – Forecast and impact on marine structures]
- (matematisk) [http://w3g.gkss.de/projects/maxwave/workp/workpack.htm MaxWave: Work packages]
- [http://www.ifremer.fr/web-com/stw2004/rw/index.html Rogue Waves 2004], [http://www.ifremer.fr/metocean/conferences/wk.htm Rogue Waves 2000]
Kategori:Oceanografi
Tsunami
En tsunami er en havbølge, som på dybt vand udbreder sig med op til ca. 700 km/t og på overfladen har en svag vand/luft-bølge på måske 0,5 meters højde. Den er derfor ufarlig på dybt vand. Denne svage bølge kaldes af mange fejlagtigt for en tidevandsbølge.
En tsunami fremkaldes af undersøiske jordskred, undersøiske jordskælv, af meteoritter, der rammer havoverfladen, eller af forskydninger i kontinentalpladerne. Ordet er sammensat af de japanske ord tsu 津 (havn) og nami 波 (bølge).
Fænomenet er mest udbredt i Stillehavet, hvor ca. 90% af alle forekomster er registreret.
På dybt vand er tsunamiens energi konstant og er en funktion af dens højde og hastighed. Derfor vil bølgens højde øges, når den kommer tæt på land, mens hastigheden mindskes. En tsunami har en meget lang bølgelængde på ca. 100 km. En bølges hastighed på lav dybde er , hvor er tyngdeaccelerationen og er vanddybden.
Når tsunamien rammer kyster, sænkes hastigheden fra de 700 km/t til ca. 50 km/t og havbølgen rejser sig og bliver til en flodbølge på op til 30 meters højde (rekorden er 85 meter 24. april 1971 i nærheden af den japanske ø Ishigaki).
Både kystens form over og under vandlinjen, herunder odde og bugt i nærområdet, har stor betydning for tsunamiens virkning for udbredelsen i landet bag kysten. F.eks. kan tsunamien i fjorde opkoncentreres endnu mere og kan her blive op til 100 meter høj.
Da tsunamien er en bølge, så derfor dannes der normalt en bølgedal foran bølgen når den kommer ind på lavt vand, det er derfor at vandet ofte vil trække sig tilbage kort før tsunamien slår til.
Bølgedalen forsætter frem med høj hastighed, selvom selve tsunami-bølgen bliver opbremset af det lave vand. Jo mere og jo længer vandet løber væk, jo mere vand rummer bølgen. Selvom havbunden ikke bliver blotlagt, så ændres trykket i havbunden, så at der frigøres metan, som får vandet til at boble og skumme hvidt.
Denne viden om en tsunami - om vandets tilbagetrækning i forbindelse med et jordskælv, før den ødelæggende bølge - burde ikke komme som en overraskelse, eftersom den er beskrevet i et så jordnært blad som tegneserien Anders And & Co. sommeren 2002.
Se også
- Ekstrem havbølge
- Jordskælvet i det indiske ocean 2004
Eksterne henvisninger
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/01/050112194657.htm 2005-01-16, Sciencedaily: NASA/French Satellite Data Reveal New Details Of Tsunami] Citat: "...For the first time, orbiting satellites have observed and measured a major tsunami event in open ocean, the Indian Ocean tsunami that resulted from the magnitude 9 earthquake southwest of Sumatra on December 26. The measurements are of tremendous value to researchers worldwide and will aid our understanding of these events..."
- [http://www.expressnewsline.com/0505/fullstory0505-insight-Tsunami+revives+passive-status-5-newsID-48.html 1/20/2005, South Asia News ExpressNewsline.com: Tsunami revives passive Ranong fault near Phuket] Citat: "...A one-kilometre crack has opened in the ocean floor north of Phuket, Thailand, sparking fears that the dormant Ranong fault has been revived following the Dec 26 undersea earthquake, reports Xinhua...When a fault becomes active, it releases bubbles..."
- [http://tsunami.flussi.com Film og fotos af Tsunamien i Asien 2. juledag 2004]
- [http://www.prh.noaa.gov/ptwc/ Pacific Tsunami Warning Center], [http://www.prh.noaa.gov/ptwc/bulletins.htm bulletins]
- [http://www.tsunami.org/ Pacific Tsunami Museum]
- [http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=31&art_id=qw1105099202834B222 January 07 2005, iol: Studying of tsunamis no child's play] Citat: "...Even so, landslide-generated tsunamis are now emerging as killers, either in their own right or as amplifiers of quake-driven waves..."
- [http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=31&art_id=qw110405736187B232 December 26 2004, iol: Exploring the power of deadly waves] Citat: "..."If you are on a boat, you might not even feel a tsunami," said Wong Wing-tak..."
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4136485.stm 31 December, 2004, BBC News: Did animals have quake warning?] Citat: "...Many tourists drowned but, to the surprise of officials, no dead animals have been found. It has highlighted claims that animals may possess a sixth sense about danger...There are many eyewitness accounts of birds and animals migrating before earthquakes and volcanic eruptions..."
- [http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=143&art_id=iol1104494178194R362 December 31 2004, iol: Can animals sense disaster?] Citat: "...No elephants are dead, not even a dead hare or rabbit. I think animals can sense disaster. They have a sixth sense. They know when things are happening..."
- [http://www.world-science.net/othernews/050531_elephantfrm.htm May 31, 2005, World Science: Scientists report new evidence that elephants communicate underground] Citat: "...The findings might explain reports that trained elephants in Thailand became agitated and fled from the tsunami...Their escape saved their own lives and those of tourists riding on their backs..."
- [http://www.dn.se/DNet/road/Classic/article/12/jsp/flframeset.jsp?a=362521&d=144&redirectTo=/content/1/c6/36/25/21/Tsunami.swf&mediaType=flash&mediaFile=Tsunami.swf Interessant grafik]
- [http://www.asien.tv2.dk Tv2's asien side].. Oplysninger og flodbølgen den 26/12 2004. Bl.a. billeder, film, tal etc.
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/4397679.stm 2 April, 2005, BBC News: Tsunami theory of flood disaster] Citat: "...A tsunami in the Bristol Channel could have caused the deaths of up to 2,000 people in one of Britain's greatest natural disasters, experts have said...For centuries, it has been thought that the great flood of January 1607 was caused by high tides and severe storms...Eyewitness accounts of the disaster, published in six different pamphlets of the time, told of "huge and mighty hills of water" advancing at a speed "faster than a greyhound can run" and only receding 10 days later..."
Kategori:Oceanografi
Kategori:DK5 55.9
Kategori:Geofysik
ja:津波
ko:지진해일
ms:Tsunami
th:คลื่นสึนามิ
zh-min-nan:Hái-tiòng Gettysburg Campaign)]]
The Gettysburg Campaign was a series of battles fought in June and July, 1863, during the American Civil War. After his victory in the Battle of Chancellorsville, Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia moved north for offensive operations in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by Major General Joseph Hooker and then Major General George G. Meade (from June 28), pursued Lee, defeated him at the Battle of Gettysburg, but allowed him to escape back to Virginia.
Background
Shortly after Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia defeated the Union Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (May 1–5, 1863), Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North. Such a move would upset Union plans for the summer campaigning season, possibly relieve the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg, and allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much needed rest. Lee's army could also threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington and encourage the growing peace movement in the North. In essence, it was identical to the strategy Lee employed in the Maryland Campaign of 1862.
On June 3, 1863, Lee's army began to slip away northwesterly from Fredericksburg, Virginia.
Opposing forces
In reaction to the death of General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, Lee had reorganized the two large corps of the Army of Northern Virginia into three new corps. James Longstreet retained command of the First Corps, but with one fewer division. Jackson's old corps was divided into two, with the Second Corps going to Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell and the new Third Corps commanded by Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill. With those three corps and J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry division, the army had approximately 75,000 men.
The Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven corps of infantry and artillery, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of more than 90,000 men. However, Abraham Lincoln would soon replace Hooker with Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, due to Hooker's defeat at the Battle of Chancellorsville and disagreements about his response to Lee's second invasion north of the Potomac.
At the start of the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1, the following units and their commanders were present:
- Army of Northern Virginia — see Gettysburg Confederate Order of Battle
- Army of the Potomac — see Gettysburg Union Order of Battle
Battles
The following battles were fought in the Gettysburg Campaign:
; Battle of Brandy Station (June 9, 1863)
: The largest cavalry battle in the war. Union cavalry under Alfred Pleasonton, conducting a reconnaissance-in-force to determine the location of Lee's army, surprised J.E.B. Stuart with a dawn attack against his camp outside Brandy Station, Virginia. There was no clear victory for either side, although Pleasonton withdrew before finding the location of Lee's infantry nearby. Brandy Station established the emerging reputation of the Union cavalry as a peer of the Confederate mounted arm. After the battle, Lee's infantry forces, led by Ewell's Second Corps, crossed the Blue Ridge Mountains at Manassas Gap and headed north.
; Second Battle of Winchester (June 13–15, 1863)
: Ewell's corps cleared the Shenandoah Valley for the Confederate movement north behind the Blue Ridge Mountains by defeating the garrison at Winchester commanded by Brig. Gen. Robert Milroy. Milroy withdrew at dusk in the hopes of reaching Charles Town, but was cut off by a flank attack by the division of Edward "Allegheny" Johnson. Although Lee had originally intended to keep the corps of James Longstreet and A.P. Hill on the eastern side of the Blue Ridge, Ewell's battle at Winchester drew both corps to the west in case support was needed. All three corps would continue north in the Valley.
Meanwhile, the Army of the Potomac was moving with unaccustomed celerity. On June 16, it reached Manassas Junction. Hooker had no idea what Lee's intentions were and Stuart's cavalry did a good job masking the army's movements behind the Blue Ridge. He originally conceived the idea of reacting to Lee's absence by seizing unprotected Richmond, Virginia. But Lincoln sternly reminded him that Lee's army was the true objective. His orders were to pursue and defeat Lee, but to stay between Lee and Washington and Baltimore.
; Battle of Aldie (June 17, 1863)
: A cavalry duel between the brigade of Judson Kilpatrick and Confederate Colonel Thomas Munford. After four hours of mounted assaults, Kilpatrick was reinforced and Munford withdrew toward Middleburg.
; Battle of Middleburg (June 17–19, 1863)
: The 1st Rhode Island Cavalry was attacked and routed by two brigades of Confederate horsemen. On June 19, Stuart's force was driven back behind the town and withdrew farther into the Valley.
; Battle of Upperville (June 21, 1863)
: Cavalry division commander John Buford attacked the Confederate cavalry's left flank, but was repulsed. Stuart withdrew to a strong defensive position at Ashby Gap, but soon left the Valley with three cavalry brigades on a wide-ranging reconnaissance and raid to the east, beyond the right flank of the Army of the Potomac. This was one of the most controversial actions of the war. Lee's orders to Stuart envisioned him screening the army and reporting on Union movements, but Stuart either misunderstood or ignored those orders, leaving Lee blind in enemy territory, while Stuart attempted to recreate his previous exploits, riding entirely around the enemy army and raiding supply trains.
On the evening of June 27, Lincoln sent orders relieving Hooker. Fighting Joe had argued with general-in-chief Henry W. Halleck about defending the garrison at Harpers Ferry and petulantly offered to resign. Halleck and Lincoln jumped at the opportunity. George Meade, previously commanding the V Corps, was ordered to assume command of the Army of the Potomac early on the morning of June 28 in Frederick, Maryland. Meade was completely surprised by the change of command order, having previously expressed his lack of interest in the army command. In fact, when an officer from Washington woke him with the order, he assumed he was being arrested for some transgression. Despite having little knowledge of what Hooker's plans had been or the exact locations of the three columns moving quickly to the northwest, Meade kept up the pace.
Lee was unaware that his normally sluggish foe had moved as far north as it had. The lack of Stuart's cavalry intelligence kept him in the dark. It was only after a spy hired by Longstreet reported in that Lee found out his opponent had crossed the Potomac and was hot on his trail. By this time, Lee's forces were widely separated. Ewell's corps had almost reached the Susquehanna River and was prepared to menace Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the state capital. Longstreet and Hill were near Chambersburg. Lee sent urgent messages to his corps commanders to concentrate his army around Cashtown or Gettysburg (depending on circumstances).
; Battle of Hanover (June 30, 1863)
: J.E.B. Stuart, on his wide-ranging raid around the Union army, attacked a Union cavalry regiment and drove it through the streets of Hanover, Pennsylvania. Union general Elon J. Farnsworth's brigade arrived and counterattacked, nearly capturing Stuart. After additional forces arrived, Stuart was stalemated and forced to move even further to the east. His orders to maintain contact with Ewell's advance could not be fulfilled and he was two days hard riding away from Lee's army on the eve of the great battle.
; Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863)
: The greatest battle of the war, often considered its turning point. Meade defeated Lee in a three-day battle fought by 160,000 soldiers, with 51,000 casualties. It started as a meeting engagement when brigades from Henry Heth's division clashed with Buford's cavalry, and then John F. Reynolds's I Corps. As the Union XI Corps arrived, they and the I Corps were smashed by Ewell's and Hill's corps arriving from the north and forced back through the town, taking up defensive positions on Cemetery Hill, Culp's Hill, and Cemetery Ridge, south of town. On July 2, Lee launched a massive pair of assaults against the left and right flanks of Meade's army. Fierce battles raged at Little Round Top, Devil's Den, the Wheatfield, the Peach Orchard, East Cemetery Hill, and Culp's Hill. Meade was able to shift his defenders along interior lines and they repulsed the Confederate advances. On July 3, Lee launched Pickett's Charge against the Union center and almost three divisions were slaughtered. By this time, Stuart had returned and he fought an inconclusive cavalry duel to the east of the main battlefield, attempting to drive into the Union rear area. The two armies stayed in position on July 4 (the same day the Battle of Vicksburg ended in a stunning Union victory) and then Lee ordered a retreat.
; Battle of Hunterstown (July 2, 1863)
: After Stuart arrived in Gettysburg, he ordered Wade Hampton to take a position to cover the left rear of the Confederate battle lines. Hampton moved into position astride the Hunterstown Road four miles northeast of town, blocking access for any Union forces that might try to swing around behind Lee's lines. Two brigades of Union cavalry from Judson Kilpatrick’s division under George Armstrong Custer and Elon J. Farnsworth were probing for the end of the Confederate left flank. Custer attacked Hampton on the road between Hunterstown and Gettysburg and Hampton counterattacked. When Farnsworth arrived with his brigade, Hampton did not press his attack, and an artillery duel ensued until dark when Hampton withdrew towards Gettysburg.
; Battle of Williamsport (July 6–16, 1863)
: A series of minor engagements during Lee's retreat toward the Potomac River. Meade pursued Lee, but was unable to attack in force before Lee slipped across the Potomac. The period since July 4 had been very rainy and roads were in bad shape for both sides, but Lee's forces were more motivated to move and stayed ahead of Meade. Confederate cavalry general John D. Imboden, escorting the wagon train of wounded, was cut off by rising flood waters on July 6 and made a bold stand against attacks from Buford and Judson Kilpatrick, relying on the wounded to bear arms in the defense. Meade held a council of war with his subordinates on July 12 and decided to attack Lee on July 14 before he could cross the river to safety. However, the bulk of Lee's army crossed the Potomac at Falling Waters, Maryland, on the night of July 13–14, foiling Meade's plan. Troops from Heth's division screened the crossing and Kilpatrick's cavalry captured about 700 men from the rear guard. Confederate general J. Johnston Pettigrew, who had survived Pickett's Charge, was mortally wounded in this action.
; Battle of Boonsboro (July 8, 1863)
: A clash between cavalry units in the South Mountain passes before Lee crossed the Potomac.
; Battle of Manassas Gap (July 23, 1863)
: Meade's unsuccessful attempt to attack Lee's retreating forces in the Shenandoah Valley. William H. French's assault was poorly coordinated. It pushed the Confederates back, but they slipped away relatively unscathed. On July 24, the Union army occupied Front Royal, but Lee’s army was safely beyond pursuit.
Aftermath
The Gettysburg Campaign represented the final major offensive by Robert E. Lee in the Civil War. From this point on, all combat operations of the Army of Northern Virginia would be in reaction to Union initiatives. Lee suffered over 28,000 casualties, a price very difficult for the Confederacy to pay. And the campaign met none of its major objectives.
Meade received severe criticism for allowing Lee to escape, however, just as George B. McClellan had done after the Battle of Antietam. Under pressure from Lincoln, he launched two campaigns that fall—Bristoe and Mine Run—to attempt to defeat Lee. Both were failures. He would also suffer humiliation at the hands of his political enemies in front of the Congressional Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, questioning his actions at Gettysburg and his failure to defeat Lee at the Potomac.
On November 19, 1863, Abraham Lincoln spoke at the dedication ceremonies for the national cemetery created at the Gettysburg battlefield. His Gettysburg Address redefined the war, named the destruction of slavery as a specific goal, and called for a "new birth of freedom" in the nation.
External links
- [http://www.cr.nps.gov/hps/abpp/battles/bycampgn.htm#East63 National Park Service battle descriptions]
- [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american%20civil%20war/acw%20pages/gettysburg_principal_movements.htm West Point Atlas map of movements in June, 1863]
- [http://www.swcivilwar.com/LeeGettysburg.html General Lee's report on the campaign]
-
firma Muzyczne gry online prace magisterskie hoteles en berlin alojamientos en edimburgo
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