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Chomutov

Chomutov

Statistics
Area:	29.3 km²
Population:	50,359 (2003)
Map
Map of the Czech Republic highlighting Chomutov

Chomutov (German: Komotau) is a city of the Czech Republic, in the Ústí nad Labem Region. left It has an old Gothic Church of St. Catherine, and its town hall was formerly a commandery of the Teutonic Knights. Chomutov was originally a Czech marketplace, but in 1252 it came into the possession of the Teutonic Order and was completely Germanized. In 1396 it received a town charter and in 1416 the knights sold both town and lordship to Wenceslaus IV. On March 16, 1421, the town was stormed by the Taborites, sacked and burned. After several changes of ownership, Chomutov came in 1588 to Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits here, which led to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the over-lord. In 1594 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town purchased its freedom and was created a royal city.

External links

- [http://www.chomutov-mesto.cz/e_index.asp http://www.chomutov-mesto.cz/e_index.asp] - Official site of Chomutov
- [http://www.mujchomutov.cz/ http://www.mujchomutov.cz/] - Culture, sport and amusement in Chomutov
- [http://zoopark.default.cz/ http://zoopark.default.cz/] - Chomutov ZOO Category:Cities and towns in the Czech Republic Category:Chomutov District

Statistics of regions and cities in Czech Republic

This article lists sources for statistics about Czech Republic.

Czech Statistical Office

Czech Statistical Office [http://www.czso.cz] (Czech: Český statistický úřad) is state institution responsible to provide official data about Czech Republic. Among others they include number of inhabitants, age structure, employment, inflation rate, foreign trade and other macro- and micro-economic statistics. Historical data are provided, including graphs, as well as trends analysis. All information is available for free in Czech and English language. The Office is probably the most authoritative and up-to-date source of data (although it made and then corrected a few large mistakes with macroeconomic statistics).
- [http://www.czso.cz Official website]
- [http://www.czso.cz/eng/redakce.nsf/i/home English version of official website]

Websites of regions and cities

Every region, almost every city and many villages in Czech Republic has its own website. These websites are not coordinated in style or structure. No comprehensive list of such websites exists but usually they can be found quickly by Google. Data provided on these websites may be obsolete.

Biographies

The links bellow specialize on biographies of people living in Czech lands (all texts in Czech language).
- [http://www.libri.cz/databaze/kdo20 Encyclopedia "Who was who in Czech lands"]
- [http://zivotopisyonline.cz/ Detailed online biographies]
- [http://www.math.muni.cz/math/biografie/ Biographies of mathematicians]
- [http://www.musicologica.cz/slovnik/ Contains biographies of musicians]
- [http://wtd.vlada.cz/ Short biographies of prime ministers since 1918, also lists of government members (search must be used)]

Other sources

- [http://www.czech.cz/ http://www.czech.cz/] All kinds of overview information. (Official site for the Czech Republic by Ministry of Foreign Affairs.)
- [http://www.psp.cz/docs/ http://www.psp.cz/docs/] Documents from Parliament of Czech Republic and its predecessors since 1861 (in Czech).
- [http://www.volby.cz/ http://www.volby.cz/] Election results since 1996 (in Czech).
- [http://www.flagquest.com/FOTW/flags/cz.html http://www.flagquest.com] Flags, Coats of Arms. Category:Geography of the Czech Republic Category:Czech society

Square kilometre

A square metre (US spelling: square meter) is by definition the area enclosed by a square with sides each 1 metre long. It is the SI unit of area. It is abbreviated m². A square metre is equal to:
- 0.000 001 square kilometre (km²)
- 10 000 square centimetres (cm²)
- 0.000 1 hectares
- 0.01 ares
- 0.000 247 105 381 acres
- 1.195 990 square yards
- 10.763 911 square feet
- 1,550.003 1 square inches

Square kilometre

1 km² is equal to:
- the area of a square measuring 1 kilometre on each side
- 1,000,000 m²
- 100 hectares
- 0.386 102 square miles (statute)
- 247.105 381 acres Conversely:
- 1 m² = 0.000 001 km²
- 1 hectare = 0.01 km²
- 1 square mile = 2.589 988 km²
- 1 acre = 0.004 047 km² Note: "km²" means square kilometre and not kilo–square metre. For example, 3 km² is equal to 3 000 000 m² and not to 3 000 m².

Square megametre

Square megametres are not widely used; however, there are a number of "megametre fans" who think that this unit is very convenient for measuring oceans and continents. 1 Mm² is equal to:
- the area of a square measuring 1 megametre on each side
- 1,000,000,000,000 m²
- 100,000,000 hectares
- 1,000,000 km²

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic (Czech: Česká republika ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country has borders with Poland to the north, Germany to the northwest and west, Austria to the south, and Slovakia to the east. Historic Prague (Czech: Praha), a major tourist attraction, is its capital and largest city. Other major cities include Brno, Ostrava, Zlín, Plzeň, Pardubice, Hradec Králové, České Budějovice, Liberec, Olomouc, and Ústí nad Labem. The country is composed of two older regions, Bohemia and Moravia, and part of a third one, Silesia. As of May 1, 2004, it is a member state of the European Union. The Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1993 announced that the name Czechia (Czech: Česko) is to be used in all situations other than formal official documents and the full names of government institutions [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/cesko2.htm], [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/cesko1.htm], but this has not caught on in English usage. See also: Czech lands.

History

Main article: History of the Czech lands From prehistoric times, archaeologists have found evidence of human settlers in the area. From the 3rd century BC Celtic migrations, the Boii (see Bohemia) and later in the 1st century Germanic tribes of Marcomanni and Quadi settled there. During the Migration Period of ca. the 5th century, many Germanic tribes moved westward and southward out of Central Europe. In an equally signifcant migration, Slavic people from the Black Sea and Carpathian regions settled in the newly emptied lands (a movement that was also stimulated by the onslaught of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe: Huns, Avars, Bulgars and Magyars). Following in the Germans' wake, they moved southward into Bohemia, Moravia, and much of present day Austria. This movement marked the Slavs' emergence from historical obscurity. During the 7th century the Frankish merchant Samo, supporting the Slavs fighting their Avar rulers, became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe. The Moravian principality arose in the 8th century (see under Great_Moravia). The Czech state emerged in the late 9th century when it was unified by the Přemyslids. The kingdom of Bohemia was a significant local power, but religious conflicts such as the 15th century Hussite Wars and the 17th century Thirty Years War were devastating. It later came under the Habsburg influence and became part of Austria-Hungary. Following the collapse of this empire after World War I, the Czechs and neighbouring Slovaks joined together and formed the independent republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918. This new country contained a large German minority, which would lead to the dissolution of Czechoslovakia when Germany successfully annexed the minority through the Munich Agreement in 1938, and Slovakia gained greater autonomy, with the state renamed "Czecho-Slovakia". Slovakia broke away further in 1939 and the remaining Czech state was occupied by the Germans who installed a puppet-regime explicitly styled Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, where the Czech President and Prime Minister were de facto subordinate to the nazi Reichsprotektor ('imperial protector'). After World War II, a reconstituted Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere of influence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended the efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize party rule and create "socialism with a human face" during the Prague Spring. In 1989, Czechoslovakia regained its "freedom" through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution". On January 1, 1993, the country peacefully split in two, creating independent Czech and Slovak republics. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.

Politics

Main article: Politics of the Czech Republic According to its constitution the Czech Republic is a parliamentary democracy, whose head of state is a president, indirectly elected every five years by the parliament. The president is also granted specific powers such as the right to nominate Constitutional Court judges, dissolve parliament under certain conditions, complete immunity, and enact a veto on legislation. He also appoints the prime minister, who sets the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, as well the other members of the cabinet on a proposal by the prime minister. The Czech parliament (Parlament) is bicameral, with a Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecká sněmovna) and a Senate (Senát). The 200 Chamber delegates are elected for 4-year terms, on the basis of proportional representation. The 81 members of the Czech Senate serve for 6-year terms with one-third being elected every 2 years on the basis of two-round majority voting. The country's highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president, and its members serve 10-year terms.

Regions

Main article: Regions of the Czech Republic; see also: [http://www.czech.cz/index.php?section=1&menu=5 Overview of regions in Czech Republic] The Czech Republic consists of 13 regions (kraje, singular - kraj) and one capital city (hlavní město), marked by a
- : Regions of the Czech Republic

Region	Capital	color
Prague - (Praha)
Central Bohemian Region (Středočeský kraj)	its offices are located in Prague (Praha)
South Bohemian Region (Jihočeský kraj)	České Budějovice
Plzeň Region (Plzeňský kraj)	Plzeň
Carlsbad Region (Karlovarský kraj)	Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad)
Ústí nad Labem Region (Ústecký kraj)	Ústí nad Labem
Liberec Region (Liberecký kraj)	Liberec
Hradec Králové Region (Královéhradecký kraj)	Hradec Králové
Pardubice Region (Pardubický kraj)	Pardubice
Olomouc Region (Olomoucký kraj)	Olomouc
Moravian-Silesian Region (Moravskoslezský kraj)	Ostrava
South Moravian Region (Jihomoravský kraj)	Brno
Zlín Region (Zlínský kraj)	Zlín
Vysočina Region (Vysočina)	Jihlava

Geography

Main article: Geography of the Czech Republic Geography of the Czech Republic The Czech landscape is quite varied; Bohemia to the west consists of a basin, drained by the Elbe (Czech: Labe) and Vltava rivers, surrounded by mostly low mountains such as the Sudeten with its part Krkonoše, where one also finds the highest point in the country, the Sněžka at 1,602 m. Moravia, the eastern part, is also quite hilly and is drained predominantly by the Morava river, but also contains the source of the Oder (Czech: Odra) river. Water from the landlocked Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Black Sea. The local climate is temperate with warm summers and cold, cloudy, humid winters, typified by a mixture of maritime and continental influences.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Czech Republic One of the most stable and prosperous of the post-Communist states, the Czech Republic has been recovering from recession since mid-1999. Growth in 2000-2001 was led by exports to the EU, especially Germany, and foreign investment, while domestic demand is reviving. The rate of corruption remains one of the highest among OECD countries. Uncomfortably high fiscal and current account deficits could be future problems. Moves to complete banking, telecommunications, and energy privatisation will add to foreign investment, while intensified restructuring among large enterprises and banks and improvements in the financial sector should strengthen output growth. The Czech government has expressed a desire to adopt the euro currency in 2010, but the introduction of the currency is currently only in the early planning stages.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the Czech Republic The majority of the inhabitants of the Czech Republic (95%) are ethnically Czech and speak Czech, a member of the Slavic languages. Other ethnic groups include Slovaks, Germans, Roma, Hungarians, Ukrainians and Poles. After the 1993 division, some Slovaks remained in the Czech Republic and comprise roughly 2% of the current population. The border between the Czechia and Slovakia is open for citizens of the former Czechoslovakia. Given the massive rise of tourism in Prague, English is becoming widely popular among business-owners and public servants. Despite the very visible presence of cathedrals and church buildings all over the country, the majority of Czechs (59%) are agnostics or atheists. Significant religious groups include Roman Catholics (27%), Protestants (1.2%), and Czechoslovak Hussites (1%).

Culture

- Cinema of the Czech Republic
- Famous Czech People
- Literature of the Czech Republic
- Music of the Czech Republic
- National Theatre (Prague)
- Czech TV
- Czech cuisine

International rankings

- Human Development Index 2003: Rank 31st out of 177 countries.
- Index of Economic Freedom 2005: Rank 33rd out of 155 countries.
- Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2005: Rank 9th out of 167 countries.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in the Czech Republic
- Foreign relations of the Czech Republic
- Junák
- List of cities in the Czech Republic
- List of postal codes in the Czech Republic
- List of Czech Republic-related topics
- Military of the Czech Republic
- Public holidays in the Czech Republic
- Tourism in the Czech Republic
- Transportation in the Czech Republic
- Spa towns in the Czech Republic

Reference

- Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.

External links

- [http://www.psp.cz/cgi-bin/eng Chamber of Deputies website], in English
- [http://www.ceskenoviny.cz/news/ Czech Press Agency news in English]
- [http://www.czechtourism.com/index.php?lang=3 CzechTourism] - governmental agency aimed at promoting tourism in the Czech Republic
- [http://www.vlada.cz/1250/eng/aktuality.htm Government website], in English
- [http://www.Czech.cz Official Czech portal]
- [http://portal.gov.cz/wps/portal/_s.155/5906?lng=en Portal of the Public Administration of Czech Republic]
- [http://www.slackertravel.com/pictures/Czech_Republic/czechrepublic.html Pictures of the Czech Republic] - from slackertravel.com
- [http://www.praguemonitor.com/ Prague Daily Monitor] - Czech news in English
- [http://www.praguepost.com/ Prague Post] - English-language newsweekly
- [http://www.hrad.cz/ Presidential website], click for a pop-up overview of English-language content
- [http://radio.cz/en/ Radio Prague] - website of the English service of Czech Radio
- [http://www.senat.cz/index-eng.php Senate website], in English
- [http://www.czechforum.net Czech Forum], about all the different aspects of the Czech Republic
- Czech Republic at Wikitravel - share your tourist experience.
- [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/czech/indexczech.asp Czech R. economy and business indicators] Czech Republic key Data on Taxes and Income Tax. Category:European Union member states Category:Landlocked countries zh-min-nan:Česko ko:체코 ms:Republik Czech ja:チェコ simple:Czech Republic th:สาธารณรัฐเช็ก fiu-vro:Tsehhi

Usti nad Labem Region

Statistics
Capital:	Ústí nad Labem
Area:	5,335 km²
Population:	819,712 (2002)
Map
Map of the Czech Republic highlighting the Usti nad Labem Region

Ústí nad Labem Region (Czech: Ústecký kraj) is an administrative unit (Czech: kraj) of the Czech Republic, located in the north-western part of its historical region of Bohemia. It is named after its capital Ústí nad Labem.

Cities of the Ustí nad Labem region

- Bílina
- Chomutov
- Děčín
- Kadaň
- Louny
- Lovosice
- Litoměřice
- Most
- Teplice
- Terezín
- Ústí nad Labem
- Žatec

Villages of the Usti nad Labem region

- Srbská Kamenice, site of JAT Yugoslav Flight 364 crash in 1972

Places of interest

- The Říp Mountain
- Pravcicka brana - Prebischtor

External links

- [http://www.kr-ustecky.cz/e_index.asp Official website]
- [http://www.czech.cz/index.php?section=1&menu=5&action=text&id=151 Region statistics]

Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor

Wenceslaus (German: Wenzel, Czech: Václav IV; sometimes known as "the Drunkard") (February 26, 1361 – August 16 1419), of the house of Luxembourg, was king of Bohemia from 1378 to his death; until 1400, he also headed the Holy Roman Empire (as "King of the Romans"), and he continued to claim the title after his removal from that role. Wenceslaus succeeded his father in both roles: Charles IV had been elected Holy Roman King and, in the expected course of things, crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope, but Wenceslaus never received the imperial title; the Bohemian title came to Wenceslaus by inheritance as Charles's son. Accusing Wenceslaus of devoting far more attention to his Bohemian than to his German duties, and of weakness in agreeing with Charles VI of France to end their support of rival Popes, the princes of the German states deposed him as King in August 1400 in favour of Rupert III, Count Palatine of the Rhine, though Wenceslaus refused to acknowledge this successor's decade-long reign. As King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, until his death in 1419, he came into repeated conflict with the nobility, and sought to protect the religious reformer Jan Hus and his followers against the demands of the established Church for their suppression as heretics. Hus was executed in Constance in 1415, and the rest of Wenceslaus's reign in Bohemia featured precursors of the Hussite Wars that would follow his death.

Publications

- Thomas Lindner, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern, volume ii, (Stuttgart, 1893) Category:Bohemian monarchs Category:people from Luxembourg Category:1361 births Category:1419 deaths ja:ヴェンツェル (神聖ローマ皇帝)

Jesuits

The Society of Jesus (Societas Iesu/Jesu (S.J.) in Latin) is a Christian religious order of the Roman Catholic Church in direct service to the Pope. Its members, known as Jesuits since the Protestant Reformation, have been called "Footsoldiers of the Pope" in part because the Society's founder, Saint Ignatius of Loyola, was a Basque nobleman and soldier before his conversion. Today, Jesuits number over 20,000 and comprise the largest religious order in the Catholic Church. Jesuit priests and brothers are engaged in ministries in 112 nations on six continents. Their work is focused on education and intellectual contributions, primarily at colleges and universities, as well as missionary work and ministry in human rights and social justice. The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and is led by a Superior General, presently Peter Hans Kolvenbach. The General Curia of the Society is headquartered in Rome. Its historic complex of buildings includes the Church of the Gesu, the Jesuit Mother Church.

Foundation

Mother Church On August 15, 1534, Ignatius (born Iñigo López de Loyola) and six other students (Francis Xavier, a fellow Basque, Alfonso Salmeron, James Lainez, and Nicholas Bobadilla, Spaniards, Peter Faber from France and Simon Rodrigues, a Portuguese) met in Montmartre outside Paris, probably near the modern Chapel of St Denys, Rue Antoinette, and binding themselves by a vow of poverty and chastity, founded the Society of Jesus – to "enter upon hospital and missionary work in Jerusalem, or to go without questioning wherever the pope might direct". In 1537 they travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order. Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. They were ordained at Venice by the bishop of Arbe (June 24). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy, as the renewed war between the emperor, Venice, the pope and the Ottoman Empire rendered any journey to Jerusalem inadvisable. With Faber and Lainez, Ignatius made his way to Rome in October 1538, to have the pope approve the constitution of the new order. A congregation of cardinals reported favorably upon the constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis (September 27, 1540), but limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Injunctum nobis (March 14, 1543). Ignatius was chosen as the first superior-general. He sent his companions as missionaries around Europe to create schools, colleges, and seminaries. Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, adopted in 1554, which created a monarchical organization and stressed absolute self-abnegation and obedience to Pope and superiors (perinde ac cadaver, "[well-disciplined] like a corpse" as Ignatius put it). His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam ("for the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things considered normally indifferent. The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support.

The name "Jesuit"

The term "Jesuit" (of fifteenth-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the Society in reproach (1544-52), and was never employed by its founder, though members and friends of the Society in time accepted the name in its positive meaning.

Early works

52 The Jesuits were founded just before the Counter-Reformation, a movement whose purpose was to reform the Roman Catholic Church from within and to counter the Protestant Reformers, whose teachings were spreading throughout Catholic Europe. As part of their service to the Roman Church, the Jesuits encouraged people to continue their obedience both to scripture and also Roman Catholic doctrine. Ignatius himself used hyperbole when he wrote the following sentence: :"I will believe that the white that I see is black if the hierarchical Church so defines it." But his hyperbole relativizes propositional claims defined by the hierarchical Church. For him, the important things in life are not propositional definitions, but the spiritual movements within oneself. Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical Church was in dire need of reform, and some of their greatest struggles were against the corruption, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Roman Catholic Church. As a result, in spite of their loyalty, Ignatius and his successors often tangled with the pope and the Roman Catholic Curia. Over the 450 years since its founding, the Society has both been called the papal "elite troops" and been forced into suppression. St. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the Church had to begin with the conversion of an individual’s heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion has been the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the life of Christ. During this period, they meet regularly with a spiritual director, who helps them understand whatever call or message God has offered in their meditations. The retreat follows a Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive pattern in the tradition of the mysticism of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life, and to use it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the Church. The Jesuits’ contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought. In addition to teaching faith, the Ratio Studiorum emphasized the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centers for the training of lawyers and public officials. The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Following the Roman Catholic tradition that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. The Jesuits were able to obtain significant influence in the Early Modern Period because Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to the Kings of the time. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living in community, saying the divine office together, etc.) allowed them to be flexible to meet the needs of the people at the time.

Expansion

divine office Early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. This was removed in 1587, however, due to fears over their growing influence. Francis Xavier arrived in Goa, in Western India in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. He passed away after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. Under Portuguese royal patronage, the order thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded its activities to education and healthcare. On 17 December 1760, Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal expelled the Jesuits from India. Two Jesuit missionaries, Gruber and D'Orville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661. Jesuit missions in Latin America were very controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal, where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Indians and slavery. Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay they formed Christian-Indian city-states, called reductions (Spanish Reducciones). These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. It is partly because the Jesuits protected the Indians whom certain Spanish and Portuguese colonizers wanted to enslave that the Society of Jesus was suppressed. Jesuit priests such as Manoel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion and education of Indian nations Jesuit mission in China brought about the Chinese Rites controversy in the early 18th century. Jesuit scholars working in these foreign missions to the "heathens" were very important in understanding their unknown languages and strived for producing Latinicized grammars and dictionaries, the first organized efforts at linguistics. This was done, for instance, for Japanese (see Nippo jisho also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, a Japanese-Portuguese dictionary written 1603) and Tupi-Guarani (a language group of South American aborigines).

Suppression and Restoration

Tupi-Guarani See article Suppression of the Jesuits The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the Society's defender, Pope Clement XIII. Following a decree signed by Pope Clement XIV in July 1773, the Jesuits were suppressed in all countries (other than Russia, where the Russian Orthodox government refused to recognize papal authority). Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish western provinces of the Russian Empire, the Society was able to maintain its legal existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the 19th century. In the United States, 22 of the Society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. Some claim that the experience of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of Papal authority within the Church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870. The 20th century witnessed both aspects of growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a later 20th century focus on establishing of Jesuit secondary schools in inner-city areas. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray, SJ, was called one of the "architects of the Second Vatican Council" and drafted what eventually became the council's endorsement of religious freedom,[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html Dignitatis Humanae Personae].

Jesuits today

Second Vatican Council in Chicago, Illinois.]] Second Vatican Council The Jesuits today represent the largest religious order in the Catholic Church, with over 20,000 members serving in 112 nations on six continents. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Peter Hans Kolvenbach. The Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the United States alone, it maintains over 50 colleges, universities and high schools. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning and life-long spiritual and intellectual growth.[http://www.staloysius.nsw.edu.au/about/mission.asp] In Latin America, Jesuits have had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement which has been highly controversial in the Catholic theological community, condemned by Pope John Paul II on several fundamental aspects. Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. Nearly a decade after the assassination of Bishop Oscar Romero, on November 16, 1989, six Jesuit priests; Ignacio Ellacuria, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martin-Baro, Joaquin Lopez y Lopez, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado Lopez; their housekeeper, Elba Ramos, and her daughter, Celia Marisela Ramos, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador. Due to their unwavering defense of the poor, they had been labeled as subversives by the Salvadorian government. The assassinations galvanized the Society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, where the assassins were trained under US government sponsorship. In 2002, Boston College president William P. Leahy, SJ, initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the Church "from crisis to renewal." The initiative has provided the Society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Roman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the laity. In April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, SJ, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine America, resigned at the request of the Society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as HIV/AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality and the right of life for the unborn. Reese is currently on a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University.

Controversies

The Jesuits have frequently been described by Catholic and Protestant enemies as engaged in various conspiracies. They have also been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for the unjustifiable. In several languages, "Jesuit" or "Jesuitical" therefore acquired a secondary meaning of "devious." The Jesuits have also been targeted by many anti-Catholics like Jack Chick, Avro Manhattan, and Alberto Rivera. Among other things they point to the text of an extreme oath allegedly taken by advanced members of the order, which essentially justifies any action including infiltration of other faiths as legitimate in the name of the "greater good". The Jesuits have been accused of murdering Popes and presidents, causing wars, and toppling governments. There is also a claim common among many anti-Catholics that the Jesuit Superior General rules the Vatican behind the scenes. Proving these claims would be difficult, given the secrecy with which both the Vatican and the Jesuits conduct their affairs. In any event, the supposed "power behind the throne" is now thought to be wielded by another order, Opus Dei, with the Jesuits having lost much of their influence.

Famous Jesuits

Opus Dei] Opus Dei] Opus Dei] Opus Dei Opus Dei] Among many distinguished early Jesuits was St. Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone in Catholic history before him. Other famous Jesuits include:
- José de Acosta, Spanish Historian,Natural and Moral History of the Indies
- Francois d'Aguillon, Belgian Mathematician and Physicist
- Giulio Alenio, Italian Missionary to China, "Confucius of the West"
- Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, French Missionary to China
- José de Anchieta, founder of Sao Paulo, Brazil
- Juan Andres, Prolific 18th Century Spanish Writer
- Pedro Arrupe, Former Superior General of the Society
- Xabier Arzalluz, Spanish Basque leader, later left the Society
- Jakob Balde, German latinist, court chaplain to Maximillian I
- Abbé Augustin Barruél, French writer
- St. Robert Bellarmine, a Doctor of the Catholic Church
- St. John Berchmans, Jesuit Seminarian from Holland
- Daniel Berrigan, American Political Activist
- St. Andrew Bobola , Polish Missionary, killed by the Cossacks
- Ruđer Josip Bošković (aka Roger Boscovich), Croatian atomic physicist, forerunner of Faraday
- Giovanni Botero, Italian thinker, discharged from the Society in 1579
- Louis Bourdaloue, French Preacher and Orator
- St. Edmund Campion, English martyr
- St. Petrus Canisius, Doctor of the Church
- John Carroll, first bishop of the United States
- Giuseppe Castiglione, artist to Chinese Emperor
- Michel de Certeau, French Cultural Theorist
- St. Peter Claver, Saint to the Slave Ships in South America
- Frederick Copleston, English writer of a definative History of Western Philosophy (vol 1-12)
- Jacques Courtois, French Painter in 17th Century
- John Dear, American Jesuit Peace Activist and Spiritual Author
- Horacio De La Costa Philippine historian and the first Filipino Jesuit provincial superior in the Philippines
- Jeremiah Delgado
- Alfred Delp, German Jesuit hanged for his opposition to Hitler
- Alexandre de Rhodes, missionary to Vietnam
- Robert Drinan, only Catholic priest ever to serve in the US Congress
- Avery Dulles, American theologian and cardinal
- Jacques Dupuis, Belgian theologian and expert on Inter-Religious Diologue
- Ignacio Ellacuría, Rector of University of Central America, El Salvador - shot dead in 1989
- Peter Faber, Highly Esteemed companion of Ignatius, Apostle of Germany
- Father Leonard Feeney, Controversial Ultra-Conservative American Jesuit
- Luis Frois, Portugese Missionary to Japan, wrote History of Japan
- St. Henry Garnett, First English Provincial, executed after being falsely implicated in the 'Gunpowder Plot'
- Heiner Geißler,
- St. Aloysius Gonzaga
- Gerard Manley Hopkins, renowned English poet
- St. Alberto Hurtado, Chilean social reformer
- Eusebio Francisco Kino
- Athanasius Kircher
- Bernard Lonergan, Canadian philosopher and theologian
- Amando López
- Joaquín López y López
- Louis Maimbourg
- Ignacio Martín-Baró
- Segundo Montes
- Juan Ramón Moreno
- Jacques Marquette
- Anthony de Mello, controversial Indian Spiritual Writer
- John Courtney Murray, drafter of the Second Vatican Council
- Roberto de Nobili, missionary to India
- Manoel da Nóbrega, Portuguese Jesuit, founder of Rio De Janeiro, Brazil
- Gian Paolo Oliva, General of the Order, 1664–1681
- Walter J. Ong, American cultural historian and spiritual writer
- Karl Rahner, one of the most significant 20th century theologians
- Matteo Ricci, famed missionary to China
- St. José María Rubio, Spanish Jesuit, canonised by the late Pope John Paul II in 2003
- Thomas Ewing Sherman, son of a US Civil War Union Army Major General William T. Sherman
- Ignacije Szentmartony, Croatian mathematician and Astronomer
- Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, French paleontologist and spiritual writer
- Frans Jozef van Beeck, theologian
- José María Vélaz, founder of Fe y Alegria.
- Ferdinand Verbiest, Belgian missionary to China
- Johann Adam Schall von Bell, missionary to China
- Oswald von Nell-Breuning
- Edmund A. Walsh, founder of the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University
- Alessandro Valignano, Italian Jesuit, missionary to Japan and East Asia
- John II Casimir Vasa, king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
- Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder, an expert in the Old Javanese language and literature
- Antonio Vieira, (1608-1697), missionary and diplomat.
- Romeo Intengan, Philippine Jesuit and surgeon by training, jailed during the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos for his views against the dictatorship
- James Reuter, considered as the father of Catholic mass communications in the Philippines
- Jaime Bulatao, professor of psychology at Ateneo de Manila University in the Philippines, considered as the father of "Filipino psychology" See also: the Canadian Martyrs and Jesuit China missions
Note: Father Gabriel Richard briefly was in the US Congress in the 1820s, but as a territorial representative. Under guidelines released by Pope John Paul II, Catholic clergy are expected not to serve in positions of civil authority.

Jesuit institutions

Jesuits have founded and/or managed a number of institutions, notably universities, which have produced many well-known alumni. The most prominent of these universities are in the United States where they are organized as the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities. In Latin America they are organized in the Asociación de Universidades Confiadas a la Compañía de Jesús en América Latina (Association of Universities Entrusted to the Jesuits in Latin America). In the Philippines, the Jesuit universities are grouped under the Jesuit University System in the Philippines. The system groups Ateneo de Manila University, Ateneo de Naga University, Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan, Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Ateneo de Davao University. An affiliated grouping, Mindanao Consortium of Ateneo Universities, groups all of the Jesuit universities located in Mindanao island with the purpose of promoting Muslim-Christian unity and dialogue as well as to exchange knowledge and expertise in various academic fields.

Jesuit buildings

Mindanao Many buildings and ruins give witness to the order's construction activity world-wide. Among these are:
- Ruins of Saint Paul's Cathedral in Macau
- Ruins of San Ignacio Church in the Philippines
- Basilica of Bom Jesus near Panaji, Goa in India
- Church of the Gesu in Rome, Italy
- Ateneo de Manila University Church of the Gesu in the Philippines
- La Santisima Trinidad de Parana in Paraguay

External links

Ratio Studiorum of the Society of Jesus in Rome]]

Jesuit Documents

- [http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/ulib/digi/ratio/ratiohome.html The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599]
- [http://duels.doshisha.ac.jp:88/denshika/jesuit/139/imgidx139.html The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan, 1591-1610]
- [http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/rvp/pubaf/05/letter-G8.pdf Letter of the Jesuit Social Justice Secretariat to the leaders of the G8, July 2005]

Sites

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14081a.htm J.H. Pollen, "The Jesuits (Society of Jesus)"] in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1912)
- [http://www.ateneo.net/ Jesuit University system in the Philippines]
- [http://www.jesuits.ca/ Jesuits in Canada]
- [http://www.jesuits.ph/ Jesuits in the Philippines]
- [http://www.jesuit.org/ United States Jesuit Conference]
- [http://www.jesuitvolunteers.org/ Jesuit Volunteers of America]
- [http://www.jesref.org/ Jesuit Refugee Service]
- [http://www.ajcunet.edu/ Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities]
- [http://www.jesuit.org.uk/ Jesuits in the United Kingdom]
- [http://www.jesuit.ie/main/ Jesuits in Ireland]
- [http://www.provindo.org/ Jesuits in Indonesia]
- [http://www.jesuit.org.au/ Jesuits in Australia]
- [http://www.sj.org.za Jesuits in South Africa]
- [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mission_(movie) The Mission(Movie)]: The Mission is a 1986 film which tells the story of a Spanish Jesuit priest who goes into the South American jungle to convert the Native Americans, who must defend his charges against the cruelty of Portuguese colonials.
- [http://www.sacredspace.ie Sacred Space]: famous Jesuit prayer site, in 18 different languages, maintained by Jesuits of the Irish Province

Media

- [http://www.jesuits-chi.org/videos/A_Millenium_Perspective.wmv Documentary by the Society of Jesus Province of Chicago (Windows Media Player)]
- [http://www.jesuitswisprov.org/jesuits_video.htm Contemporary Jesuits speak about their vocations, the vows, and the mission of the Society of Jesus (Real Player)] zh-min-nan:Iâ-so·-hōe ko:예수회 ja:イエズス会

Protestant

Protestantism is a movement within Christianity, representing a split from within the Roman Catholic Church during the mid-to-late Renaissance in Europe —a period known as the Protestant Reformation. Commonly considered one of the three major branches of Christianity (along with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy), the term "Protestant" represents a diverse range of theological and social perspectives, churches and related organizations.

Definition and origins

Originally, "protestant" meant "to be a witness for something" rather than "to be against something", as the current popular interpretation of the word seems to imply. The prefix "pro" means "for" in Latin. The Latin adjective "protestans" refers to "a person who gives public testimony for something or who proves or demonstrates something." The term Protestant originally applied to the group of princes and imperial cities who "protested" the decision by the 1529 Diet of Speyer to reverse course, and enforce the 1521 Edict of Worms. The 1521 edict forbade Lutheran teachings within the Holy Roman Empire. The 1526 session of the Diet had agreed to toleration of Lutheran teachings (on the basis of Cuius regio, eius religio) until a General Council could be held to settle the question, but by 1529, the Catholic forces felt they had gathered enough power to end the toleration without waiting for a Council. In a broader sense of the word, Protestant began to be used as the collective name for a sudden movement of separation from the Roman Catholic Church, the beginning of which is ordinarily connected with the public disputes raised by Martin Luther. Later, John Calvin, French theologian among the Swiss; Zwinglian, and Reformed churches figured prominently in a movement that embraced a wider, more international diversity of churches. A third major branch of the Reformation, which encountered conflict with the Catholics, as well as with the Lutherans and the Reformed, is sometimes called the Radical Reformation. Some Western, non-Catholic, groups are labeled as Protestant (such as the Religious Society of Friends, for example), even if the sect acknowledges no historical connection to Luther, Calvin or the Roman Catholic Church. In German-speaking and Scandinavian lands, the word "Protestant" still refers to Lutheran churches in contrast to Reformed churches, while the common designation for all churches originating from the Reformation is "Evangelical". As an intellectual movement, Protestantism grew out of the Renaissance and universities, attracting some learned intellectuals, as well as politicians, professionals, and skilled tradesmen and artisans. The new technology of the printing press allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly, as well as aiding in the dissemination of translations of the Bible in native tongues. Nascent Protestant social ideals of liberty of conscience, and individual freedom, were formed through continuous confrontation with the authority of the Bishop of Rome, and the hierarchy of the Catholic priesthood. The Protestant movement away from the constraints of tradition, toward greater emphasis on individual conscience, anticipated later developments of democratization, and the so-called "Enlightenment" of later centuries.

Basic theological tenets of the Reformation

During the Reformation, several Latin slogans emerged, illustrating the Reformers' concern that the authorities of the Church had distorted the message of justification before God, and salvation in Jesus Christ. The Reformers believed it was necessary to return to the simplicity of the Gospel in terms of the issues designated by these slogans. A protestant is a member or adherent of any denomination of the Western Christian church that rejects papal authority and some fundamental Roman Catholic doctrines, and believes in justification by faith.

The Solas

There were five Solas, four discussed here. The fifth, Soli deo gloria (to God alone the glory), was intended to underlie the other four. These slogans essentially became rallying cries to challenge the problems the Reformers believed they had identified, which are:
- Solus Christus: Christ alone. :The Protestants characterized the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of meritorious works, and the Roman idea of a treasury of the merits of saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man.
- Sola scriptura: Scripture alone. :Protestants believed that the Roman Catholic church obscured the teaching of the Bible, and undermined its authority, by following Tradition, regardless of whether it over-ruled or added to the doctrines of Scripture.
- Sola fide: Faith alone. :The Protestants characterized the Roman Catholic concept of meritorious works, of penance and indulgences, masses for the dead, the treasury of the merits of saints and martyrs, a ministering priesthood who hears confessions, and purgatory, as reliance upon other means for justification, in addition to faith in Jesus and his work on the cross.
- Sola gratia: Grace alone. :The Roman Catholic view of the means of salvation was believed by the Protestants to be a mixture of reliance upon the grace of God, and confidence in the merits of one's own works, performed in love. The Reformers posited that salvation is entirely comprehended in God's gifts, (i.e. God's act of free grace) dispensed by the Holy Spirit according to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and indeed, that the believer is accepted without any regard for the merit of his works - for no one deserves salvation. Naturally, it proved easier to advocate separation from the Catholic Church (as the English Puritan "separatists" eventually did), than to form a single, positively united alternative. Also, the violent reaction by the Catholic leadership towards the Protestants certainly was designed to stamp them out, to make the problem "go away", not to solve it. On the theological front, the Protestant movement soon began to coalesce into several distinct branches. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper.

Real presence in the Lord's Supper

Although early Protestants were in general agreement against the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation, which teaches that the substance of the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass is transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ (see Eucharist), with the subsequent logic that the wafer (being Christ), became worthy of worship; they disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which Christ is present in Holy Communion.
- Lutherans hold to an understanding closest to that of Real Presence (often characterized by critics by the term, "consubstantiation"), which affirms the true presence of Christ "in, with, and under" the bread and wine. Lutherans point to Jesus' statement, "This IS my body", while refusing to delve past Christ's words in order to describe just how this takes place. Lutheran teaching does, however, insist that Christ is present physically, rather than in a purely "spiritual" sense.
- Reformed teaching concerning the Lord's Supper ranges along the continuum from Calvin to Zwingli. The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the real presence, or sacramental presence, of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which the believer actually partakes of Christ, "but not in a carnal manner". Zwinglians deny that Christ makes himself present to the believer through the elements of the sacrament, but affirm that Christ is united to the believer through the faith toward which the supper is an aid (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism).
- A Protestant holding a popular simplifiction of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ. In Christian theology, as the bread shares identity with Christ (which he calls, "my body"), in an analogous way, the Church shares identity with Him (and also is called "the Body of Christ"). Thus, controversies over the Lord's Supper only initially seem to be about the nature of bread and wine, but are ultimately about the nature of salvation, and therefore secondarily about the nature of the Church. And, indirectly, about the nature of Christ.

Authority

See the articles Lay, Ordained and Priesthood of all believers

Authority in the Church

Most Protestant churches fulfill similar rituals to Catholicism—chiefly baptism, communion, and matrimony—frequently varying or de-formalizing the rites.

Understanding of secular authority

- Lutheran - doctrine of the two kingdoms
- Reformed
- Radical - Anabaptist and peace churches

The Kingdom of God

Later development

Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups.

Pietism 17th Century - Methodist movement 18th century

The German Pietist movement, together with the influence of the Puritan Reformation in England in the 17th century, were important influences upon John Wesley and Methodism, as well as through smaller, new groups such as the Religious Society of Friends ("Quakers") and the Moravian Brotherhood from Germany. The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness Protestant Orthodoxy of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the Holiness movement, which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life.
Evangelicalism 18th Century
Beginning at the end of 18th century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening), took place across denominational lines, which are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, public morality often including Temperance and Abolitionism, de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines.
Pentecostalism 20th Century
Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the 20th century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later "charismatic" movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them.
Modernism 20th Century
Modernism, or Liberalism, does not constitute a rigorous and well-defined school of theology, but is rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology.
Fundamentalism 20th Century
In reaction to liberal Bible critique, Fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States and Canada, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error, and cultural conservatism, as important aspects of the Christian life.
Neo-orthodoxy 20th century
A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called Crisis theology, according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism.
Neo-evangelicalism mid 20th Century
Neo-evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the 20th century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, co-operation among churches, Christian Apologetics, and non-denominational evangelization.
Ecumenism 20th Century
The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, The United Church of Canada and the Uniting Church in Australia. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement.
Protestantism today
Evangelical and Pentecostal Protestantism are currently the fastest growing branches of Christianity in the world today.
Protestant denominations
Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. The actual number of distinct denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be over thirty thousand. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines. According to the World Christian Encyclopedia (2001) by David B. Barrett, et al, there are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries." Every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations.
Protestant families of denominations
Please note that only general families are listed here (tens of thousands of individual denominations exist); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by scholars and the public at large:
- Anabaptist and Baptist
- Anglican / Episcopalian
- Calvinist / Reformed and Presbyterian
- Lutheran
- Methodist / Wesleyan and the Holiness movement
- Pentecostal and Charismatic
- Quakerism
- Restoration movement
Number of Protestants
There are about 590 million Protestants worldwide. These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. 27% of all Christians today are Protestants.
Well-known Protestant and Anglican religious figures
In alphabetical order by century
15th century

- Jan Hus, Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death by the Roman Catholic Church authorities.
16th century

- Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as Arminianism
- Heinrich Bullinger, successor of Zwingli, leading reformed theologian
- John Calvin, French speaking Reformer, theologian, founder of school of thought known as Calvinism
- Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury under Henry VIII, leader of the English Reformation
- John Knox, Scottish Calvinist reformer,
- Martin Luther, German religious reformer, theologian, founder of the Lutheran church in Germany, founder of Lutheranism
- Philipp Melanchthon, early Lutheran leader
- Menno Simons, founder of Mennonitism
- Huldrych Zwingli, founder of Swiss reformed tradition
17th-19th centuries

- Jacob Amman, founder of the Amish church
- Francis Asbury, early bishop of American Methodism
- Jonathan Edwards, American Puritan theologian, Great Awakening reformist preacher, Calvinist
- George Fox, Founder of the Religious Society of Friends
- William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I of England
- Friedrich Schleiermacher, German theologian considered founder of Liberal Christianity
- Joseph Smith, Jr., Self proclaimed Prophet, translator of The Book of Mormon, and founder of Mormonism
- Philipp Jakob Spener, "godfather" of the Pietist movement
- Charles Wesley, Anglican priest, Methodist leader, poet, & hymn writer
- John Wesley, Anglican priest, founder of the Methodist movement
- George Whitefield, Great Awakening reformist preacher
20th century

- Karl Barth, German theologian along with Emil Brunner known for Dialectical theology and Neo-orthodox theology
- Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German theologian, involved in the resistance against Nazism and executed shortly before the end of World War 2
- Jerry Falwell, American evangelist and political activist
- Billy Graham, American evangelist
- Martin Luther King, Jr., peace and civil rights activist
- C. S. Lewis, apologist / fiction writer
- Reinhold Niebuhr, American theologion and ethicist
- Pat Robertson, American charismatic/fundamentalist leader
- Paul Tillich, Lutheran existentialist theologian
- Desmond Tutu, Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, South Africa, peace activist
- John Howard Yoder, Mennonite theologian and ethicist
- Nicky Gumbel, Anglican British evangelist
21st century

- John B. Cobb, theologian, involved in Process Theology
- Franklin Graham, American evangelist (son of Billy Graham)
- Stanley Hauerwas, American Christian theologian and ethicist
See also

- Anti-Catholicism
- Anti-Protestantism
- Protestant Reformation
- Protestant work ethic
- Christian timeline for Renaissance & Reformation
- Christianity
- Christian eschatology
External links
Defense of Protestant Christianity:
- [http://www.ccir.ed.ac.uk/~jad/glb_sola.html Is Sola Scriptura a Protestant Concoction? by Dr. Greg Bahnsen ]
- [http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9508/opinion/leithart.html Why Protestants Still Protest by Peter J. Leithart]
- [http://lionofjudah.tribulationforces.com/world_religions/catholic.html Protestant criticisms of Roman Catholicism]
- [http://www.apologeticsinfo.org/resource.html Apologetics Information Ministry] Criticisms of Protestant Christianity:
- [http://protestantism.blogspot.com/ Anti-protestant analysis]
- [http://catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0097.html Why Only Catholicism Can Make Protestantism Work] by Mark Brumley Miscellaneous:
- [http://catalystresources.org/issues/303balmer.html The Future of American Protestantism] from Catalyst (United Methodist perspective) Category:Reformation Category:Christianity ko:개신교 ms:Protestan ja:プロテスタント

Category:Cities and towns in the Czech Republic

This category contains articles about cities and towns in the Czech Republic. There is a separate category for Villages in the Czech Republic. Category:Czech Republic Czech Republic Czech Republic Category:Geography of the Czech Republic ko:분류:체코의 도시 he:קטגוריה:צ'כיה: ערים ja:Category:チェコの都市

Category:Chomutov District

Chomutov District (in the Czech Republic) is one of seven districts Ústí nad Labem Region consists from. Category:Ústí nad Labem Region

Literatura japoneză

Literatura japoneza se intinde pe aproape doua milenii. Primele opere au fost puternic influentate de literatura chineza dar foarte repede Japonia si-a dezvoltat un stil si o originalite aparte. Cind Japonia s-a deschis catre comertul si schimburile diplomatice cu Vestul in secolul al nouasprezecelea, literatura vestica a avut un efect puternic si i-a influentat vizibil pe scriitorii japonezi. Literatura japoneza se citeste cel mai bine in original, diferentele lingvistice si cultural sunt extrem de importante si cuvintele sau expresiile japoneze nu sunt usor de tradus. Desi autorii japonezi nu sunt la fel de cunoscuti cu cei europeni sau americani, Japonia poseda o traditie literara veche si bogata cu 1.500 de ani de texte scrise.

O foarte scurta istorie

Se poarta o dezbatere in jurul clasificarii perioadelor din literatura japoneza, aceasta e doar o schita extrem de generala.

Literatura antica

Dupa introducerea alfabetului kanji (漢字, lit. "caractere chinezesti) din continentul asiatic, scrisul a devenit posibil pentru ca nu a existat nici un sistem nativ de scriere. Din acest motiv s-a pornit de la limba chineza clasica; mai tirziu caracterele ei au fost adaptate pentru scrierea japoneza si s-a format man'yōgana, prima forma de kana, adica de scriere silabica. Operele create in era Nara include Kojiki (712: o istorie pe jumatate adevarata, pe jumatate mitologica a Japoniei), Nihonshoki (720: o cronica ceva mai acurata in privinta adevarului istoric decit Kojiki), si Man'yōshū (759: o antologie de poezie). Limba folosita in aceste opere difera semnificativ de cea din perioadele urmatoare si in privinta gramaticii si in cea a fonologiei.

Literatura clasica

(Secolul al optulea – Secolul al doisprezecelea) Literatura clasica japoneza se refera la cea produsa in era Heian , care poate fi considerata o era a lui Pericle pentru cultura japoneza, o perioda de inflorire a artei si literaturii. Povestea lui Genji (early 11th century) de Murasaki Shikibu e considerata capodopera fictiunii Heian si unul dintre primele romane. Alte opere importante sunt antologia de poezie waka Kokin Wakashu (905,) si The Pillow Book (990s), ultima scrisa de rivala lui Murasaki Shikibu, Sei Shonagon, un jurnal tratind viata, iubirile, si timpul liber de la curtea Imperiala. Poemul tip iroha a inceput sa fie scris de acum si a devenit standardul pentru ordinea din katakana si hiragana pina la reformele din secolul al nouasprezecelea in era reformelor Meiji. In aceasta perioada curtea imperiala si aristocratia inalta I- au patronat pe poeti. Acestia nu traiau din scris, nu erau profesionisti, ci curteni sau doamne de la curte.

Literatura medievala

(Secolul al treisprezecelea- Secolul al saisprezecelea) O perioada a razboiului civil a ravasit Japonia si tocmai ceasta epoca este reprezentata in Heike Monogatari(1371). Povestea e de fapt istoria luptei dintre doua clanuri, Minamoto si Taira care doresc sa preia controlul Japoniei la sfirsitul secolului al doisprezecelea. Alte opere importante ale perioadei sunt Hōjōki a lui Kamo no Chōmei (1212) si Tsurezuregusa a lui Yoshida Kenko (1331). Scrierea japoneza cu un amestec de alfabete kanji si kana de astazi isi are originea acum. Literatura acestei perioade poarta influentele budismului si a eticii Zen exercitate asupra clasei in emergenta a samurailor. Operele din aceasta era sunt adevarate incursiuni in lumea raporturilor dintre viata si moarte sau exprima remuscarile in urma comiterii unor crime. Alte genuri aparute acum sunt poezia colectiva renga si teatrul NO. Amindoua s-au dezvoltat rapid la jumatatea secolului al patrusprezecelea, in era Muromachi timpurie.

Literatura japoneza pre moderna

(secolul al saptesprezecelea- jumatatea secolului al nouasprezecelea) Literatura din aceasta era a fost scrisa in timpul erei pasnice a dominatiei familiei shogunilor Tokugawa (cunoscuta sub numele de era Edo). Datorita cresterii cerererii de cultura din partea clasei mijlocii si a crest