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Længde

Længde

Der findes mange forskellige enheder for mål af længde. Mange af de ældre længdeenheders omregningsfaktorer er forskellige fra land til land. SI-enheder med evt. tilhørende SI-præfiks er derimod ens overalt:
- SI-enheden for længde:
- Meter. Dette er en officiel anerkendt grundlæggende SI-enhed. Den kan have et SI-præfiks. Se også centi-meter (cm).
- Ikke-SI-enheder i anvendelse i dag:
- Fysik:
- Ångström
- Astronomi:
- AU (Astronomisk enhed).
- Lysår.
- Parsec.
- Mange af følgende ikke-SI-enheder har landeafhængige forskellige omregningsfaktorer til meter:
- Andre i almindelig brug i dag, især i udlandet:
- Fod. 1 fod ca.= 30,48 cm.
- Mil. Der findes flere forskellige mil-længder og typer: Sømil, Svensk sømil, landmil. Engelsk: Nautical mile, mile.
- Tomme. En tomme hedder på engelsk inch og er ca. 2,54 cm.
- Engelsk Mil (engelsk længdeenhed). 1 engelsk Mil = 1/1000 Tomme.
- Wasser alen. 1 wasser alen ca.= 55 cm.
- Yard 1 yard ca.= 91,44 cm.
- Ældre enheder, som ikke anvendes særligt meget i dag:
- Alen.
- Rode. 1 rode ca.= 3,13 meter.

Se også

- tidsenheder, arealenheder, arealmål, rumfangsenheder, rummål, masseenheder, energienheder, vinkelenheder Kategori:Længdeenheder ja:長さ ko:길이

Enhed

: Det metrologiske begreb er behandlet i artiklen måleenhed. En enhed kan beskrives som en af de dele, hvoraf noget består, eller som den mindste del af en større sammenhæng, der kan fungere selvstændigt. Begrebet enheder kendes især fra militæret og fra metrologi (måleteknik). Basale måleenheder er: længde, masse, tid, elektrisk strøm, temperatur, stofmængde og lysstyrke, se Grundlæggende SI-enheder. I sammensætninger, Enheds-, kan der ligge betydninger i retning af ensartet eller skære over én kam, men også overensstemmelse eller samvirke.

Se også

- Enhedskommando
- Enhedspris
- Enhedsskole
- Enhedslisten
- Måleenhed
- SI
- Danske enheder

Eksterne henvisninger

- [http://www.convert-me.com/en/ Units conversion / metric conversion online] ja:単位 simple:Unit

SI-enhed

Ordet si har flere betydninger:
- I romanske lande noden h.
- Si (filter) - Et groft filter.
- SI-enheder måleenheder ifølge det Internationale Enhedssystem (SI).

Kilder/henvisninger

- Lexopen

SI-præfiks

Et SI-præfiks er et præfiks som kan anvendes på enhver SI-enhed. For eksempel ganger præfikset "kilo" med ét tusind, så én kilometer er 1.000 meter og én kilowatt er 1.000 watt. Præfikset "milli" dividerer med ét tusind, så én millimeter er en tusindedel af en meter (der går 1.000 millimeter på en meter); og én milliliter er én tusindedel af en liter. Dét at det samme præfiks kan anvendes på enhver SI-enhed er en af styrkerne af SI systemet. De mest almindelige anvendte præfikser er: : Giga = 10⁹, EN billion eller Europæisk milliard, et tusind millioner : Mega = million : kilo = tusind : centi = en hundrededel : milli = en tusindedel

Komplet SI-præfiks-tabel

Multiplum	Præfiks	Symbol	Navn (USA)	Navn (Dansk)
10²⁴	yotta	Y	EN Septillion	Kvadrillion
10²¹	zetta	Z	EN Sextillion	Tusind Trillioner (Trilliard)
10¹⁸	eksa	E	EN Quintillion	Trillion
10¹⁵	peta	P	EN Quadrillion	Tusind billioner (Billiard)
10¹²	tera	T	EN Trillion	Billion
10⁹	giga	G	EN Billion	Tusind millioner (Milliard)
10⁶	mega	M	Million	Million
10³	kilo	k	Thousand	Tusind
10²	hekto	h	Hundred	Hundrede
10¹	deka	da	Ten	Ti
10^-1	deci	d	Tenth	Tiendedel
10^-2	centi	c	Hundredth	Hundrededel
10^-3	milli	m	Thousandth	Tusindedel
10^-6	mikro	μ	Millionth	Milliontedel
10^-9	nano	n	EN Billionth	Milliardtedel
10^-12	piko	p	EN Trillionth	Billiontedel
10^-15	femto	f	EN Quadrillionth	Billiardtedel
10^-18	atto	a	EN Quintillionth	Trilliontedel
10^-21	zepto	z	EN Sextillionth	Trilliardtedel
10^-24	yokto	y	EN Septillionth	Kvadrilliontedel

Eksempler

- 5 cm = 5 × 10^-2m = 5 × 0,01 m = 0,05 m
- 3 MW = 3 × 10⁶W = 3 × 1.000.000 W = 3.000.000 W

SI-præfiks operatorprioritet

Præfikset har altid højere operatorprioritet end en hvilkensomhelst eksponentiering; derfor betyder km² kvadratkilometer og ikke kilo - kvadratmeter. For eksempel er 3 km² det samme som 3.000.000 m² og ikke 3.000 m² (heller ikke 9.000.000 m²).

Anbefalinger

Det anbefales at anvende præfikser med eksponenter, der er delelige med tre. Hellere '100 meter' end 'en hektometer'. Bemærkelsesværdige undtagelser er centimeter, hektar (hekto-ar), centiliter og 1 dm³ (det samme som rumfanget én liter). Bemærk at det formelle SI-præfiks for 1000 er et lille "k"; det store "K" er forkortelsen for temperaturenheden Kelvin.

Navnenes oprindelse

Betegnelserne for de forskellige antal er for det meste afledt af græsk, men femto og atto er afledt af dansk.

Se også

- Danske enheder, procent, promille, ppm, ppb, ppt, SI-enhed, Navne på store tal Kategori:SI-præfiks ja:SI接頭辞 ko:SI 접두어

SI-enhed

Ordet si har flere betydninger:
- I romanske lande noden h.
- Si (filter) - Et groft filter.
- SI-enheder måleenheder ifølge det Internationale Enhedssystem (SI).

Kilder/henvisninger

- Lexopen

Grundlæggende SI-enheder

En SI-grundenhed er en af de syv grundlæggende fysiske enheder som er defineret i det Internationale Enhedssystem (SI er fransk: Système Internationale). Fra disse syv enheder kan alle andre SI-enheder afledes. De syv grundenheder:

Størrelse	Symbol	Enhed	Symbol	Definition
Længde	l	meter	m	Den distance lyset tilbagelægger i det tomme rum på 1/299 792 458 sekund.
Masse	m	kilogram	kg	Massen af det internationale prototypelod på 1 kg i Paris
Tid	t	sekund	s	Varigheden af 9 192 631 770 svingninger af strålingen fra en ganske bestemt overgang i cæsium-133 atomet.
Elektrisk strøm	I	ampere	A	Den strømstyrke, der giver anledning til en kraftpåvirkning mellem to uendeligt lange parallelle ledere i afstanden 1 m fra hinanden på 2 × 10^-7 N pr. meter.
Termodynamisk temperatur	T	kelvin	K	1/273,16-endedel af den termodynamiske temperatur for vandets triplepunkt, som svarer til 0,01 °C.
Stofmængde	n	mol	mol	Antallet af atomer i 0,012 kg af kulstof-12-isotopen.
Lysstyrke	I_v	candela	cd	Lysstyrken i en given retning af en lyskilde, som udsender monokromatisk lys med en frekvens på 540 × 10¹² Hz, og hvis strålingsstyrken i denne retning er 1/683 W/sr.

Se også afledte SI-enheder, SI-enhed, SI-præfiks.

Eksterne henvisninger:

- http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/
- zh-cn:国际标准基准单位 zh-tw:國際標準基準單位

SI-præfiks

Komplet SI-præfiks-tabel

Multiplum	Præfiks	Symbol	Navn (USA)	Navn (Dansk)
10²⁴	yotta	Y	EN Septillion	Kvadrillion
10²¹	zetta	Z	EN Sextillion	Tusind Trillioner (Trilliard)
10¹⁸	eksa	E	EN Quintillion	Trillion
10¹⁵	peta	P	EN Quadrillion	Tusind billioner (Billiard)
10¹²	tera	T	EN Trillion	Billion
10⁹	giga	G	EN Billion	Tusind millioner (Milliard)
10⁶	mega	M	Million	Million
10³	kilo	k	Thousand	Tusind
10²	hekto	h	Hundred	Hundrede
10¹	deka	da	Ten	Ti
10^-1	deci	d	Tenth	Tiendedel
10^-2	centi	c	Hundredth	Hundrededel
10^-3	milli	m	Thousandth	Tusindedel
10^-6	mikro	μ	Millionth	Milliontedel
10^-9	nano	n	EN Billionth	Milliardtedel
10^-12	piko	p	EN Trillionth	Billiontedel
10^-15	femto	f	EN Quadrillionth	Billiardtedel
10^-18	atto	a	EN Quintillionth	Trilliontedel
10^-21	zepto	z	EN Sextillionth	Trilliardtedel
10^-24	yokto	y	EN Septillionth	Kvadrilliontedel

Eksempler

- 5 cm = 5 × 10^-2m = 5 × 0,01 m = 0,05 m
- 3 MW = 3 × 10⁶W = 3 × 1.000.000 W = 3.000.000 W

SI-præfiks operatorprioritet

Anbefalinger

Navnenes oprindelse

Betegnelserne for de forskellige antal er for det meste afledt af græsk, men femto og atto er afledt af dansk.

Se også

- Danske enheder, procent, promille, ppm, ppb, ppt, SI-enhed, Navne på store tal Kategori:SI-præfiks ja:SI接頭辞 ko:SI 접두어

Fysik

Fysik (fra græsk physis: "natur") er læren om natur i den bredeste betydning. Fysikere studerer samspillet mellem masse, rum og tid, også kaldet fysiske fænomener. Fysiske teorier kan generelt udtrykkes som matematiske sammenhænge. Man refererer ofte til veletablerede teorier som fysiske love. Men ligesom alle andre videnskabelige teorier, så gælder de kun indtil nogen har modbevist dem. Fysik er tæt forbundet med andre naturvidenskaber, specielt kemi, med viden om molekyler og de kemiske forbindelser de danner. Kemi trækker på mange felter fra fysikken, for eksempel kvantemekanik, termodynamik og elektromagnetisme. Men kemiske fænomener er tilstrækkeligt varierede og komplekse til at kemi normalt betragtes som en separat disciplin. Herunder er en oversigt over de største områder indenfor fysik.

Eksterne henvisninger

- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/ ScienceDaily Magazine]
- [http://www.physics.adelaide.edu.au/~dkoks/Faq/General/open_questions.html Open Questions in Physics]
- [http://newton.ex.ac.uk/aip/ AIP Physics News]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/default.stm BBC News Sci/Tech]
- [http://www.cerncourier.com/ CERN Courier]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/1306364.stm BBCNews: 1 May, 2001, Britney makes physics sexy]
- [http://britneyspears.ac/lasers.htm Britney Spears guide to Semiconductor Physics: semiconductor physics, Edge Emitting Lasers and VCSELs] Kategori:Fysik Kategori:Naturvidenskab Kategori:Akademiske discipliner Kategori:DK5 53 als:Physik ja:物理学 ko:물리학 ms:Fizik simple:Physics th:ฟิสิกส์ zh-min-nan:Bu̍t-lí-ha̍k

Ångström

Ångstrøm (Å) er en måleenhed for længde, 1 Å = 10^-10 meter. Bruges mest inden for atomfysik. Enheden er opkaldt efter den svenske fysiker Anders Jonas Ångström. Kategori:Længdeenheder ja:オングストローム ko:옹스트롬

Astronomi

Astronomi (græsk: αστρονομία = άστρον + νόμος, bogstaveligt, "stjernernes lov") er videnskaben som omfatter observation og forklaring af hændelser udenfor Jorden og dens atmosfære. Astronomien regnes for en af de ældste videnskaber, idét man må formode at de allertidligste mennesker må have bemærket og spekuleret over de himmellegemer, der kan ses med det blotte øje; stjerner, Solen, Månen samt visse planeter og til tider kometer og stjerneskud. Astronomien underinddeles i en række discipliner, der behandler forskellige astronomi-relaterede emner, fænomener og objekter, f.eks.:
- Astrometri, eller "stjernemåling"; studiet af objekters position og bevægelser på himlen. Hertil hører det system af himmelkoordinater, man bruger til at stedfæste positioner på himlen.
- Astrofysik; studiet af de fysiske love og processer, der styrer Universet og de objekter, der findes i det.
- Kosmologi er studiet af hele Universet som sådant; den teoretiske astrofysik der beskriver, hvordan Universet opstod, og hvordan det eventuelt en gang vil "ende".
- Den "praktiske", såkaldt observerende astronomi inddeles efter de strålingsformer fra universet som vi kan observere. Man taler således bl.a. om:
- Optisk astronomi handler om de objekter der kan registreres som lys, dvs. indenfor den synlige del af det elektromagnetiske spektrum. Enten med det blotte øje eller under brug af kikkerter (teleskoper).
- Infrarød astronomi minder om optisk astronomi, fordi infrarødt lys ligger lige udenfor det område, der kan ses af det menneskelige øje — dog er instrumenter til infrarød astronomi tilpasset den længere bølgelængde. Da Jordens atmosfære også leverer infrarød stråling, er det til tider nødvendigt at bruge instrumenter ombord i rumfartøjer udenfor atmosfæren.
- Højenergi-astronomi er studiet af elementarpartikler og elektromagnetisk stråling med høj energi, f.eks. ultraviolet stråling, røntgenstråling og kosmisk stråling. Da atmosfæren absorberer visse af disse typer stråling, kan det blive nødvendigt at foretage denne form for observationer med instrumenter i rumfartøjer.
- Radioastronomi er den del af astronomien, der undersøger de radiobølger, der kommer til os fra de naturlige processer og fænomener, der foregår ude i rummet. Radiobølger kan trænge igennem bl.a. de støvskyer i Universet, som spærrer for det synlige lys, og dermed fortælle om ting, som den optiske astronomi ikke kan afsløre.

Se også

- solplet, tidevand, astronomisk enhed, astrofysik, lysår, parsec, tid, astrologi, Astronomisk Selskab.

Eksterne henvisninger

- [http://as.dsri.dk/ Astronomisk Selskab Danmark]
- [http://www.astroinfo.frip.dk/ Astro Info - din store astronomi ressource!]
- [http://www.tycho.dk/astronomi/ Tycho Brahe Planetarium - Astronomi]
- [http://www.aigis.dk/astronomy/astro_index.html Aigis: Astronomi]
- [http://www.cozmo.dk/ WWW.COZMO.DK - Astronomi - Fysik - Universet - Filosofi - Kosmos - Stjerner]
- [http://www.dr.dk/videnskab/praes/univers/index.asp DR: Velkommen til Universet på Web TV!]
- [http://www.rumfart.dk/ Dansk Selskab for Rumfartsforskning]
- [http://www.rummet.dk/ rummet.dk] Kategori:Fysik Kategori:Astronomi Kategori:DK5 52 ja:天文学 ko:천문학 ms:Astronomi simple:Astronomy th:ดาราศาสตร์

Astronomisk enhed

En Astronomisk enhed, AE (eng. Astronomical Unit, AU) er en længdeenhed baseret på middelafstanden mellem Solen og Jorden. Begge forkortelserne (AE og AU) ses brugt på dansk. En Astronomisk enhed er 1,495 979 × 10¹¹m = 149.597.900 km. Kategori:Længdeenheder ja:天文単位 ko:천문 단위 th:หน่วยดาราศาสตร์ zh-min-nan:Thian-bûn tan-ūi

Lysår

Lysår er en længdeenhed der anvendes indenfor astronomi. 1 lysår er den afstand, lyset tilbagelægger på et år = cirka 9,46 × 10¹² km. Helt præcist er et lysår defineret som lysets hastighed i vakuum (= 299.792.458 m/s) gange et juliansk år (= 365,25 dage à 86.400 sekunder). Altså kan et lysår beregnes til 9.460.730.472.580.800 meter. I stedet for lysår kunne man bruge SI-enheden meter med passende præfiks. Således er ét lysår omtrent 9,46 Pm eller 0,00946 Em. Andre astronomiske længdeenheder er astronomisk enhed og parsec.

Se også

- Lyssekund Kategori:Astronomi Kategori:Længdeenheder ja:光年 ko:광년 ms:Tahun cahaya simple:Light year th:ปีแสง

Parsec

Parsec er en enhed for afstande inden for astronomi. Parsec står for "parallax of one arc sec" (på dansk "parallaksen for et buesekund") og er defineret som den ene katete i en retvinklet trekant, hvor den anden katete er jordens middelafstand til solen (astronomisk enhed = AU) og den modstående vinkel er på et buesekund. Billede:Parsec.png Parsec angives med enheden pc. 1 parsec = ca. 206.265 AU = ca. 3,26 lysår = ca. 3,085 677 580 666 31 × 10¹⁶m. Kategori:Længdeenheder ja:パーセク ko:파섹 th:พาร์เซก

Fod (længdeenhed)

En fod er en længdeenhed, som varierer fra land til land, fordi den oprindeligt er baseret på længden af menneskers fødders fodtøj. Længdeenheden en fod blev anvendt helt tilbage til sumererne. En dansk fod er 0,3138 meter og en engelsk fod (1 foot, 2 feet, symbol enkeltgåseøje: ' ) er 0,3048 meter. En fod (1') opdeles i 12 tommer (12), der hver opdeles i 12 linjer (12). En linie opdeles igen i 12 skrupler, og her kommer forklaringen på disse "gåseøjne": Det er små romertal, og skrupler angives med et 4-tal (IV), som wikien desværre ikke kan vise. Den engelske fod anvendes stadig i stor stil i f.eks. USA og Det Forenede Kongerige.
Se også

- Dansk alen
- Fod - for andre betydninger. Kategori:Længdeenheder Kategori:Gamle danske enheder Kategori:Engelske enheder Kategori:US enheder ja:フィート

Sømil

En international sømil (også kaldet international nautisk mil) er en længdeenhed benyttet til søs og ved flyvning. Den danner grundlaget for hastighedsenheden knob. En international sømil svarer til et bueminut (1/60 af en grad) af en storcirkel på jordens overflade. Da der har hersket usikkerhed om omkredsens længde, har der også været variationer fra det ene land til det andet om længden af en sømil. På en international hydrografisk konference i 1929 fastsatte man længden af en sømil til 1.852 meter, svarende til at man afrundede omkredsen af en storcirkel til 40 000 km. Denne længde af en sømil er siden accepteret af de fleste lande. En sømil deles i Danmark i 10 kabellængder, der altså hver er på 185,2 meter.

Se også

- Dansk sømil Kategori:Navigation Kategori:Længdeenheder ja:海里

Tomme

En tomme er en længdeenhed, som varierer fra land til land, fordi den oprindeligt er baseret på bredden af menneskers tommelfingre. En dansk tomme er 0,0261 meter, og en engelsk tomme (1 inch, 2 inches, symbol dobbeltgåseøjne: " ) = 0,0254 meter. En fod (1') opdeles i 12 tommer (12), der hver opdeles i 12 linjer (12). En linie opdeles igen i 12 skrupler (12^IV), og her kommer forklaringen på disse "gåseøjne": Det er små romertal. Den engelske tomme anvendes stadig i stor stil i f.eks. USA og Det Forenede Kongerige. Kategori:Længdeenheder Kategori:Gamle danske enheder Kategori:US enheder Kategori:Engelske enheder ja:インチ ms:Inci simple:Inch

Inch

Wasser alen

Ældre længdeenhed svarende til 55 centimeter.

Kilder/henvisninger

- Lexopen Kategori:Navigation Kategori:Længdeenheder

Yard

En yard er et amerikansk og engelsk længdemål defineret som 3 engelske fod, svarende til 0,9144 m. Kategori:Længdeenheder Kategori:US enheder Kategori:Engelske enheder ja:ヤード simple:Yard

Rode (længdeenhed)

Rode er et gammelt længdemål svarende til 3,13 meter. Kategori:Længdeenheder Kategori:Gamle danske enheder

Arealenhed

Areal er en overflades størrelse. Der findes mange forskellige enheder for flademål. Mange af de ældre arealenheders omregningsfaktorer er forskellige fra land til land. SI-enheder med evt. tilhørende SI-præfiks derimod er ens overalt:

Afledte SI-enhed

Den officielt anerkendte afledte SI-enhed for flademål er kvadratmeter og angives ofte som m². Kvadratmeter er afledt af SI-enheden meter og kan have et SI-præfiks. Men det er dog sjældent dette benyttes, da man i stedet sætter præfikset foran grundenheden meter:
- Kvadratcentimeter (0,0001 m² = 10^-4 m²)
- Kvadratkilometer (1.000.000 m² = 10⁶ m²)

Andre anvendte enheder

Arealenheder som er i anvendelse i dag.

Anvendte danske enheder

- Ar (100,00 m²)
- Hektar (10.000,00 m²)

Anvendte udenlandske enheder

- Square foot (sq ft) i USA (0,09290304 m²)
- Square yard (sq yd) i USA (0,83612736 m²) (1 yard = 3 feet)
- Square perch i USA (25,2928526 m²) (1 perch = 5,5 yard).
- Acre i USA (4046,8564224 m²) (1 square acre = 43,560 square feet = 160 square perch).
- Square mile (sq mi) i USA (2,5899881103 m²) (1 square mile = 640 acres).

Ældre enheder

Mange af de ældre enheder er landespecifikke.

Ældre danske enheder

- Kvadratfod (0,0985 m²)
- Kvadratalen (0,39 m²)
- Penning (14,37 m²)
- Album (57,46 m²)
- Fjerdingkar (172,38 m²)
- Skæppe (689,50 m²)
- Tønde land (5.516 m²)
- Kvadratmil (56.738.255 m²)

Se også

- Danske enheder
- Rumfang
- Længdemål Kategori:Matematik ja:面積 simple:Area zh-cn:面积 zh-tw:面积

Rumfangsenhed

Rumfang (også kaldet volumen) er betegnelsen for størrelsen af det rum, som afgrænses af et 3-dimensionalt legemes overflade. I formler benyttes ofte betegnelsen V for rumfanget. Der findes mange forskellige enheder til angivelse af mål for rumfang. Mange af de ældre rumfangenheders omregningsfaktorer er forskellige fra land til land. SI-enheder med evt. tilhørende SI-præfiks er derimod ens overalt:
- Afledt SI-enhed for rummål:
- Kubikmeter, m³. Dette er den officielt anerkendte SI-enhed. Den kan have et SI-præfiks og se således ud: dm³ (1 m³ = 1000 dm³).
- Ikke-SI-enheder i anvendelse i dag:
- Liter (1 liter = 1 dm³)
- Registerton
- Mange af følgende ikke-SI-enheder har landeafhængige forskellige omregningsfaktorer til m³:
- Andre i almindelig brug i dag, især i udlandet:
- kubikfod (eng. cubic foot, cubic feet)
- kubik-yard (eng. cubic yard)

Beregning af rumfang

Rumfanget af nogle geometriske figurer beregnes således: For uregelmæssige legemer må rumfanget beregnes ved brug af integration.

Ældre enheder

- Mange af følgende ikke-SI-enheder har landeafhængige forskellige omregningsfaktorer til m³:
- Ældre enheder, som ikke anvendes særligt meget i dag:
- Pægl (0,00024 m³)
- Pot (0,00097 m³) = 4 pægle
- Album (0,00145 m³)
- Kande (0,00193 m³)
- Ottingkar (0,00217 m³)
- Fjerdingkar (0,00435 m³)
- Viertel (0,00773 m³) = 8 potter = ¼ dansk kubikfod
- Otting (0,01642 m³)
- Skæppe (0,01740 m³)
- Bimpel (0,01883 m³)
- Kubikfod (0,03090 m³) = 32 potter
- Fjerding (0,03285 m³)
- Anker øl (0,03766 m³) = 39 potter
- Tønde tjære (ca. 0,116 m³)
- Tønde øl (0,13140 m³) = 136 potter
- Tønde korn (0,13920 m³)
- Ahm vin (0,15064 m³)
- Tønde kul (ca. 0,170 m³)
- Oksehoved (0,22596 m³) = 6 ankre
- Kubikalen (0,24720 m³) = 256 potter
- Fad øl (0,26278 m³)
- Fad korn (0,26278 m³)
- Fad vin (0,90383 m³)
- Læster (ca. 1,24 m³)

Rummeter

Ved opmåling af træ til brug som brænde benyttes betegnelsen rummeter, der er betegnelsen for 1x1x1 m stablet brænde, før det er kløvet. Denne enhed betegnes også skovrummeter. Der findes også en kasserummeter, som er betegnelsen på 1x1x1 m kløvet brænde, som er hældt i en kasse af denne størrelse »hulter til bulter«. En kasserummeter udgør som tommelfingerregel ca. 70% af en skovrummeter. 1 skovrummeter indeholder altså mest brænde og svarer til ca. 1,4 kasserummeter.

Se også

- Flademål, Længdemål, tidsenheder, arealenheder, arealmål, masseenheder, energienheder, vinkelenheder, Geometri, Danske enheder Kategori:Rumfangsenheder Kategori:Gamle danske enheder Kategori:US enheder Kategori:Engelske enheder ja:体積 simple:Volume

Athieists

Atheism, in its broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of gods. This definition includes as atheists both those who assert that there are no gods, and those who make no claim about whether gods exist or not. Narrower definitions, however, often only qualify those who actively disbelieve as atheists, labeling the others as nontheists or agnostics. Although atheists often share common concerns regarding evidence and the scientific method of investigation and a large number are skeptics, there is no single ideology that all atheists share. Additionally there are atheists who are religious or spiritual, though many of these would not describe themselves as atheists.

Etymology

In early Ancient Greek, the adjective atheos (from privative a- + theos "god") meant "without gods" or "lack of belief in gods". The word acquired an additional meaning in the 5th century BCE, expressing a total lack of relations with the gods; that is, "denying the gods, godless, ungodly", with more active connotations than asebēs, "impious". Modern translations of classical texts sometimes translate atheos as "atheistic". As an abstract noun, there was also atheotēs: "atheism". Cicero transliterated atheos into Latin. The discussion of atheoi was pronounced in the debate between early Christians and pagans, who each attributed atheism to the other. A.B. Drachmann (1922) notes:

Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said atheos and atheotes; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, atheos was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed. (p.5)

In English, the term atheism is the result of the adoption of the French athéisme in about 1587. The term atheist in the sense of "one who denies or disbelieves" actually predates atheism, being first attested in about 1571 (the phrase Italian atheoi is recorded as early as 1568). Atheist in the sense of practical godlessness was first attested in 1577. The French word is derived from athée, "godless, atheist", which in turn is from the Greek atheos. The words deist and theist entered English after atheism, being first attested in 1621 and 1662, respectively, with theism and deism following in 1678 and 1682, respectively. Deism and theism exchanged meanings around 1700 due to the influence of atheism. Deism was originally used with a meaning comparable to today's theism, and vice-versa. The Oxford English Dictionary also records an earlier irregular formation, atheonism, dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words athean and atheal are dated to 1611 and 1612, respectively.

Types and typologies of atheism

Many people have disagreed on how best to characterize atheism, and much of the literature on the subject is erroneous or confusing. There are many discrepancies in the use of terminology between proponents and opponents of atheism, and even divergent definitions among those who share near-identical beliefs. Opponents of atheism have frequently associated atheism with immorality and evil, often characterizing it as a willful and malicious rejection of gods. This, in fact, is the original definition and sense of the word, but changing sensibilities and the normalization of nonreligious viewpoints have caused the term to lose its negative connotations in general parlance. Among proponents of atheism and neutral parties, there are two major traditions in defining atheism and its subdivisions. The first tradition understands atheism very broadly, and is divided between those who actively reject theism for any reason (strong atheism) and those who are simply not theists (weak atheism). Antony Flew, George H. Smith and Michael Martin fall into this tradition, though they do not use the same terminology. The second tradition, more common among laypeople, understands atheism more narrowly, as the conscious rejection of theism, and does not consider absence of theistic belief or suspension of judgment concerning theism to be forms of atheism. Ernest Nagel, Paul Edwards and Kai Nielsen are prominent members of this camp. Using this definition of atheism, "implicit atheism", lack of theism without the conscious rejection of it, may not be regarded as atheistic at all, and the umbrella term nontheism may be used in its place.

Atheism as lack of theism

Among modern atheists, the view that atheism means "without (or, polemically, "free of") theistic beliefs" has a great deal of currency. This very broad definition is justified by reference to etymology as well as consistent usage of the word by atheists, and has the polemical advantage of correcting the repressive tendency to define atheism out of existence. However, this definition of atheism has not gone unchallenged. Although, over the last few hundred years, atheism has evolved and broadened beyond the narrow meaning of "wickedness", impiety, heresy and religious denial, as well as pantheism and similar beliefs, it is less commonly understood to include everything not explicitly theistic. Whether a writer's definition of atheism as an "absence" or "lack" of theistic belief is in fact intended to mean "not theistic" in the widest possible sense, or just refers to particular forms of the rejection of theism (see below), is often ambiguous. However, while this definition of atheism is frequently disputed, it is not a recent invention; this use has a history spanning over 230 years. Two atheist writers who are clear in defining atheism so broadly that uninformed children are counted as atheists are d'Holbach (1772) ("All children are born Atheists; they have no idea of God." [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/gsens10.txt]) and George H. Smith (1979). According to Smith,

the man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist. (p.14) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm]

One atheist writer who explicitly disagrees with such a broad definition is Ernest Nagel (1965):

Atheism is not to be identified with sheer unbelief... Thus, a child who has received no religious instruction and has never heard about God, is not an atheist - for he is not denying any theistic claims. (p.460-461)

For Nagel, atheism is the rejection of theism, not just the absence of theistic belief. However, this definition leaves open the question of what term can be used to describe those who lack theistic belief, but do not necessarily reject theism. The obsolete word atheous, first recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as a synonym of atheism or impiety, is sometimes used to mean "not dealing with the existence of a god" in a purely privative sense, as distinguished from the negative atheistic. This 1880 coinage captures some of what is intended by the broad definition of atheism, though it is hard to sustain the claim that the philosophical rejection of theism can be characterized in such terms.

Implicit and explicit atheism

1880 The terms implicit atheism and explicit atheism were coined by George H. Smith (1979, p.13-18). Implicit atheism is defined by Smith as "the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it." Explicit atheism is defined as "the absence of theistic belief due to a conscious rejection of it", which, according to Smith, is sometimes called antitheism (see below). For Smith, explicit atheism is subdivided further according to whether or not the rejection is on rational grounds. The term critical atheism is used to label the view that belief in god is irrational, and is itself subdivided into a) the view usually expressed by the statement "I do not believe in the existence of a god or supernatural being"; b) the view usually expressed by the statement, "god does not exist" or "the existence of god is impossible"; and c) the view which "refuses to discuss the existence or nonexistence of a god" because "the concept of a god is unintelligible" (p.17). Although Nagel rejects Smith's definition of atheism as merely "lack of theism", acknowledging only explicit "atheism" as true atheism, his tripartite classification of rejectionist atheism (commonly found in the philosophical literature) is identical to Smith's critical atheism typology. The difference between Nagel on the one hand and d'Holbach and Smith on the other has been attributed to the different concerns of professional philosophers and layman proponents of atheism (see Smith (1990, Chapter 3, p.51-60 [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smithdef.htm]), for example, but also alluded to by others). Everitt (2004) makes the point that professional philosophers are more interested in the grounds for giving or withholding assent to propositions:

We need to distinguish between a biographical or sociological enquiry into why some people have believed or disbelieved in God, and an epistemological enquiry into whether there are any good reasons for either belief or unbelief... We are interested in the question of what good reasons there are for or against God's existence, and no light is thrown on that question by discovering people who hold their beliefs without having good reasons for them. (p.10)

So, in philosophy (Flew and Martin notwithstanding), atheism is commonly defined along the lines of "rejection of theistic belief". This is often misunderstood to mean only the view that there is no God, but it is conventional to distinguish between two or three main sub-types of atheism in this sense (writers differ in their characterization of this distinction, and in the labels they use for these positions). The terms weak atheism and strong atheism (or, alternatively, negative atheism and positive atheism) are often used as synonyms of Smith's less-well-known implicit and explicit categories. However, the original and technical meanings of implicit and explicit atheism are quite different and distinct from weak and strong atheism, having to do with conscious rejection and unconscious rejection of theism rather than with positive belief and negative belief. People who do not use the broad definition of atheism as "lack of theism", but instead use the most common definition "disbelief in or denial of the existence of God or gods" [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=atheism] would not recognize mere absence of belief in deities (implicit atheism) as a type of atheism at all, and would tend to use other terms, such as "skeptic" or "agnostic" or "non-atheistic nontheism", for this position.

Atheism as immorality

The first attempts to define or develop a typology of atheism were in religious apologetics. These attempts were expressed in terminologies and in contexts which, unsurprisingly, reflected the religious assumptions and prejudices of the writers. Nevertheless, a diversity of atheist opinion has been recognized at least since Plato, and common distinctions have been established between practical atheism and speculative or contemplative atheism.

Practical atheism

Practical atheism was said to be caused by moral failure, hypocrisy, willful ignorance, and infidelity. Practical atheists behaved as though God, morals, ethics and social responsibility did not exist. Maritain's typology of atheism (1953, Chapter 8) proved influential in Catholic circles; it was followed in the New Catholic Encyclopedia (see Reid (1967)). He identified, in addition to practical atheism, pseudo-atheism and absolute atheism (and subdivided theoretical atheism in a way that anticipated Flew). For an atheist critique of Maritain, see Smith (1979, Chapter 1, Section 5) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm]. According to the French Catholic philosopher Étienne Borne (1961, p.10), "Practical atheism is not the denial of the existence of God, but complete godlessness of action; it is a moral evil, implying not the denial of the absolute validity of the moral law but simply rebellion against that law." According to Karen Armstrong (1999):

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for polemic... In his tract Atheism Closed and Open Anatomized (1634), John Wingfield claimed: "the hypocrite is an Atheist; the loose wicked man is an open Atheist; the secure, bold and proud transgressor is an Atheist: he that will not be taught or reformed is an Atheist". For the Welsh poet William Vaughan (1577 [sic]-1641), who helped in the colonisation of Newfoundland, those who raised rents or enclosed commons were obvious atheists. The English dramatist Thomas Nashe (1567-1601) proclaimed that the ambitious, the greedy, the gluttons, the vainglorious and prostitutes were all atheists. The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist. (p.331-332)

On the other hand, the existence of serious speculative atheism was often denied. That anyone might reason their way to atheism was thought to be impossible. Thus, speculative atheism was collapsed into a form of practical atheism, or conceptualized as hatred of God, or a fight against God. This is why Borne finds it necessary to say, "to put forward the idea, as some apologists rashly do, that there are no atheists except in name but only 'practical atheists' who through pride or idleness disregard the divine law, would be, at least at the beginning of the argument, a rhetorical convenience or an emotional prejudice evading the real question." (p.18) Martin (1990, p.465-466) suggests that practical atheism would be better described as alienated theism.

Other pejorative definitions of atheism

When denial of the existence of "speculative" atheism became unsustainable, atheism was nevertheless often repressed and criticized by narrowing definitions, applying charges of dogmatism, and otherwise misrepresenting atheist positions. One of the reasons for the popularity of alternative terms like secularist, agnostic, or bright is that atheism still has pejorative connotations arising from attempts at suppression and from its association with practical atheism (Godless is still used as an abusive epithet). Mynga Futrell and Paul Geisert, the originators of the term Bright, made this explicit in an essay published in 2003:

Our personal frustration regarding labels reached culmination last fall when we were invited to join a march on Washington as "Godless Americans." The causes of the march were worthy, and the march itself well planned and conducted. However, to unite for common interests under a disparaging term like godless (it also means "wicked") seemed ludicrous! Why accept and utilize the very derogatory language that so clearly hampers our own capacity to play a positive and contributing role in our communities and in the nation and world? [http://www.the-brights.net/vision/essays/futrell_geisert_nix.html]

Gaskin (1989) abandoned the term atheism in favour of unbelief, citing "the pejorative associations of the term, its vagueness, and later the tendency of religious apologists to define atheism so that no one could be an atheist..." (p.4) Despite these considerations, for others atheist has always been the preferred name. Charles Bradlaugh once said (in debate with George Jacob Holyoake, 10 March 1870, cited in Bradlaugh Bonner (1908)):

I maintain that the opprobrium cast upon the word Atheism is a lie. I believe Atheists as a body to be men deserving respect... I do not care what kind of character religious men may put round the word Atheist, I would fight until men respect it. (p.334)

For more on repressive definitions of atheism, see Berman (1982), (1983), (1990).

Weak and strong atheism

:Main articles: Weak atheism, Strong atheism Weak atheism, sometimes called soft atheism, negative atheism or neutral atheism, is the absence of belief in the existence of deities without the positive assertion that deities do not exist. Strong atheism, also known as hard atheism or positive atheism, is the belief that no deities exist. While the terms weak and strong are relatively recent, the concepts they represent have been in use for some time. In earlier philosophical publications, the terms negative atheism and positive atheism were more common; these terms were used by Antony Flew in 1972, although Jacques Maritain (1953, Chapter 8, p.104) used the phrases in a similar, but strictly Catholic apologist, context as early as 1949 [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm]. Although explicit atheists (nontheists who consciously reject theism), may subscribe to either weak or strong atheism, weak atheism also includes implicit atheists - that is, nontheists who have not consciously rejected theism, but lack theistic belief, arguably including infants. Theists claim that a single deity or group of deities exist. Weak atheists do not assert the contrary; instead, they only refrain from assenting to theistic claims. Some weak atheists are without any opinion regarding the existence of deities, either because of a lack of thought on the matter, a lack of interest in the matter (see apatheism), or a belief that the arguments and evidence provided by both theists and strong atheists are equally unpersuasive. Others (explicit weak atheists) may doubt or dispute claims for the existence of deities, while not actively asserting that deities do not exist. Some weak atheists feel that theism and strong atheism are equally untenable, on the grounds that faith is required both to assert and to deny the existence of deities, and as such both theism and strong atheism have the burden of proof placed on them to prove that a god does or doesn't exist. Some also base their belief on the notion that it is impossible to prove a negative. While a weak atheist might consider the nonexistence of deities likely on the basis that there is insufficient evidence to justify belief in a deity's existence, a strong atheist has the additional view that positive statements of nonexistence are merited when evidence or arguments indicate that a deity's nonexistence is certain or probable. Strong atheism may be based on arguments that the concept of a deity is self-contradictory and therefore impossible (positive ignosticism), or that one or more of the properties attributed to a deity are incompatible with what we observe in the world. Agnosticism is distinct from strong atheism, though many weak atheists may be agnostics, and those who are strong atheists with regard to a particular deity might be weak atheists or agnostics with regard to other deities.

Ignosticism

:Main article: Ignosticism Ignosticism is the view that the question of whether or not deities exist is inherently meaningless. It is a popular view among many logical positivists such as Rudolph Carnap and A. J. Ayer, who hold that talk of gods is literally nonsense. According to ignostics, "Does a god exist?" has the same logical status as "What color is Saturday?"; they are both nonsensical, and thus have no meaningful answers. Ignostics commonly hold that statements about religious or other transcendent experiences cannot have any truth value, often because theological statements lack falsifiability, because of an epistemological view that renders the ontological argument nonsensical, or because the terminology being used has not been properly or consistently defined — the latter view is known as theological noncognitivism. The use of the word "god" is thus solely a matter of semantics to ignostics, dealing with word use and technicalities rather than with existence and reality. In Language, Truth and Logic, Ayer stated that theism, atheism and agnosticism were equally meaningless, insofar as they treat the question of the existence of God as a real question. However, there are varieties of atheism and agnosticism which do not necessarily agree that the question is meaningful, especially using the "lack of theism" definition of atheism. Despite Ayer's criticism of atheism (perhaps using the definition typically associated with strong atheism), Ignosticism is usually counted as a form of atheism; Ayer (1966) was clear on his position:

I do not believe in God. It seems to me that theists of all kinds have very largely failed to make their concept of a deity intelligible; and to the extent that they have made it intelligible, they have given us no reason to think that anything answers to it. (p226)

The ignostic position is mentioned (though the term ignostic is not used) as one of the three forms of "critical atheism" (in Smith) or "rejectionist atheism" (in Nagel). Active disbelief in god or supernatural beings is one other type of critical/rejectionist atheism. Finally, the third type is the positive claim that deities do not exist. Since critical/rejectionist atheism is a type of explicit atheism, if follows that ignosticism is a type of explicit atheism. There is some debate over whether it should be classified as weak atheism or strong atheism. Ignosticism is distinct from apatheism in that while ignostics hold questions and discussions of whether deities exist to be meaningless, apatheists hold that even a hypothetical answer to such questions would be completely irrelevant to human existence.

Gnostic and agnostic atheism

:Main article: Agnostic atheism Agnostic atheism is a fusion of atheism or nontheism with agnosticism, the epistemological position that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown (weak agnosticism) or unknowable (strong agnosticism). Agnostic atheism is typically contrasted with agnostic theism, the belief that deities exist even though it is impossible to know that deities exist, and with gnostic atheism, the belief that there is enough information to determine that deities do not exist. Agnostic atheisms definition varies, just as the definitions of agnosticism and atheism do. It may be a combination of lack of theism with strong agnosticism, the view that it is impossible to know whether deities exist to any reliable degree. It may also be a combination of lack of theism with weak agnosticism, the view that there is not currently enough information to decide whether or not a deity exists, but that there may be enough in the future. Gnostic atheism is a more rarely used term, because often anyone who is not labeled as agnostic is assumed to be gnostic by default. Gnostic atheism also has varying meanings. When nontheism is combined with strong gnosticism, it denotes the belief that it is rational to be absolutely certain that deities do not, and perhaps cannot, exist. When it is with weak gnosticism, it denotes the belief that there is enough information to be reasonably sure that deities do not exist, but not absolutely certain. Gnostic atheism is also sometimes used as a synonym of strong atheism, and thus agnostic atheism is occasionally a synonym for weak atheism. This is similar to the more common confusion of the terms implicit atheism and explicit atheism with strong and weak atheism. Apatheism often overlaps with agnostic atheism, such as with apathetic agnosticism, a fusion of apatheism with strong agnostic atheism.
Atheism in philosophical naturalism
Many, if not most, atheists have preferred to say that atheism is a lack of a belief, rather than a belief in its own right (see, for example, Krueger (1998, p.22-24); Smith (1979, p.15-16)). This keeps the burden of proof on the theist (see Flew (1984b)), as the only one making any positive assertions. "Belief" also has other connotations that many atheists may wish to avoid. Nevertheless, some atheist writers identify atheism with the naturalistic world view, and defend it on that basis. The case for naturalism is used as a positive argument for atheism. See, for example, Thrower (1971), Harbour (2001), Nielsen (2001) and Baggini (2003). See also Everitt's discussion of an anti-atheist argument against naturalism (2004, Chapter 9, p.178-190). According to Thrower,
Much atheism... can be understood only in the light of the current theism which it was concerned to reject. Such atheism is relative. There is, however, a way of looking at and interpreting events in the world, whose origins... can be seen as early as the beginnings of speculative thought itself, and which I shall call naturalistic, that is atheistic per se, in the sense that it is incompatible with any and every form of supernaturalism... naturalistic or absolute atheism is both fundamentally more important, and more interesting, representing as it does one polarity in the development of the human spirit. (p.3-4)
Julian Baggini argues that, "atheism can be understood not simply as a denial of religion, but as a self-contained belief system, if it is seen as a commitment to the view that there is only one world and this is the world of nature" (p.74). For Baggini, therefore,
the evidence for atheism is to be found in the fact that there is a plethora of evidence for the truth of naturalism and an absence of evidence for anything else. 'Anything else' of course includes God, but it also includes goblins, hobbits, and truly everlasting gobstoppers. There is nothing special about God in this sense. God is just one of the things that atheists don't believe in, it just happens to be the thing that, for historical reasons, gave them their name. (p.17)
Baggini's position is that "an atheist does not usually believe in the existence of immortal souls, life after death, ghosts, or supernatural powers. Although strictly speaking an atheist could believe in any of these things and still remain an atheist... the arguments and ideas that sustain atheism tend naturally to rule out other beliefs in the supernatural or transcendental" (p.3-4). Michael Martin (1990, p.470) notes that the view that "naturalism is compatible with nonatheism is true only if 'god' is understood in a most peculiar and misleading way", but he also points out that "atheism does not entail naturalism".
Antitheism
:Main article: Antitheism Antitheism (sometimes hyphenated) typically refers to a direct opposition to theism. In this use, it is a form of critical strong atheism. Antitheism may sometimes overlap with ignosticism, the view that theism is inherently meaningless, and may directly contradict apatheism, the view that theism is irrelevant rather than dangerous. However, antitheism is also sometimes used, particularly in religious contexts, to refer to opposition to God or divine things, rather than to the belief in God. Using the latter definition, it may be possible — or perhaps even necessary — to be an antitheist without being an atheist or nontheist. Antitheists may believe that theism is actually harmful, or may simply be atheists who have little tolerance for views they perceive as irrational. Strong atheists who are not antitheists may believe positively that deities do not exist, but not believe that theism is directly harmful or necessitates antagonistic opposition.
History
Although the actual term atheism originated in 16th Century France, ideas that would be recognized as atheistic today existed even before Classical Antiquity. Epicurus proposed theories that can be classified as atheistic, such as a lack of belief in an afterlife, though he remained ambiguous concerning the actual existence of deities. Before him, Socrates was sentenced to death partly on the grounds that he was an atheist, although he did express belief in several forms of divinity, as recorded in Plato's Apology. This criminal connotation attached to atheistic ideas (heresy) would remain, at varying levels of severity, until the Renaissance, when criticism of the Church became more popular and accepted. Atheism disappeared from the philosophy of the Greek and Roman traditions as Christianity gained influence. During the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of atheism re-emerged as an accusation against those who questioned the religious status quo, but by the late 18th century it had become the philosophical position of a growing minority. By the 20th century, along with the spread of rationalism and secular humanism, atheism had become common, particularly among scientists (see international survey of contemporary atheism). In the 20th Century, atheism also became a staple of the various Communist regimes, helping return some of the negative connotations of atheism, especially in the United States, where the term became synonymous with being unpatriotic during the Cold War.
Distribution of atheists
Atheism is common in Western Europe, Australia, Canada, in former and present communist states, and, to a lesser extent, in the United States. It is particularly prevalent among scientists, a tendency already quite marked at the beginning of the 20th century, developing into a dominant one during the course of the century. In 1914, James H. Leuba found that 58% of 1,000 randomly selected U.S. natural scientists expressed "disbelief or doubt in the existence of God". The same study, repeated in 1996, gave a similar percentage of 60.7%; this number is 93% among the members of the National Academy of Sciences. Expressions of positive disbelief rose from 52% to 72%. [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html] (See also The relationship between religion and science).
Atheism in the United Kingdom
In early 2004, it was announced that atheism would be taught during religious education classes in Britain. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/politics/story/0,6903,1148578,00.html] A spokesman for the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority stated: "There are many children in England who have no religious affiliation and their beliefs and ideas, whatever they are, should be taken very seriously." There is also considerable debate in the U.K. on the status of faith-based schools, which use religious as well as academic selection criteria. [http://www.iht.com/articles/47799.html]
Atheism in the United States
There are more atheists in the U.S. than members of any one religion except Christianity. Atheists are legally protected from discrimination in the United States. They have been among the strongest advocates of the legal separation of church and state. American courts have regularly, if controversially, interpreted the constitutional requirement for separation of church and state as protecting the freedoms of non-believers, as well as prohibiting the establishment of any state religion. Atheists often sum up the legal situation with the phrase: "Freedom of religion also means freedom from religion." [http://www.au.org/] In Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=U10355], Justice Souter wrote in the opinion for the Court that: "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to irreligion." [http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-517.ZS.html] Everson v. Board of Education established that "neither a state nor the Federal Government can... pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion over another". This applies the Establishment Clause to the states as well as the federal government. [http://atheism.about.com/library/decisions/religion/bl_l_BoEEverson.htm] However, several state constitutions make the protection of persons from religious discrimination conditional on their acknowledgement of the existence of a deity, apparently making freedom of religion in those states inapplicable to atheists. These state constitutional clauses have not been tested. Additionally, some state constitutions (namely, Arkansas and South Carolina) disallow atheists to hold public office, although most agree that, if challenged, these requirements would be ruled unconstitutional under Article Six of the United States Constitution which bans such qualifications. Civil rights cases are typically brought in federal courts; so such state provisions are mainly of symbolic importance. In the Newdow case, after a father challenged the phrase "under God" in the United States Pledge of Allegiance, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found the phrase unconstitutional. Although the decision was stayed pending the outcome of an appeal, there was the prospect that the pledge would cease to be legally usable without modification in schools in the western United States, over which the Ninth Circuit has jurisdiction. This resulted in political furor, and both houses of Congress passed resolutions condemning the decision, nearly unanimously. A very large group consisting of almost the entire Senate and House was televised standing on the steps of Congress, hands over hearts, swearing the pledge and shouting out "under God". The Supreme Court subsequently reversed the decision, ruling that Michael Newdow did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge.
Atheism studies and statistics
As some governments have strongly promoted atheism, whilst others have strongly condemned it, atheism may be either over-reported or under-reported for different countries. There is a great deal of room for debate as to the accuracy of any method of measurement, as the opportunity for misreporting (intentionally or not) a belief system without an organized structure is high. Also, many surveys on religious identification ask people to identify themselves as "agnostics" or "atheists", which is potentially confusing, since these terms are interpreted differently by many different people, with some identifying themselves as being both atheist and agnostic. Additionally, many of these surveys only gauge the number of irreligious people, not the number of actual atheists, or group the two together. The following surveys are in chronological order, but as they are different studies with different methodologies it would be inaccurate to infer trends on the prevalence of atheism from them:
- A 1995 survey [http://www.zpub.com/un/pope/relig.html] attributed to the Encyclopedia Britannica indicates that the non-religious are about 14.7% of the world's population, and atheists around 3.8%.
- The 2001 [http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm ARIS report] found that while 29.5 million U.S. Americans (14.1%) describe themselves as "without religion", only 902,000 (0.4%) positively claim to be atheist, with another 991,000 (0.5%) professing agnosticism.
- In the 2001 Australian Census [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9658217eba753c2cca256cae00053fa3?OpenDocument] 15.5% of respondents ticked "no religion", and a further 11.7% either did not state their religion or were deemed to have described it inadequately (there was a popular and successful campaign at the time to have people describe themselves as Jedi).
- The 2001 New Zealand census [http://www.stats.govt.nz/products-and-services/Articles/census-snpsht-cult-diversity-Mar02.htm] showed that 40% of the respondents claimed "no religion".
- In 2001, the [http://www.czso.cz/csu/edicniplan.nsf/o/4110-03--skladba_obyvatelstva_podle_nabozenskeho_vyznani,_pohlavi_a_podle_veku Czech Statistical Office] provided census information on the ten million people in the Czech Republic. 59% had no religion, 32.2% were religious, and 8.8% did not answer. This suggests that the Czech Republic is probably the most atheistic country in the world.
- In 2002 survey in Russia, 32% self-described as atheist. Of the 58% self-describing as Russian Orthodox Christian, 42% said they had never been in a church.
- A 2002 survey by Adherents.com [http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] estimates the proportion of the world's people who are "secular, non-religious, agnostics and atheists" as about 14%.
- In a 2003 poll in France, 54% of those polled identified themselves as "faithful", 33% as atheist, 14% as agnostic, and 26% as "indifferent". [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35454.htm]
- A 2004 survey by the BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm] in 10 countries showed the proportion of the population "who don't believe in God nor in a higher power" varying between 0% and 30%, with an average close to 10% in the countries surveyed. About 8% of the respondents stated specifically that they consider themselves to be atheists.
- A 2004 survey by the CIA in the World Factbook [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People] estimates about 12.5% of the world's population are non-religious, and about 2.4% are atheists.
- A 2004 survey by the Pew Research Center [http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?PageID=757] showed that in the United States, 12% of people under 30 and 6% of people over 30 could be characterized as non-religious.
- A 2005 poll by AP/Ipsos [http://www.ipsos-na.com/news/pressrelease.cfm?id=2694] surveyed ten countries. Of the developed nations, people in the United States had most certainty about the existence of god or a higher power (2% atheist, 4% agnostic), while France had the most skeptics (19% atheist, 16% agnostic). On the religion question, South Korea had the greatest percentage without a religion (41%) while Italy had the smallest (5%).
Statistical problems
Statistics on atheism are often difficult to accurately represent for a variety of reasons. Atheism is nonexclusive Atheism is a position compatible with other forms of identity. Some atheists also consider themselves Agnostic, Buddhist, or hold other related philosophical beliefs. Therefore, given limited poll options, some may use other terms to describe their identity. Misrepresentation Some politically motivated organizations that report or gather population statistics may, intentionally or unintentionally, misrepresent atheists. Also, many atheists, particularly former Catholics, are still counted as Christians in church rosters, although surveys generally ask samples of the population and do not look in church rosters. Some Christians believe that "once a person is [truly] saved, that person is always saved", a doctrine known as eternal security. [http://www.evangelicaloutreach.org/eternalsecurity1.htm]. Misunderstanding and external pressure A negative perception of atheists and pressure from family and peers may also cause some atheists to disassociate themselves from atheism. Misunderstanding of the term may also be a reason some label themselves differently. Discrimination Legal and social discrimination against atheists in some places may lead some to deny or conceal their atheism due to fears of persecution. Nonetheless, it still can be said with certainty that atheists are in the minority in most countries.
Religion and atheism

Spiritual and religious atheism
Although atheistic beliefs are often accompanied by a total lack of supernatural beliefs, this is not an aspect, or even a necessary consequence, of atheism. Indeed, there are many atheists who are not irreligious or secular. These are most common in spiritualities like Buddhism and Taoism, but they also exist in sects of religions that are usually very theistic by nature, such as Christianity, especially in some Liberal Quaker groups. A number of atheistic churches have been established, such as the Thomasine Church, naturalistic pantheists, Brianism, and the Fellowship of Reason. There is also an atheist presence in Unitarian Universalism, an extremely inclusivist religion.
Belief in God as a non-being
In English, believers usually refer to the monotheistic Abrahamic god as "God". In many abstract or esoteric interpretations of monotheism or henotheism, God is not thought of as a supernatural being, as a deity or god. Rather, God becomes a philosophical category: the All, the One, the Ultimate, the Absolute Infinite, the Transcendent, the Divine Ground, Being or Existence itself, etc. For example, such views are typical of pantheism, panentheism, and religious monism. Attributing anthropomorphic characteristics to God may be regarded as idolatry, blasphemy, or symbolism by some. Some theists may not believe in, or may even deny, the existence of deities as supernatural beings, while maintaining a belief in god as so conceived. For example, the Protestant theologian Paul Tillich described God as the "ground of Being", the "power of Being", or as "Being itself", and caused controversy by making the statement that "God does not exist", resulting in him occasionally being labelled as an atheist. Nevertheless, for Tillich, God is not "a" being that exists among other beings, but is Being itself. For him, God does not "exist" except as a concept or principle; God is the basis of Being, the metaphysical power by which Being triumphs over non-Being. However, most atheists who deny the existence of deities as supernatural beings would also deny this and similar conceptions of God, or simply consider them incomprehensible. Even the broadest definitions of atheism often do not include belief in a conceptual or metaphysical God, categorizing this under theism instead.
Judaism
In general, formulations of Jewish principles of faith require a belief in God (represented by Judaism's paramount prayer, the Shema). In many modern movements in Judaism, rabbis have generally considered the behavior of a Jew to be the determining factor in whether or not one is considered an adherent of Judaism. Within these movements it is often recognized that it is possible for a Jew to strictly practise Judaism as a faith, while at the same time being an agnostic or atheist, giving rise to the joke: "Q: What do you call a Jew who doesn't believe in God? A: A Jew." It is also worth noting that Reconstructionism does not require any belief in a deity, and that certain popular Reform prayer books, such as Gates of Prayer, offer some services without mention of God. Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook [http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk16-kook.htm][http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk17-kook.htm], first Chief Rabbi of the Jewish community in pre-state Israel, held that atheists were not actually denying God: rather, they were denying one of man's many images of God. Since any man-made image of God can be considered an idol, Kook held that, in practice, one could consider atheists as helping true religion burn away false images of god, thus in the end serving the purpose of true monotheism. Some Jewish atheists reject Judaism, but wish to continue identifying themselves with the Jewish people and culture. See, for example, Levin (1995). Jewish atheists who practice Humanistic Judaism embrace Jewish culture and history, rather than belief in a supernatural god, as the sources of their Jewish identity.
Christianity
By necessity, Christianity, as a theistic and proselytising religion views atheism as wrongful. According to Psalm 14:1, "The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God." According to John 3:18-19, all who reject Christianity (and presumably its attendant theism) do so "because their deeds are evil". A famous but idiosyncratic atheistic belief is that of Thomas Altizer. His book The Gospel of Christian Atheism (1967) proclaims the highly unusual view that God has literally died, or self-annihilated. According to Altizer, this is nevertheless "a Christian confession of faith" (p.102). Making clear the difference between his position and that of both Nietzsche's notion of the death of God and the stance of theological non-realists, Altizer says:
To confess the death of God is to speak of an actual and real event, not perhaps an event occurring in a single moment of time or history, but notwithstanding this reservation an event that has actually happened both in a cosmic and in a historical sense.(p.103)
However, many would dispute that this is an atheist position at all, as belief in a dead God implies belief that God once existed and was alive. Atheism typically entails a lack of belief that any gods ever existed, rather than merely the belief that they do not exist now. For further discussion, see Lyas (1970). Other, unrelated practitioners of Christian atheism may include Liberal Christian atheists who follow the teaching of Jesus, but who may not believe in the literal existence of god. In this case, however, many would dispute whether the atheists in question are truly Christians, though they certainly are by some of the looser definitions of the word.
Islam
In Islam, atheists are categorized as kafir (كافر), a term that is also used to describe polytheists, and that translates roughly as "denier" or "concealer". The noun kafir carries connotations of blasphemy and disconnection from the Islamic community. In Arabic, "atheism" is generally translated ilhad (إلحاد), although this also means "heresy". As the Sharia punishment for apostasy in Islam is death and such apostasy is also widely socially disapproved of, atheists (as well as converts from Islam to other religions) in Islamic countries and communities frequently conceal their non-belief. The surveys mentioned above that indicate 100% religious belief in certain Islamic countries should be interpreted in light of this fact.
Asian spirituality
It is difficult to categorize the Eastern thought systems in distinct terms of theism or atheism. Therefore, it should be noted that even the thoughts that would be characterized as atheistic in the western sense, often have some theistic tendencies, and vice versa. Carvaka (also Charvaka) was a materialist and atheist school of thought in India, which is now known principally from fragments cited by its Hindu and Buddhist opponents. The proper aim of a Carvakan, according to these sources, was to live a prosperous, happy, productive life in this world (cf Epicureanism). There is some evidence that the school persisted until at least 1578. Buddhism is often believed to be atheistic, since it opposed the gods and rituals of Vedic religion. However, Buddhist documents, such as Asvagosha's Buddhacarita, suggest a strong polytheistic tendency in Buddhism. Later expressions of Buddhism, especially among the Mahayana schools, also display many theistic characteristics in their descriptions of the cosmic Buddha, and the nature of the world. Other schools continue to consider themselves as fundamentally atheistic, in the strong sense of the term. Jainism is also sometimes classified as atheistic since Jains's belive that "In the most basic sense, God is not seen as a person, place or tangible thing, but as the ideal state of an individual soul's existence" http://www.dd-b.net/~raphael/jain-list/msg01226.html alternately the reverence for those who have achieved this state can be viewed as a form of polytheism. Confucianism and

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