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Bamenda

Bamenda

Bamenda also popularly known to its inhabitants as Abakwa, is a city in northwestern Cameroon and capital of the North West Province. The city has an estimated 327,000 inhabitants. Located 366 km (227 mi) northwest of the Cameroonian capital, Yaoundé, Bamenda is known for its cool climate and scenic hilly location. With air (not in service for several years) and road links to Yaoundé and Douala, the city has numerous markets, banks, offices, coffee processing facilities and an important Baptist mission. The local museum and shops display a wide variety of local baskets, beads, woodcarvings and bronze statues. To the north of Bamenda is the Ring Road, a 367 km (228 mi) circular route through Cameroon's most spectacular mountains. Along this road is Mount Oku (3,000 m/9,800 ft), the Kimbi River Game Reserve, the Mentchum River waterfalls, a huge chief's palace at Bafut, and a pyramidal thatched shrine at Akum (also known as Bagangu). There are also interesting cultural sites that could be visited such as the Mankon Fon's (Chief's) Palace with its newly constructed Cultural/History Museum, and the Bali Fon's palace with its ancient architechtural structures. The mountainous nature of the terrain with wonderful topographical sites contributes to the beauty of the region. The mountain Sabga (hill) is just an example from which one can get a fantastic view of the Ndop plains. Bamenda is considered as the political heart beat of Cameroon for it is the cradle of political pluralism in Cameroon and the seat of the largest opposition political party the Social Democratic Front (SDF).

History

In 1986, a gaseous eruption of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide caused 2000 deaths around nearby Lake Nyos. Bamenda's principal ethnic group is the Tikar. In the past, the Tikar faced invasions from peoples in the surrounding hills, and between 1700 and 1800, they joined a confederation established by the Mbum for defense purposes. Bamenda was subjected to German colonialism in the late 19th century. After the defeat of the Germans in World War I (1914-1918) the league of Nations shared German colonial territories among victorious nations. Western Cameroon, was administered jointly with Nigeria under the protectorate of the British until 1961 when following a plebiscite (today condemned and contested to have been foul by an Anglophone Cameroon political pressure group- the Southern Cameroons National Council (SCNC) attained independence by joining then already independent la République du Cameroun. Evidence of Germany's former occupation of Bamenda can still be seen today in structures such as the Fort at the Bamenda station. Today, many of the city's inhabitants are English-speaking. English and Pidgin English are the main languages spoken in the shops and on the streets of Bamenda. Category:Cities in Cameroon

Abakwa

Abakwa is a secret society with roots in eastern Nigeria. Luciano "Chano" Pozzo, conga drummer for Dizzy Gillespie, was a member. Category:Nigerian organizations Category:Secret societies Abakwa see Bamenda

Northwestern

Northwestern can refer to:
- Northwestern Corporation, a bulk vending machine manufacturer; or
- Northwestern University in Illinois; or
- The Oshkosh Northwestern, a daily newspaper based in Oshkosh, Wisconsin.

Northwest Province, Cameroon

The Northwest Province (Nord-Ouest) is the third most populated province in Cameroon. It has two major cities: Bamenda and Kumbo. Seven large tribes dominate the province: The Nso,Wimbum tribe, Meta, Kom, Esimbi, Oku and Menda Nkwe people. The Northwest has no major industry, and the land is largely mountainous with only one relatively flat area, the Ndop Plain, where rice is grown. Other foods planted include Irish potatoes in the Bui division and beans from most of the province. Maize, beans, Irish potatoes, plantains and yams are the main food staples for the region. A lot of groundnuts is produced in the NW most of which comes from Esimbi. This province was previously made up of six divisions: Mezam, Bui, Momo, Donga-Mantung,Menchum and Fundong. Rencently two have been added: Ngo-Ketunjia, carved out of Mezam, and Belo, carved out of Donga-Matung. Belo There are a variety of languages spoken in the province. The main languages are Bafmen, Oku, Lamso, Bamenta, Pingin, Balikumbat, and Nkom. The Northwest is the stronghold for the main opposition party of Cameroon, the Social Democratic Front (SDF). Many Northwesteners feel totally marginalised from the Government in Yaoundé and are doing everything within their reach to secede from the French-speaking portion of the country. French-speaking Many of Cameroon's attractions are located in the Northwest Province. The second highest mountain in West Africa is in Oku, and there are a lot of rare birds, such as the distinctive red crested Bannerman's turaco, that are unique to this region. It also has many crater lakes and beautiful montane rainforest which hosts rare and endemic plants and animals. There is the Menchum Falls, which estimates say can supply enough electricity for the whole of West Africa. There is also Lake Nyos, in Wum. Wum Category:Provinces of Cameroon ja:北西州 (カメルーン)

Yaoundé

Yaoundé, «yah oon DAY», estimated population 1,430,000 (2004), is the capital city of Cameroon and second largest city in the West African country after Douala. It lies in the centre of the nation at about 750 metres above sea level. Yaoundé is located at 3°52' North, 11°31' East (3.8667, 11.51667). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]

History

Yaoundé was founded in 1888 by German traders as a base for the ivory trade and an agricultural research station. It was occupied by Belgian troops during World War I and after the war was the capital of French Cameroon. It has continued as the capital of the Republic of Cameroon.

Economy

Industries include cigarettes, dairy products, breweries, clay and glass goods, and lumber. Yaoundé is a regional center for coffee, cacao, copra, sugar cane, and rubber.

Features

The city centre houses government offices, some hotels and the central market. The Bastos neighbourhood contains foreign embassies and a large expatriate community. Attractions in the city include the Cameroon Art Museum (located in a Benedictine monastery), the Cameroon National Museum (located in the former presidential palace) and the Afhemi Museum. There is a small zoo in the Mvog-Betsi neighbourhood. The city is also home an international airport, while railway lines run to Douala and N'Gaoundéré. Many bus companies operate from the city, particularly in the Nsam and Mvan neighborhoods. The city has numerous markets, with the market at Mokolo as one of the biggest. The national football team plays frequent matches in the Ahmadou Ahidjo (or Omnisport) stadium. Yaoundé is the site of several universities: the University of Yaoundé I, University of Yaounde II (on a campus outside of town) and the Catholic University for Central Africa (UCAC). The presidential palace and compound is in the Etoudi neighborhood. Category:Capitals in Africa Category:Cities in Cameroon ja:ヤウンデ

Climate

The climate (ancient Greek: κλίμα) is the weather averaged over a long period of time. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) glossary definition is: : Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “average weather”, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm]

Climate vs weather

In the most succinct words, weather is the combination of events in the atmosphere and climate is the overall accumulated weather in a certian location. The exact boundaries of what is climate and what is weather are not well defined and depend on the application. For example, in some senses an individual El Niño event could be considered climate; in others, as weather. When the original conception of climate as a long-term average came to be considered, perhaps towards the end of the 19th century, the idea of climate change was not current, and a 30 year average seemed reasonable (but see note 1). Given the current availability of long-term trends in the temperature record, it is harder to give a precise contradiction-free definition of climate: over a 30 year period, averages may shift; over a shorter period, the statistics are less stable.

Climate determinants

In a given geographical region, the climate generally does not vary over time on the scale of a human life span. However, over geological time, climate can vary considerably for a given place on the Earth. For example, Scandinavia has been through a number of ice ages over hundreds of thousands of years (the last one ending about 10,000 years ago). Paleoclimatology is the study of these past climates, their origin, and by extension, the origin of today's climate. Over historic time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate including: altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: The Thermohaline circulation of the ocean distributes heat energy between the equatorial and polar regions; other ocean currents do the same between land and water on a more regional scale. Degree of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming (or cooling). The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least in so far as the determinates of historical climate change are concerned.

Climate indices

Scientists use climate indices in their attempt to characterize and understand the various climate mechanisms that culminate in our daily weather. Much in the way the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations in the stock market as a whole, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are generally identified or devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor they represent. By their very nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into an generalized, overall description of the atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which impact the global climate system. Because the climate indices are generally determined from measurements made in a localized area, they can have impacts in other areas around the globe, through processes sometimes called teleconnections. References:
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]

Classifications

In the original sense, climate is a concept used to divide the world into regions sharing similar climatic parameters. Climate regions can be classified on the basis of temperature and precipitation alone. Examples of such climate schemes are the Köppen climate classification or the Thornthwaite climate classification schemes. For more details about specific climates, please see:
- Tropical climate
- Subtropical climate
- Arid climate
- Semiarid climate
- Mediterranean climate
- Temperate climate
- Oceanic climate
- Continental climate
- Alpine climate
- Subarctic climate
- Polar climate
- Climate of Antarctica To understand a climate of a specific place or area, please see the article on that place or area.

Historical climates

- Climate changes of 535-536
- Medieval climate optimum

National climates

- Climate of the Alps
- Climate of India
- Climate of the United Kingdom

External links

- [http://climateapps2.oucs.ox.ac.uk/cpdnboinc/ Climate Prediction Project]
- [http://www.worldclimate.com WorldClimate]
- [http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/1442 ESPERE Climate Encyclopaedia]
- [http://www.weatherbase.com Weatherbase]
- [http://www.climate-zone.com Global Climate Data]
- [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html The Climate of Peru]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ A near-realtime Arctic Change Indicator Website]
- [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov/ A current view of the Bering Sea Ecosystem and Climate]

Notes

# In "Climatology" by W G Kendrew (OUP; 3rd edition 1949; chapter 38; page 359) we find: "A well-known cycle is one with a mean period of about 35 years... which was worked out by Bruckner... the reality of this cycle seems to be well established, though it is of little use for actual forecasting; it is a basis of the choice of 35 years as the period estimated to give true mean values of climate elements." Category:Ecology ko:기후 ja:気候 simple:Climate

Air

Air is a name for the mixture of gases present in the Earth's atmosphere. Compressed air is often used in scuba diving as a shallow water breathing gas and to inflate buoyancy devices. Compressed air is also used as the means of transmission of energy to pneumatic tools.

Composition of air

By volume, air is about:
- 78.084% Nitrogen (N₂)
- 20.947% Oxygen (O₂)
- 0.934% Argon (Ar)
- 0.033% Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) With trace amounts of:
- Neon (Ne)
- Helium (He)
- Krypton (Kr)
- Sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
- Methane (CH₄)
- Hydrogen (H₂)
- Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)
- Xenon (Xe)
- Ozone (O₃)
- Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂)
- Iodine (I₂)
- Carbon monoxide (CO)
- Ammonia (NH₃) The amount of water vapor in the air varies considerably depending on weather, climate, and altitude. See Humidity. The molecular mass of air is approximately 28.96443 g/mole (molecular weight of standard air - CRC, 1983).

External link

- [http://mistupid.com/chemistry/aircomp.htm Composition of Air] Category:Atmosphere Category:Psychrometrics Category:HVAC ko:대기 ms:Udara ja:空気 simple:Air

Road

:This page is related to transport; you may be looking for the 2002 Bollywood movie Road. Road Road A road is a strip of land, smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel, connecting two or more destinations. Some roads are streets, chiefly in urban areas. In the context of railways (railroads in American English), a road is a single track, which may be part of a multi-track system or may be an isolated line. In the context of sea transport, a road is an anchorage.

Usage and etymology

anchorage In original usage, a "road" was simply any pathway fit for riding ("road" is cognate with "ride", e.g.: ships ride at anchor in roads). The word “street,” whose origin is the Latin strata, was kept for paved pathways that had been prepared to ease travel in some way. Thus, many "Roman Roads" have the word "street" as part of their street name. However, modern usage does not usually make this distinction and it is only important since place names often hold the earlier usage in them; these days, roads are also prepared in some way. This includes, at the least, the removal of trees and smoothing of the ground. In some dialects, lower grade roads are called trails and tracks and it is uncertain where "road" begins and trail ends. Roads are a prerequisite for road transport of goods on wheeled vehicles. The word “road” emphasizes its function of transportation along its length, while a “street” may be considered to have activity and commerce taking place on it (see street life). street life.]]

History

The first pathways were the trails made by migrating animals. By about 10,000 BC, these rough pathways were used by human hunter nomads following these herds. Street paving has been found from the first human settlements around 4,000 BC. The oldest engineered road discovered is the Sweet Track causeway in England, dating from the 3800 BC. The Ancient Egyptians constructed a stone paved road to help move materials for the building of the Great Pyramid in about 3000 BC. The ancient Chinese constructed an extensive system of roads, some paved, from about 1100 BC onwards. By 20 AD, the Chinese road network extended over 40,000km. The Incas built fine highways for couriers through the Andes, and the Mayans built an extensive network of paved roads in Mexico before the European discovery of the New World. In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than travel by road, especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank. From about 300 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, in support of its military campaigns. Road construction and maintenance in Britain was traditionally done on a local parish basis. The poor and variable state of the roads that resulted lead to the first of the 'Turnpike Trusts' around 1706. These were formed to build good roads and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 Trusts in Britain and some 38,000 km of engineered roads. Engineered roads in the age of horse drawn transport aimed for a maximum gradient of 1 in 30 on a macadamized surface since this was the steepest a horse could exert to pull a load up hill which it could manage easily on the flat. Notable road engineers from this period are Pierre Marie Jérôme Trésaguet (1716-1796) in France and John Loudon McAdam (1756-1836) in England. During the industrial revolution,the railway developed as a solution to the problem of rutting of the road surface by heavy carts. Instead of trying to build a strong surface across the whole road the cart was constrained to run either on rails or grooves which could be made of much stronger , wear resistant material. Today, roads are almost exclusively built to enable travel by car and other wheeled vehicles. In most countries, road transport is the most utilized way to move goods. Also, in most developed countries, roads are formally divided into lanes to ensure the safe and smooth movement of traffic.

Funding

Road building and maintenance is an area of economic activity (compare military spending) that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private contractors). Roads (except those on private property not accessible to the general public) are typically paid for by taxes (often raised through levies on fuel), though some public roads, especially highways are funded by tolls.

Driving on the right or the left

Traffic drives on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country. See Rules of the road. In countries where traffic drives on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts (traffic circles) go counter-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first. In countries where traffic drives on the left, the reverse is true. Traffic flow and road design in both cases are each other's mirror image.

Design

Road design consists of two important technical aspects:
- geometrical road design
- structural road design Besides these two technical sides of the design, environmental issues, planning issues and juridical issues are important.

Construction

structural road design Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel. Removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) are often needed. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building. The soil is tested to see if it will support weight and if not, a layer of soil is removed and replaced. The soil is compacted to form what is known as a "base course". On top of the base course is placed a wearing course which consists of asphalt concrete or concrete. While the main purpose of the wearing course is to prevent moisture from entering the road, for safety reasons this wearing course must also be constructed to ensure adequate grip (and skid resistance) with vehicles. Modern roads, and indeed many ancient ones, such as those built by the Romans, feature a convex lateral surface known as camber. This is designed to allow water to drain away from the road to its edges. Water is then carried away by gutters to drains placed at intervals. Some roads don't have gutters and water simply drains away to a naturally porous verge, or into ditches. Modern roads that carry motor traffic also employ camber in curves to aid traffic stability by allowing them to "bank into" the bend to some extent. On the side of the road there may be retroreflectors on pegs, rocks or crash barriers, white toward the direction of the traffic on that side of the road, and red toward the other direction. In the road surface there may be cat's eyes: retroreflectors that protrude slightly, but which can be driven over without damage. Road signs are often also made retroreflective or even illuminated in rare circumstances. For greater visibility of road signs at daytime, sometimes fluorescence is applied to get very bright colors.

Maintenance

retroreflective]] Like all outdoor structures, roads deteriorate over time. They may develop cracks or potholes, or be washed away altogether by floods. Cracks can be filled with various sealants and potholes can be filled with fresh asphalt, but eventually a whole new surface is needed. Lack of maintenance speeds up the deterioration, especially in frost-prone areas, as water enters the cracks, and freezes under the road. The resulting ice has a bigger volume than the water, which causing a localized rising and falling (when the ice melts again) of the wearing course which can severely damage the road. Most European countries have strict standards for road construction that ensure that most roads should be able to go 30 years or longer between major resurfacings. The United States and many other countries have less stringent standards under which most roads last only 20 to 25 years. However, even those countries with stricter standards suffer from increasing levels of truck traffic, which is mainly responsible for road damage (see below). On any road, the load per vehicle axle passing over it is mainly responsible for the amount of wear. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective wear done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of vehicle weight. As a result, truck traffic almost always is the exclusive 'real' cause of road damage. In an example, a hypothetical car weighs half a ton per axle. A 6-axle, 38-ton truck also travelling on the same road weighs in at over 6 tons per axle. The truck causes 20,736 times the wear of the car (12 times the car's axle load, with a power of 4, yielding 12^4 = 20,736). Actual trucks can have even higher axle loads, though there is a wide variation in the configuration of trucks, with some having larger, wider tyres, or multiple tyres per axle, which will cause the exact figures to vary. While such figures sound dramatic, it should be realised that a single car causes almost no wear at all, so 20,000 times this figure still may not be very high. The wear is only measurable over an extended period.

Terminology

AASHO Road Test]
- arterial road
- asphalt
- autobahn
- autoroute
- autostrasse
- bitumen
- byway
- bypass
- bottleneck
- boulevard
- cat's eye
- chicane
- concrete
- corduroy road
- corniche
- cul-de-sac
- curb extension
- dirt road
- divided highway
- expressway
- farm to market
- freeway
- gravel road
- guard rail
- green lane green lane
- hard shoulder
- highway
- Interchange
- Intersection
- Interstate
- lane
- median
- mountain pass
- milestone
- motorway
- off-ramp
- on-ramp
- Parkway
- pavement
- pavement markings
- pedestrian crossing
- performance
- plank road
- private highway
- private road
- public road
- public space
- ranch road
- range road
- ridge road
- road number
- road safety
- road junction
- roadworks roadworks, England. A British Airways Boeing 777-200 is being towed across a public road on its way to the maintenance hangars.]]
- roundabout intersection
- rural route
- state highway
- street
- super-highway
- toll road
- traffic calming
- traffic circle
- traffic light
- traffic sign
- US highway
- winter road

References

- Lay MG, Ways of the world. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, (1992). ISBN 0813517583 .

External links

- [http://www.2pass.co.uk/goodluck.htm List of countries where traffic drives on the left, as well as historical background.]
- [http://www.travel-library.com/general/driving/drive_which_side.html Which side of the road do they drive on?]
- [http://www.ce.ksu.edu/facultystaff/stefan/ce777/docs/L02.pdf Kansas State University Department of Civil Engineering - History of Concrete Road Building] (PDF file) Category:Road infrastructure Category:Road transport ja:道路 simple:Road th:ถนน

Douala

:This article is about the city in Cameroon. For other uses of "Douala", see Duala. Douala is the largest city in Cameroon, and capital of the Littoral Province. It is the commercial capital of the country and home to its largest port. The Bonaberi Bridge over the Wouri River divides the city into two parts. The population of Douala is about 1.6 million as of 1991 and is currently likely to be over two million. Douala is a transportation center handling most of the country's exports (oil, cocoa and coffee) as well as transit trade from Chad. It developed as a center of the slave trade after the Portuguese arrived in 1472. It later became part of a German protectorate in 1884 and of the French Cameroons in 1919. The city is also home to Eko Market, the largest in the nation. The most important districts of Douala are Bonanjo (the commercial and administrative centre) and Akwa (known for its nightlife). Douala Airport is the busiest in Cameroon, while railway lines run to Yaoundé, Kumba and Nkongsamba. Category:Cities in Cameroon Category:Coastal cities ja:ドゥアラ

Banks

Banks is the plural of bank, a financial institution; see bank (disambiguation) for other uses.
- is also the name of a popular Barbados-based beer brand. Banks Beer
- is the name of a family of Hobbits in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien. Banks Banks may also refer to:
- Thomas Banks (1735–1805), English sculptor.
- Sir Joseph Banks (1743–1820), English naturalist.
- Edgar James Banks (1866–1945), U.S. archeologist.
- Ernie Banks (born 1931), U.S. baseball player.
- Dennis Banks (born 1932), Native American politician and writer.
- Tommy Banks (born 1936), Canadian musician and politician.
- Gordon Banks (born 1937), British footballer.
- Tony Banks, Baron Stratford (born 1943), British Labour politician.
- John Banks (born 1946), mayor of Auckland, New Zealand.
- Jonathan Banks (born 1947), U.S. actor.
- Tony Banks (born 1950), British songwriter and musician.
- David Banks (born 1951), British actor.
- Iain Banks (born 1954), British novelist.
- Robert C. Banks, Jr. (born 1966), U.S. filmmaker.
- Tyra Banks (born 1973), U.S. model. Banks also refers to several places:
- Banks, a suburb of Canberra, Australia, named after Sir Joseph Banks

Offices

:This article is about traditional meanings of the word office. For computer office applications suites, see List of office suites. :For the television program, see "The Office." An office is a room or other area in which people work, but may also denote a position within an organisation with specific duties attached to it (see officer, office-holder, official); the latter is in fact an earlier usage, office as place originally referring to the location of one's duty. When used as an adjective, the term office may refer to business-related tasks. In legal writing, a company or organization has offices in any place that it has an official presence, even if that presence consists of, for example, a storage silo rather than an office. An office is an architectural and design phenomenon and a social phenomenon, whether it is a tiny office such as a bench in the corner of a "Mom and Pop shop" of extremely small size (see SOHO) through entire floors of buildings up to and including massive buildings dedicated entirely to one company. In modern terms an office usually refers to the location where white-collar workers are employed during the day.
History of offices
white-collar worker
- The very word stems from the Latin officium (see that article), as its equivalents in various (mainly romance) languages. Interestingly, this was not necessarily a place, but rather an -often mobile- 'bureau' in the sense of a human staff or even the abstract notion of a formal position (such as a magistrature). Anyway, Rome can be considered the first society which, mainly because of the rule of law, developed a relatively elaborate bureaucracy, which would not be equaled for centuries in the West after the fall of Rome, even partially reverting to illiteracy, while the east preserved a more sophisticated administrative culture, both under Byzantium and under islam.
- Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. There was usually a room where scrolls were kept and scribes did their work. Ancient texts mentioning the work of scribes allude to the existence of such "offices". These rooms are sometimes called "libraries" by some archaeologists and the general press because one often associates scrolls with literature. In fact they were true offices since the scrolls were meant for record keeping and other management functions such as treaties and edicts, and not for writing or keeping poetry or other works of fiction.
- The medieval chancery was usually the place where most government letters were written and were laws were copied in the administration of a kingdom. The rooms of the chancery often had walls full of pigeonholes, constructed to hold rolled up pieces of parchment for safekeeping or ready reference (a precursor to the book shelf). The introduction of printing during the Renaissance did not change these early government offices much.
- Pre-industrial illustrations such as paintings or tapestries often show us personalities or eponyms in their private offices, handling record keeping books or writing on scrolls of parchment. All kinds of writings seemed to be mixed in these early forms of offices. Before the invention of the printing press and its distribution there was often a very thin line between a private office and a private library since books were read or written in the same space at the same desk or table, and general accounting and personal or private letters were also done there.
Space arrangement in offices
There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according to function, managerial fashions and the culture of specific companies can be even more important. Choices include, how many people will work within the same room. At one extreme, each individual worker will have their own room; at the other extreme a large open plan office can be made up of one main room with tens or hundreds of people working in the same space. Open plan offices which put multiple workers together in the same space and some studies in particular areas have shown that they give short term productivity, for example within a single software project. At the same time the loss of privacy and security can increase the incidence of theft and loss of company secrets. A type of compromise between open plan and individual rooms is provided by the cubicle, possibly made most famous by the Dilbert cartoon series, which solves visual privacy to some extent, but often fails on acoustic separation and security.
Office buildings
While offices can be built in almost any location in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult. These requirements can be both legal (light levels must be sufficient, for example) or technical (requirements for networking). Along side such other requirements such as security and flexibility of layout, this has led to the creation of special buildings which are dedicated only or primarily for use as offices. An office building (also called an office block) is a form of commercial building which contains spaces mainly designed to used for offices. The primary purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PC's and other equipment they may need within these areas. An office building will be divided into sections for different companies or may be dedicated to one company. In either case, each company will typically have a reception area, one or several meeting rooms, singular or open-plan offices, as well as toilets. Many office buildings also have kitchen facilities and a staff room, where workers can have lunch or take a short break.
Standard facilities in modern office buildings

- water
- electricity (distribution through entire office space with many separate points)
- private branch exchange
- optical connections to local telecommunications providers
- parking (often underground under the office)
- structured cabling (category 5 or better) for internal networking and telecommunications
Smoking in office buildings
Gradually, smoking is becoming restricted within large offices and other work spaces in most countries. Sometimes smoking is allowed in this case but is confined to an area clearly defined as a smoking room. Depending on the culture and the business occupying the building, smokers may not be allowed to smoke inside the building at all. In the case of an office buildings this can lead to a large interconnected area where smoking is disallowed. In this case, smokers are forced to either forego smoking during the day or, more commonly, to leave the buildings for short periods of time. Depending on the climate of the surrounding area and the particular weather on that day, this may be an unpleasant experience. In some cases smokers may have some form of shelter outside the building to use when they want a cigarette.
See also

- Factory
- Warehouse
- Business park
- Sick building syndrome
- Office supplies
- Office manager
- Class A office space
References

- Adams, Scott. What do you call a sociopath in a cubicle? : (answer, a coworker) Kansas City, Missouri. : Andrews McMeel Pub., 2002.
- Duffy, Francis. Colin Cave. John Worthington, editors. Planning Office Space. London: The Architectural Press Ltd., 1976.
- Klein, Judy Graf. The Office Book. New York: Facts on File Inc., 1982. Category:Buildings and structures Category:Rooms Category:Office work ja:オフィス

Baptist

A Baptist is a member of a Baptist church. Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. Baptists emphasize a believer's baptism by full immersion, which is performed after a profession of faith in Jesus as Lord and Savior. A congregational governance system gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches, which are sometimes associated in organizations such as the Southern Baptist Convention. In the late 1990s, there were about 43 million Baptists worldwide with about 33 million in the United States.

Beliefs

Baptist churches do not have a central governing authority, resulting in a wide range of beliefs from one Baptist church to another. Baptist distinctives are beliefs that are common among Baptist churches, some of which are also shared with many other post-reformational denominations. Some historically significant Baptist doctrinal documents include the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith, the 1833 New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith, and the Southern Baptist Convention's Baptist Faith and Message, which are often used as the "official" doctrinal statements of individual local Baptist churches or the starting point for an official statement. See also : List of Baptist Confessions or Doctrinal Statements

Baptist distinctives acrostic

This backronym is used by some Baptist churches as a summary of the distinctives or distinguishing beliefs of Baptists.
- Biblical authority
- Autonomy of the local church
- Priesthood of all believers
- Two ordinances (baptism and communion)
- Individual soul liberty
- Separation of Church and State
- Two offices of the church (pastor and deacon)

Biblical authority

Authority of the Scriptures or sola scriptura states that the Bible is the only authoritative source of God's truth in contrast to the role of Apostolic tradition in the Roman Catholic Church. Any view that cannot be directly tied to a scriptural reference is generally considered to be based on human traditions rather than God's leading. Each person is responsible before God for his or her own understanding of the Bible and is encouraged to work out their own salvation with fear and trembling. Baptists generally consider historic Christian creeds to be on lower footing in comparison to Scripture even though they may in essence agree with them. However, a group or local church may have a general "Statement of Faith" such as the Baptist Faith and Message of the Southern Baptist Convention). Biblical inerrancy is also a common position held by fundamentalist Baptists in addition to contextually literal interpretations of the Bible and other fundamentalist theologies. However, because of the variety allowed under congregational governance, many Baptist churches are neither literalist nor fundamentalist, although most do believe in biblical authority. Most moderate or non-fundamentalist Baptists prefer the term inspired or God-breathed rather than inerrant to describe scripture, referring to the term Paul uses in 2 Timothy 3:16. With regard to the inerrancy of the Scriptures, some Baptists consider that the original autographs (presumed lost) are inerrant and that the original words have been preserved by God on copies made throughout the years since they were written. Most Baptists consider the translations of these manuscripts into other languages (such as English) to be necessary, but not necessarily inerrant. Some Baptists believe that the King James Version of the Bible is an inspired translation and reject the need to know or use the Greek and Hebrew manuscripts. Even though it is only the Bible that is considered authoritative, Baptists also cite other works as illustrative of doctrine. One work which is commonly read by Baptists is the allegory Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan.

Autonomy of the local church (Congregationalism)

Congregationalist church governance gives autonomy to individual local churches in areas of policy, polity and doctrine. Baptist churches are not under the direct administrative control of any other body, such as a national council, or a leader such as a bishop or pope. Administration, leadership and doctrine are usually decided democratically by the lay members of each individual church, which accounts for the variation of beliefs from one Baptist church to another. Exceptions are some Reformed Baptists, who are organized in a Presbyterian system, the Congolese Episcopal Baptists that has an Episcopal system, and some Baptist megachurches who lean towards a strong clergy-led style, in some instances abandoning congregational governance altogether (though as independent congregations within an association, are free to adopt any style). In a manner typical of other congregationalists, many cooperative associations or conventions of Baptists have arisen. These associations were formed for missionary and other charitable work and have no authority over the operations of individual local churches. Local churches decide at what level they will participate in these associations. The largest association in the United States is the Southern Baptist Convention. The second largest is the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc., which is also America's second largest predominantly African-American denomination. There are hundreds of Baptist conventions and many Independent Baptist churches do not fall into any of them, believing such associations to be unscriptural. In addition, there are sometimes very strong disputes within conventions which are often divided between Christian fundamentalists and moderates.

Priesthood of all believers

Priesthood of all believers states that every Christian has direct access to God and the truths found in the Bible without the help of an aristocracy or hierarchy of priests. This doctrine is based on the passage found in [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Peter%202:9;&version=31;50;9; 1 Peter 2:9] and was popularized by Martin Luther during the Protestant Reformation and John Wycliff's Lollards before Luther. Baptists are encouraged, though, to discuss scriptural and other issues with their minister when appropriate. The Baptist position of the priesthood of all believers is one column that upholds their belief in religious liberty.

Two ordinances (Baptism and Communion)

Generally, Baptist churches recognize only two Biblical ordinances that are to be performed on a regular basis by churches: baptism and communion. Some churches, including Primitive Baptists and some Free Will Baptists, also practice foot washing as a third ordinance.

Believer's baptism

Baptism, commonly referred to as Believer's baptism, is an ordinance that, according to Baptist doctrine, plays no role in salvation, and is performed after a person professes Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior. It is an outward expression that is symbolic of the inward cleansing or remission of their sins that has already taken place. It is also a public identification of that person with Christianity and with that particular local church. Most Baptist churches use baptism by full immersion, subsequent to salvation, as a criterion for membership. Through Anabaptist influence, Baptists reject the practice of pedobaptism (infant baptism) because they believe parents cannot make a decision of salvation for an infant. Related to this doctrine is the disputed concept of an "age of accountability" when God determines that a mentally capable person is accountable for their sins and eligible for baptism. This is not necessarily a specific age, but is based on whether or not the person is mentally capable of knowing right from wrong. Thus, a person with severe mental retardation may never reach this age, and therefore would not be held accountable for sins. Baptists emphasize baptism by full immersion, the mode presumed to have been used by John the Baptist. This consists of lowering the candidate in water backwards while the baptizer (a pastor or any baptised believer) invokes the Trinitarian formula of Matthew 28:19 or other words concerning a profession of faith. This mode is also preferred for its parallel imagery to the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. Recognition of baptisms by other modes and Christian groups vary. Many Baptist churches only recognize baptism by full immersion as being valid, while a few will baptise by sprinkling as a practical alternative for the disabled or elderly or in times of drought. Some Baptist churches will recognize adult baptisms performed in other orthodox Christian churches, while others only recognize baptisms performed in Baptist churches. In rare instances, a church may recognize only its own baptisms as valid.

Communion

Communion, which is alternately called "The Lord's Supper", is an ordinance patterned after the Last Supper recorded in the Gospels which Jesus says to "do this in remembrance of Me" (Luke 22:19). Participants communally eat the bread and drink the cup that are representative of the body and blood of Jesus. Baptists emphasize that the remembrance is symbolic of Christ's body and reject literal views of communion such as transubstantiation and consubstantiation held by other Christian groups based on their interpretation of John 6. 1 Corinthians 11:23-34 is also commonly cited as instructional for the practice of Communion. Many Baptists refuse to refer to this ordinance as Communion due to its prominent use by the Roman Catholic Church and instead use the alternate "The Lord's Supper". The bread used in the service may be cubes of unleavened bread, wafers or small crackers, generally of an unleavened variety which is thought to be the type used at the Last Supper. The general Baptist embracing of the Temperance movement, prohibition, and teetotalism in the U.S. led to the practice of using non-alcoholic grape juice for the cup, but some Baptists do use wine. The grape juice is typically served in small individual glasses, though some churches use one large cup for the entire congregation. Many church buildings are equipped with round receptacles on the rear of the pews for depositing the empty glasses after the service. Both "elements" of the bread and the cup are usually served by the pastor to the deacons, and by the deacons to the congregation. The general practice is for the elements to be taken by the congregation as a whole as a symbol of unity, first the bread and then the cup separately, although sometimes both elements are taken together. Communion services may be held weekly, monthly, quarterly, or even annually. It usually takes place at the end of a normal service, but may take place at any time during the service. Participation may be either "closed" (only members of that church can participate), "cracked" (members of other Baptist churches may participate, but not of other denominations), or "open" (anyone professing to be a Christian may participate).

Individual soul liberty

The basic concept of individual soul liberty is that, in matters of religion, each person has the liberty to choose what his/her conscience or soul dictates is right, and is responsible to no one but God for the decision that is made. A person may then choose to be a Baptist, a member of another Christian denomination, an adherent to another world religion, or to choose no religious belief system, and neither the church, nor the government, nor family or friends may either make the decision or compel the person to choose otherwise. And, a person may change his/her mind over time.

Separation of church and state

Main article: Baptists in the history of separation of church and state Baptists who were imprisoned or died for their beliefs have played an important role in the historical struggle for freedom of religion and separation of church and state in England, the United States, and other countries. In 1612 John Smyth wrote, "the magistrate is not by virtue of his office to meddle with religion, or matters of conscience". That same year, Thomas Helwys wrote that the King of England could "command what of man he will, and we are to obey it," but concerning the church -- "with this Kingdom, our lord the King hath nothing to do." In 1614, Leonard Busher wrote what is believed to be the earliest Baptist treatise dealing exclusively with the subject of religious liberty. Baptists were influential in the formation of the first civil government based on the separation of church and state in what is now Rhode Island. Anabaptists and Quakers also share a strong history in the development of separation of church and state. The original objection was opposition of the monarchy or government setting religious agenda for churches or a "National Church" and did not imply a retreat by Christians from the political realm or involvement in the political process. Modern debates about church and state separation involve disagreements about the extent to which Christian groups are able to, or should, set the legal and moral agenda for the government, and conversely whether government is preventing Christians and Christian groups from equal access to public forums. Currently in the United States, Baptist involvement in politics often involves controversies concerning gambling, alcohol, abortion, same-sex marriage, the teaching of evolution and state-sanctioned public prayer in public high schools. In parts of the Southern United States, Baptists form a majority of the population and have successfully banned alcohol sales and prevented the legalization of certain kinds of gambling.

Two offices (Pastor and Deacon)

Generally Baptists only recognize two Scriptural offices, those of pastor and deacon. The office of elder, common in some evangelical churches, is usually considered by Baptists to be the same as that of pastor, and not a separate office. The prevalent view among Baptists is that these offices are limited to men only, following the model of Christ and His apostles. However, the issue of women pastors/deacons has surfaced as controversy in some churches and denominations.

Pastor

In the Baptist church, the primary role of pastor is to deliver the weekly sermon. In smaller churches, the pastor will often visit homes and hospitals to call on ill members, as well as homes of prospective members (especially those who have not made salvation decisions). The pastor will also perform weddings and funerals for members, and at business meetings serve as the moderator. The pastor may also be required to find outside work to supplement his income. Larger churches will usually have one or more "associate" pastors, each with a specific area of responsibility, whereby the overall pastor is considered the "senior" pastor. Some examples are:
- music (the most common)
- youth (in smaller churches, often combined with music)
- children
- administration (in the larger churches) In the majority of instances, the pastor will be married with children (associate pastors may or may not be married, but if not married will find it difficult to be considered for a senior pastor position by other churches).

Deacon

The main role of the deacon is to assist the pastor with members' needs. Deacons also assist during communion. A common practice is for each family to be assigned a specific deacon, to be the primary point of contact whenever a need arises. Some larger megachurches, especially those using cell groups, use the cell group leader(s) to function in the role of deacon(s). Deacons are usually chosen from members who have demonstrated exceptional Christian piety, and serve without pay.

Justification by faith

Justification by faith or sola fide states that it is by faith alone that we receive salvation and not through any works of our own. Baptists have a strong emphasis on the concept of salvation. Baptist theology teaches that humans have been contaminated by the sin of Adam and Eve's rebellion against God and that for this sin we are condemned to damnation. The theology holds that Christ died on the cross to give humans the promise of everlasting life, but that this requires that each individual willfully accepts Christ into his life and repents of sin. Nevertheless, the Baptist view of soteriology runs the gamut from Calvinism to Arminianism.

Beliefs that vary among Baptists

Because of the congregational style of church governance on doctrine, doctrine on the following issues often varies greatly between one Baptist church and another.
- doctrine of separation
- Calvinism/Arminianism
- the nature of Law and Gospel
- the ordination of women
- homosexuality
- the extent to which Church and State should be separate from each other
- the extent to which non-members may participate in communion services
- the extent to which missionary boards should be used to support missionaries
- Eschatology Baptists generally believe in the literal Second Coming of Christ at which time God will sit in judgment and divide humanity between the saved and the lost (the Great White Throne judgment Book of Revelation 20:11) and Christ will sit in judgment of the believers (the Judgment Seat of Christ Second Epistle to the Corinthians 5:10), rewarding them for things done while alive. Amillennialism, dispensationalism, and historic premillennialism stand as the main eschatological views of Baptists, with views such as postmillennialism and preterism receiving only scant support.

Comparisons with other denominations

Baptists share certain emphasis with other groups such as evangelism and missions. While the general flavor of any denomination changes from city to city, this aspect of Baptist churches is much more prominent than in most Anglican, Methodist, Lutheran and Presbyterian churches. The Pacifism of the Anabaptists and the Quakers is not an ideal held by most Baptists. The Baptist Peace Fellowship of North America was organized in 1984 to promote peace, justice, and non-violence, but it does not speak for all Baptists that accept the ideal of pacifism. Moreover, Baptists are strongest in the southern United States, an area known for strong support of the military and thus generally not supportive of pacifist views. In Australia, the Baptist Union is very close to the Campbell-Stone Church of Christ. The two groups share similar theology, even sharing a Bible college.

Worship style

The focus of Baptist church services is the sermon. This can be seen in traditional Baptist church architecture--the pulpit, which is symbolic of proclamation of the Word of God, is the largest piece of furniture and centered on the platform, while the communion table placed below it in a symbolically "subservient" position (in sharp contrast to the Roman Catholic church which places the communion table at the center of the platform, since communion is the focus of its services, while the pulpit is off to one side). However, some of the modern megachurches have abandoned traditional architecture in favor of an entertainment-type stage, where a small podium and chair are brought out after the musical worship is complete. Sermons often range in time from 30-60 minutes. They range in style from expository sermons that focus on one biblical passage and interpret its meaning, to topical sermons which address an issue of concern and investigate several biblical passages related to that topic. The sermon is often surrounded by periods of musical worship lead by a song leader, choir or band. Musical style varies between hymns and Contemporary Christian music with many churches choosing a blend of the two. The choice in music style is often correlated to the predominant age of the members, with older congregations preferring traditional hymns played with piano and/or organ (the latter is becoming less frequent due to fewer organists) and featuring a choir, while younger congregations prefer contemporary music with modern instruments and no choir. Larger churches may have a full orchestra along with the choir. Some fundamentalist Baptists will only sing hymns (which usually includes songs in their hymnals written between the 1700s and the 1950s) and generally oppose the use of drums and/or electric guitar in their services because they associate those instruments with rock music. Other common features in a Baptist church service include the collection of offering, an altar call, a period of announcements and Communion. Most Baptist congregations are small in number with membership under 200 people while other congregations are megachurches with membership in the tens of thousands.

Origins

There are several views about the origins of Baptists within the Baptist church.

Landmarkist

Landmarkism is the belief that Baptist churches and traditions have preceded the Catholic Church and have been around since the time of John the Baptist and Christ. Proponents believe that Baptist traditions have been passed down through a succession of visible congregations of Christians that were Baptist in doctrine and practice, but not necessarily in name. This view is theologically based on Matthew 16:18 , "...and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." and a rejection of Catholicism as part of the historical origins of Baptists. This succession grants Baptist churches the status of being unstained and separate from what they see as the corruptions of Catholicism and other denominations. It also allows for the view that Baptists predate the Catholic church and is therefore not part of the Reformation or the Protestant movement. Alexander Campbell of the Restoration Movement was a strong promoter of this idea. J. M. Carroll's The Trail of Blood, written in 1931, is commonly presented to defend this origin's view. Several groups considered to be part of this Baptist succession were groups persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church throughout history including Montanists, Novatianists, Donatists, Paulicians, Albigensians, Catharists, Waldenses, and Anabaptists. While some of these groups shared a few theological positions with current Baptists, many held positions that would now be considered heretical by current Baptists. It is also difficult to show historical connections between those groups which were often separated by large gaps in geography and time. The works of John T. Christian offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.

Anabaptist

Anabaptists (Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites) were a group in the 1500s that rejected infant baptism and "rebaptized" members as adults. They share many teachings of the early Baptists, such as the believer's baptism and religious freedom and were probably influential in the development of many Baptist characteristics. While their names suggest some connection, some Anabaptists differed from the Baptists on many other issues such as pacifism and the communal sharing of material goods. It is difficult to say how much influence the Anabaptists had on the actual formation of Baptist churches. One of the strongest relationships between the two groups happened when John Smyth's General Baptists attempted but failed to merge with the Mennonites. The works of William Roscoe Estep offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.

Separatist

This view suggests that Baptists were originally separatists in the Puritan reaction to perceived corruptions in the Church of England in the 1600s. In 1609, John Smyth led a group of separatists to the Netherlands to start the General Baptist church with an Arminian theology. In 1616, Henry Jacob led a group of Puritans in England with a Calvinist theology to form a congregational church that would eventually become the Particular Baptists in 1638 under John Spilsbury. Both groups had members who sailed to America as pilgrims to avoid religious persecution in England and Europe and who started Baptist churches in the early colonies. The Particular and General Baptists would disagree over Arminianism and Calvinism until the formation of the Baptist Union of Great Britain in the 1800s under Andrew Fuller and William Carey for the purpose of missions. American Baptists soon followed suit. This is the most common view held by modern Baptists, which is found represented in the works of H. Leon McBeth and many others.

The name "Baptist"

Baptist comes from the Greek word 'baptistès' (to submerge), and the Latin 'baptista', and is in direct connection to 'the baptiser', 'John the Baptist'. As a first name it is used in Europe from the 12th century also as Baptiste, Jan-Baptiste, Jean-Baptiste, John-Baptist. In the Netherlands as of the 17th century, but mainly as of the 18th century as a combination like Jan Baptist or Johannes Baptist. As last name it is used as of the 13th century . Also commonly used as Baptiste, Baptista, Batiste, Battista.

Questions of labeling

Some Baptists object to the application of the labels Protestant, denomination, Evangelical and even Baptist to themselves or their churches, while others accept those labels. Those who reject the label Baptist prefer to be labeled as Christians who attend Baptist churches. Also, a recent trend is to eliminate the name "Baptist" from the church name, as it is perceived to be a "barrier" to reaching persons of no church background who have negative views of Baptists. Conversely, others accept the label Baptist because they identify with the distinctives they consider to be uniquely Baptist, and believe those who are removing the name "Baptist" from their churches are "compromising with the world" in order to attract more members. The name Protestant is rejected by some Baptists because some Baptists believe they do not have a direct connection to Luther, Calvin or the Roman Catholic Church. They do not feel that they are "protesting" anything; Landmark Baptists believe they actually pre-date the Roman Catholic Church. Other Baptists accept the Protestant label as a demographic concept that describes churches who share similar theologies of sola scriptura, sola fide, the priesthood of all believers and other positions that Luther, Calvin and traditional reformers held in contrast to the Roman Catholic Church in the 1500s. The label denomination is rejected by some because of the local autonomous governance system used by Baptist churches. Being a denomination is viewed as having a hierarchy that substitutes for the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church. Another reason for the rejection of the label is the influence of the Restoration period on Baptist churches, which emphasized a tearing down of denominational barriers. Other Baptists accept the label, feeling that it does not carry a negative connotation but rather is merely a synonym for a Christian or religious group. The label Evangelical is rejected by some fundamentalist Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is not fundamentalist enough. It is rejected by some liberal Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is too conservative. It is accepted by moderate Baptists who identify with the revival in the United States in the 1700s known as the First Great Awakening.

Other resources

- [http://www.sbc.net/ Southern Baptist Convention]
- [http://www.sbhla.org/info.htm/sbhla/ Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives]
- [http://www.bpnews.net/bpn/ Baptist Press]
- [http://www.abc-usa.org/abhs/ American Baptist Historical Society]
- [http://www.baptisthistory.org/ Baptist History and Heritage Society]
- [http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/ The Center for Baptist Studies]
- [http://www.baptistlife.com/ BaptistLife.Com]
- [http://www.valpo.edu/geomet/pics/geo200/religion/baptist.gif Map of USA showing Percentage of Baptist Population in each county]
- [http://www.fbcj.com First Baptist Church of Jackson] Category:Baptist Category:Anabaptism Category:Protestantism Category:Christianity ko:침례교 ja:バプテスト教会

Shops

:For other meanings of shop, click here. "Shops" is a prose written by Xi Xi, which has been adopted as reading materials for the Chinese language paper of the HKCEE. This passage illustrates the ageing buildings, squatters, and old-fashioned traditional shops in Central and Western District, particularly in Sheung Wan and Sai Ying Pun, as well as other human behaviour in this hustling district. She expressed her tinge of nostalgia of her childhood, and of the disappearing old shops due to drastic infrastructural development. Category:Hong Kong literature

Beads

A bead is a small, decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing. As an alternative to piercing, plastic beads may be Moulded Onto a Thread during manufacturing; these MOT beads are often used for the throw necklaces worn at Mardi Gras. Beads range in size from under a millimeter to over a centimeter in diameter. Glass, plastic, and stone are probably the most common materials, but beads are also made from the seeds of the Bead tree, and also from bone, metal, resin, wood, clay, felt, paper, and other materials. Beadwork is the craft of making things with beads. Beads can be woven together with specialized thread, or adhered to a surface (e.g. fabric, clay). Types of glass beads include:
- Lampwork beads -- technique of glass modelling
- Millefiori -- putting little pieces of colored glass into a glass pane to form a picture
- Pressed glass beads
- Slave beads -- a currency in African trade in the old times Other types:
- Anal beads -- a sex toy
- Chevron bead -- a kind of a painted bead, traditional African jewelery
- Fire-polish beads
- Seed beads -- a generic term for a small jewelery bead
- Prayer beads Category:Arts and crafts Category:Jewellery making

Bronze

Bronze is the ancient name for a broad range of alloys of copper, but usually with tin as the main additive. First used in the Bronze Age, it made tools, weapons and armor harder or more durable than their stone and copper predecessors. In early use, the impurity arsenic made the alloy even harder. The earliest bronzes date to the late 4th millennium BC in Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in Luristan (Iran) and Mesopotamia (Iraq). Bronze was stronger than the era's iron; quality steels were not available until thousands of years later. But the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age, perhaps because the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean became more limited during the major population migrations around 1200 – 1100 BC, which dramatically limited supplies and raised prices.[http://www.claytoncramer.com/Iron2.pdf] Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, but for many purposes the weaker iron was sufficiently strong. As ironworking improved, iron became both cheaper and stronger, eclipsing bronze in Europe by the early to mid-Middle Ages. Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent heavier than steel, although alloys using aluminium or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronzes are softer and weaker than steel, and more elastic, though bronze springs are less stiff (lower energy) for the same bulk. Bronzes resist corrosion (especially seawater corrosion) and metal fatigue better than steel. Bronzes also conduct heat and electricity better than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-base alloys. Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, the excellent deep-drawing qualities of cartridge case brass, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze, the resonant qualities of bell bronze, and the resistance to corrosion by sea water by several bronze alloys. In the twentieth century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Aluminium is also used for the structural metal Aluminium bronze. Bronze is the most popular metal for top-quality bells and cymbals, and also for cast metal sculpture (see bronze sculpture). Common bronze alloys often have the unusual and very desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details of a mould. Bronze also has very little metal-on-metal friction, which made it invaluable for the building of cannon where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel. Bronze is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings and similar roles, and is particularly common in the bearings on small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. Bronze is typically 60% copper and 40% tin. Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4-5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades.

External links

- [http://www.jepsculpture.com/bronze.html Flash animation of lost-wax casting]
- [http://www.modernsculpture.com/bronze.htm Bronze Casting process explained - good pictures] Category:Copper alloys Category:Art materials ko:청동 ja:青銅

Statues

: This article is about a children's game called Statues. For sculptures, see statue. For the Moloko album, see Statues (album). Statues is a children's game played by a number of people.
External links
http://open-site.org/Games/Party_Games/Statues/ - Instructions for the game

Waterfalls

, Australia]] A waterfall is usually a geological formation resulting from water, often in the form of a stream flowing over an erosion-resistant rock formation that forms a sudden break in elevation. Waterfalls may also be artificial, and they are sometimes used for garden and landscape ornament. Some waterfalls form in mountain environments where erosion is rapid and stream courses may be subject to sudden and catastrophic change. In such cases, the waterfall may not be the end product of many years of water action over a region, but rather the result of relatively sudden geological processes such as thrust faults or volcanic action.

Formation

volcanic action Some waterfalls are the result of action of water on the underlying strata. Typically, a stream will flow across an area of formations, and more resistant rock strata will form shelves across the streamway, elevated above the further stream bed when the less erosion-resistant rock around it disappears. Over a period of years, the edges of this shelf will gradually break away and the waterfall will steadily move upstream. Often, the rock strata just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, and will erode out to form a shallow cave-like formation known as a rock shelter (also known as a rock house) under and behind the waterfall. Streams often become wider and more shallow just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep pool just below the waterfall due to the kinetic energy of the water hitting the bottom. Some water falls have brown water from picking up rust, dirt and clay from the things it passes.

Types of waterfalls

kinetic energy ; Block : Water descends from a relatively wide stream or river. ; Cascade : Water descends a series of rock steps. ; Cataract : A large waterfall. ; Fan : Water spreads horizontally as it descends while remaining in contact with bedrock. ; Horsetail : Descending water maintains some contact with bedrock ; Plunge : Water descends vertically, losing contact with the bedrock surface ; Punchbowl : Water descends in a constricted form, then spreads out in a wider pool. ; Segmented : Distinctly separate flows of water form as it descends. ; Tiered : Water drops in a series of distinct steps or falls.

Examples of large waterfalls

- Angel Falls, the world's highest at 979 m (3230 ft), in Venezuela
- Victoria Falls, the world's largest, on the Zambezi River, on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe
- Boyoma Falls, with the world's highest volume, 17,000 m³/s (600,000 ft³/s), on the Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo
- Yosemite Falls, the tallest in North America, located in Yosemite National Park, United States
- Niagara Falls, most voluminous in North America, on the border between the United States and Canada
- Rhine Falls, Europe's largest, located in Switzerland
- Iguazu Falls, a tall and extremely wide fall located in South America on the Argentina/Brazil border
- Jog Falls, India's highest and second highest in Asia, located in Karnataka state, India
- Jurong Falls in Singapore is said to be the tallest man-made waterfall in the world

Gallery

Image:Base of Tower Fall with rainbow-750px.JPG|Tower Fall in Yellowstone National Park, United States Image:Iceland_Godafoss 1972.jpg|Godafoss in Iceland Image:Angel falls.jpg|Angel Falls, Venezeuela Image:Wailua_Falls_Hawii.JPG|Wailua Falls in Hawaii, United States Image:Iceland Dettifoss 1972-4.jpg|Dettifoss in Iceland Image:National botanical gardens09.jpg|Man made waterfall at the Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra, Australia Image:Waterfall_near_Brienzersee.JPG|Waterfall near Brienzersee, Switzerland

External links

- [http://www.world-waterfalls.com/ World Waterfall Database]
- [http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen3/f44_niagara.html Niagara Falls - Fullscreen QTVR Panorama]
- ja:滝

Bafut

Town of Bafut

The town of Bafut is a town in Cameroon in the Northwest Province, to the North of the city of Bamenda. It is the headquarters of the Bafut subdivision. It is famous for
- Being the venue of the Annual Dance of the Fon (local chieftan) or the Abin e Mfor.
- The location of the palace of the Fon of Bafut, the residential dwelling of the Fon and his wives and counsel which now houses a museum. (see Fon of Bafut for a section on the Palace of the Fon)
- The nearby location of the botanical garden of Savanna Botanic Gardens, which noted naturalist Gerald Durrell helped plan, is located near the town.
- The presence of the Bafut market, which is a very vibrant one in the area, occurring every eight days, selling fruits, spices, vegetables, meat and animals.

Subdivision of Bafut

The neighbouring region is also referred to as Bafut or the Bafut Subdivision or the Kingdom / Chiefdom / Fondom of Bafut. It is a subdivision in the Mezam Division of Northwest Province, Cameroon. It is located in the Western Grassfields region - a name for the Northwest Province, Cameroon and surrounding grassland areas. Bafut is the most powerful of the traditional kingdoms of the Grassfields, now divided into 26 wards or subdivisions along a 10 kilometre stretch of the "Ring ROad" that trails along a ridge above the Menchum Valley. Bafut is one of the two regions in Cameroon (the other being Bali, Cameroon), where traditional power structures are still in place. Bafut is a chiefdom or fondom. It was long the centre of the local kingdom of the Tikar people (originally from the Northern regions of Lake Chad), and is presently administered by the Fon of Bafut. The Fon of Bafut was, and to some extent still is, the paramount Fon of the region, with all other Fons pledging allegiance to him. Bafut is primarily an agrarian region. The region of Bafut is situated about twenty kilometres northwest of Bamenda and covers an area of roughly 340

km^2

. The estimated population of 80,000 (2005) is settled in three main zones.
- At the centre are the people of Mumala'a (heart of the country) clustered around the Fon's palace who refer to themselves as the real Bafut (Bufu). This name can be applied to the whole chiefdom.
- To the south is the Ntare (ridge area)
- To the north is the Mbunti (lower) which descends abruptly to the Metchum river valley The Fondom of Bafut is known for
- its palace of the Fon of Bafut, which houses a museum (see Fon of Bafut for a section on the palace)
- for its annual festival Abin e Mfor or the Dance of the Mfor/Fon
- as the place where the famous naturalist Gerald Durrell came on two animal-collecting expeditions in 1949 and