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Slavic Studies

Slavic studies

Slavistics or Slavic Studies is the study of Slavic languages, literature and culture. A Slavist or Slavicist is a linguist or philologist who researches Slavistics, a Slavic (AmE) or Slavonic (BrE) scholar. NB: not to be confused with Pan-Slavists.

Slavists

Famous Slavists

- Vatroslav Jagić (1838–1923) from Croatia
- Anton Janežič (1818–1869) from Slovenia
- Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787–1864) from Serbia
- Josef Matl (1897–1974) from Austria
- Franc Miklošič (1813–1891) from Slovenia
- Josip Tominšek (1872–1954) from Slovenia
- Pavel Jozef Šafárik (1795–1861) from Slovakia

Contemporary Slavists

- Radoslav Katičić (1930) from Croatia

Slavic languages

The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages), a group of closely related languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages, have speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia.

Branches

Scholars divide the Slavic languages into three main branches, some of which feature sub-branches:
- East Slavic, including Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn.
- West Slavic, which further subdivide into:
- Czech and Slovak,
- Upper and Lower Sorbian (minority languages in Germany),
- Lechitic languages: Polish, Pomeranian/Kashubian and extinct Polabian.
- South Slavic, which further subdivide into:
- Western subgroup composed of Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian. Slavicists often group the latter three together as the Serbo-Croatian language.
- Eastern subgroup composed of Bulgarian and Macedonian. (Some slavicists, especially those in Bulgaria and Greece, regard Macedonian as a "regional norm" of the Bulgarian language rather than as a separate language.) Some scientists postulate that a North Slavic branch has existed as well; the Old Novgorod dialect would be a remnant of it. On the other hand, the term "North Slavic" is also used sometimes to combine the West and East Slavic languages into one group, in opposition to the South Slavic languages. The oldest Slavic literary language was Old Church Slavonic, which later evolved into Church Slavonic.

Distribution of Slavic languages

Map of Slavic languages in Europe

The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary (i.e., standard) languages. Enough differences exist between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between speakers of different Slavic languages difficult. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, as those of Slovenian. Modern mass media, however, has helped to minimize variation in all the Slavic languages. Note too that historical inter-Slav cultural currents, such as the influence of South Slavic Old Church Slavonic and of South Slavic scholars on Russian, have exercised some re-unifying influence.

History

Common roots and ancestry

One can view all Slavic languages as descendants from Proto-Slavic, their parent language. According to some historical linguistics theories, Proto-Slavic in turn developed from the Proto-Balto-Slavic language, a common ancestor of Proto-Baltic, the parent of the Baltic languages. According to this theory, the "Urheimat" of Proto-Balto-Slavic lay in the territories surrounding today's Lithuania at some time after the Indo-European language community had separated into different dialect regions (c. 3000 BC). Slavic and Baltic speakers share at least 289 words which could have come from that hypothetical language. According to some linguists the process of separation of Proto-Slavic speakers from Proto-Baltic speakers presumably occurred around 1000 BC. Some linguists maintain however, that the Slavic group of languages differs more radically from the neighboring Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian). The Baltic language speakers once lived in a much larger area along the Baltic Sea and south. Starting by AD 600 Slavic language speakers gradually spread and took over large areas of Baltic settlements. (At the same time records note them taking over portions of Greece.) (The first documented attempt at conquest of Baltic speakers by Slavic speakers comes from Adalbert of Prague in the year AD 997.) This group of linguists explain Baltic/Slavic similarities in grammar and vocabulary as a result of this Slav migration into the Baltic-speaking areas and the subsequent proximity of the two groups. A minority of linguists, spurred by the idea of "geolinguistics", view the southern branch of the Slavic languages as possibly autochthonous to the Balkans.

Differentiation of Slavic languages

In the opinion of linguists, probably even in the 10th–12th centuries all Slavs spoke generally the same language, with recognizable regional differences. Linguistic differentiation received impetus from the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over large territory - which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries already have some local linguistic features. For example the Freising monuments show a language which contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovenian dialects (e.g. rhotacism, the word krilatec).

Separation of South and West Slavs

The movement of Slavic-speakers into the Balkans in the declining centuries of the Byzantine empire expanded the area of Slavic speech, but pre-existing languages (notably Greek) survived in this area. The arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia in the 9th century interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. Frankish conquests completed the geographical separation between these two groups, severing the connection between Slavs in Lower Austria (Moravians) from those in present-day Styria, Carinthia and East Tyrol, ancestors of present-day Slovenians.

Slavic-speaking populations under foreign rule

Political situations have also affected the use and scope of the Slavic languages. In the course of their history, many Slavic-speaking communities came under foreign rule for longer or shorter periods. Poland underwent partition, German-speaking empires appeared to absorb the Czechs for many centuries, and the Ottomans in their hey-day dominated the Balkan Slavs. Even the Russians had to submit to the Tatar yoke after the Mongol invasion of Russia. The largest geographical extent of Slavic population, which in the Middle Ages included the majority of the present-day German lands of Brandenburg and Pomerania, diminished in the course of the German Drang nach Osten. Turkish incursions suppressed the regional hegemonies of Bulgarian and Serbian speakers; Poland suffered decline, partition and extinction as a separate national state in the 18th century. Until the 20th century, certain speech-groups (such as speakers of Slovenian) lacked the resources to establish their own distinctive independent nation-states. Other communities (speakers of Sorbian or of Kashubian, for example) remain as minorities in the current system of nation-states. Some speech-communities have long stood under the influence of others -- even other Slavs: speakers of Ukrainian and Belarusian came under Polish and/or Russian rule; German-speaking overlords have long dominated the Sorbian-speakers. In the case of Czech- and Slovak-speakers, originally kindred languages diverged when the former came under German rule, the latter under Hungarian. The same division marks the now well-established border between the Slovenian and Croatian language areas, even if some bordering dialects of the two languages indicate an almost smooth transition. Despite their frequent lack of political power, speakers of Slavic languages demonstrated resilience, sometimes culturally taking over foreign political rulers, as in Bulgaria, where Bulgar overlords became Slavicized. Similarly, in the Republic of Dubrovnik Croatian became an official language in parallel to Ragusan Dalmatian and Latin. Even under the Ottoman Empire, south-eastern Europe, except for Greece proper and Albanian, Romanian and Hungarian areas, remained Slavic speaking.

Modern developments

In the 19th century Pan-Slavism combined with nationalism to foster linguistic and literary expansion and revival: often under the aegis of the Russian tsars. The arrival of Communist regimes in the 20th century fostered the separate lingustic development of Ukrainian, Belarusian and Macedonian, for example, but the years from 1945 to 1990 saw the vast majority of Slavic speakers grouped in the institutions of the Warsaw Pact under Soviet Russian domination. The following trend to political independence and the break-up of the old unified polities (Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia) has encouraged a greater diversity of Slavic linguistic paths.

Slavic influence on neighboring languages

The Romanian and Hungarian languages witness the influence of the neighboring Slavic nations, especially in the vocabulary pertaining to crafts and trade; the major cultural innovations at times when few long-range cultural contacts took place. Despite a comparable extent of historical proximity, German shows no significant Slavic influence, one notable exception being the word for "border", Grenze, from the Slavic
- granĭca.

Detailed list with ISO 639 and SIL codes

The following tree for the Slavic languages derives from the Ethnologue report for Slavic languages[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90673]. It includes the SIL, ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 codes where available. ISO 639-2 uses the code sla in a general way for Slavic languages not included in one of the other codes. East Slavic languages:
- Belarusian (alternatively Belarusan, Belarussian, Belorussian) - (SIL code: bel; ISO 639-1 code: be; ISO 639-2 code: bel)
- The United States State Department, Ethnologue and the Rosetta Project recognize the form Belarusan.
- Ukrainian - (SIL code: ukr; ISO 639-1 code: uk; ISO 639-2 code: ukr)
- Russian - (SIL code: rus; ISO 639-1 code: ru; ISO 639-2 code, rus)
- Rusyn - (SIL code: rue; ISO 639-2 code: sla) West Slavic languages:
- Sorbian section (also known as Wendish) - ISO 639-2 code: wen
- Lower Sorbian (also known as Lusatian) - (SIL code: dsb; ISO 639-2 code: dsb)
- Upper Sorbian - (SIL code: hsb; ISO 639-2 code: hsb)
- Lechitic section
- Polish - (SIL code: pol; ISO 639-1 code, pl; ISO 639-2 code, pol)
- Pomeranian
- Kashubian - (SIL code: csb; ISO 639-2 code: csb)
- Slovincian - extinct
- Polabian - extinct - (SIL code: pox; ISO 639-2 code: sla)
- Czech-Slovak section
- Czech - (SIL code: ces; ISO 639-1 code: cs; ISO 639-2(B) code, cze; ISO 639-2(T) code: ces)
- Knaanic or Judeo Slavic - extinct - (SIL code: czk; ISO 639-2 code: sla)
- Slovak - (SIL code: slk; ISO 639-1 code: sk; ISO 639-2(B) code: slo; ISO 639-2(T) code: slk) South Slavic languages:
- Western Section
- Slovenian - (SIL code: slv; ISO 639-1 code: sl; ISO 639-2 code: slv)
- Croatian (SIL code: hrv; ISO 639-1 code: hr; ISO 639-2/3 code: hrv)
- Bosnian (SIL code: bos; ISO 639-1 code: bs; ISO 639-2/3 code: bos)
- Serbian (SIL code: srp; ISO 639-1 code: sr; ISO 639-2/3 code: srp)
- Eastern Section
- Macedonian - (SIL code: mkd; ISO 639-1 code: mk; ISO 639-2(B) code: mac; ISO 639-2(T) code: mkd)
- Bulgarian - (SIL code: bul; ISO 639-1 code: bg; ISO 639-2 code: bul)
- Old Church Slavonic - extinct (SIL code: chu; ISO 639-1 code: cu; ISO 639-2 code: chu) Note that Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian previously formed a unitary Serbo-Croatian (SIL 14th ed. code: SRC; ISO 639-1 code: sh; ISO 639-2(B) codes: scr and scc). See also: Differences in official languages in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia. Para- and supranational languages
- Church Slavonic language, derived from Old Church Slavonic, but with significant replacement of the original vocabulary by forms from the Old Russian language and other regional forms. The Russian Orthodox Church and Serbian Orthodox Church continue to use Church Slavonic as a liturgical language. While not used in modern times, the text of a Church Slavonic mass survives in the Czech Republic, which is best known through Janacek's musical setting of it (the Glagolitic Mass). A planned language called Slovio also exists: constructed on the basis of Slavic languages, and intended to facilitate intercommunication between people each of whom already speak at least one Slavic language.

External links

- [http://www.continuitas.com/interdisciplinary.pdf|Ethnic continuity and Slavic ethnogenesis]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90673 Ethnologue report on Slavic languages]
- [http://miejipang.homestead.com/untitled1.html Let's try Slavic languages!]
- [http://www.uni-bonn.de/~dbuncic/fauxamis/biling_un.htm Bilingual lists of Slavic false friends]
- als:Slawische Sprachen ko:슬라브어파 ja:スラヴ語派

Linguist

The following is a list of linguists, those who study linguistics. See modern linguists for those whose work follows the program of structural linguists. __NOTOC__

A

- William Foxwell Albright
- Mark Aronoff
- John Langshaw Austin (1911-1960) British

B

- Emmon Bach (1929-) American
- Zami Bahawalpuri
- Mark Baker
- Charles Bally (1865-1947) French
- Yehoshua Bar-Hillel (1915-1975) Israeli
- Jan Niecislaw Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) Polish
- Alton Becker
- Mary Beckman
- Adriana Belletti
- Byron Bender
- Benjamin K.Bergen
- Roger Berry British
- Derek Bickerton (1926-)
- Manfred Bierwisch German
- Wilhelm Bleek (1827-1875) German
- Bernard Bloch
- Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) American
- Sheila Blumstein
- Robert Blust
- Franz Boas (1858-1942) American
- Jonathan Bobaljik
- Paul Boersma
- Dwight Bolinger (1907-1992) American
- Franz Bopp (1791-1867) German
- Željko Bošković
- John Bowring (1792-1872) British
- Wilhelm Braune (1850-1926) German
- Michael Brody (1954-) Hungarian/British
- Karl Brugmann (1849-1919) German
- Ranko Bugarski Serbian sociolinguist
- Karl Bühler (1879-1963) German
- Alisson Burkett

C

- Lyle Campbell
- Monica Cantero
- Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970) German
- Robyn Carston
- John Chadwick (1902-1998) British (Linear B)
- Wallace Chafe
- Paul Chilton
- Jean-François Champollion (1790-1832) French (Egyptian hieroglyphs)
- Noam Chomsky (1928-) American
- Guglielmo Cinque (1948-) Italian
- Wes Collins (Hispanic Linguistics, Mam)
- Bernard Comrie
- Jean-Claude Coquet
- Annabel Cormack
- William Croft
- Megan Crowhurst
- David Crystal (1941-) British
- Peter W. Culicover American
- Felice Coles

D

- Vladimir Dahl Russian
- Amy Dahlstrom
- Anne Daladier (French)
- Donald Davidson (1917-2003) American
- Ali Akbar Dehkhoda (1879–1959) Iranian
- Berthold Delbrück (1842-1922) German
- Otto Dempwolff (1871-1938) German
- R. M. W. Dixon (1939-) British/Australian
- Clement Martyn Doke (1893-1980) South African (Bantu languages)
- Aharon Dolgopolsky (1930-) Russian/Israeli
- Patricia Donegan American
- Edgardo Donovan (1974-) American/Italian
- Ángela Downing
- Konrad Duden German
- Donald Dyer

E

- Umberto Eco (1932-) Italian
- Murvet Enc
- Desiderius Erasmus
- Michael Everson (1963-) American-Irish (Writing systems)

F

- Charles J. Fillmore (1929-) American
- Michael Forman
- Danny Fox American
- Johannes Friedrich German
- Fran Levstik (1831 - 1881) Slovenian

G

- Brent Galloway (born 1944)
- Tamaz Gamkrelidze (born 1929) Georgian
- Gerald Gazdar (born 1950) British
- Badri Gharib (Iranian)
- Anastasia Giannakidou
- Heinz Giegerich (German)
- Andrew Goatly British
- Alexander Gode (German, American)
- Adele Goldberg
- George Grace
- Sidney Greenbaum (1929-1996) British
- Joseph Greenberg (1914-2001) American
- (Herbert) Paul Grice (1913-1988) British
- Jakob Grimm (1785-1863) German
- John Gumperz
- Yosef Grodzinsky

H

- Harald Haarmann German
- Mary Haas
- Kenneth L. Hale (1934-2001) American
- Morris Halle (1923-) American
- Michael Halliday (1925-) British/Australian
- John Peabody Harrington
- James Harris
- John Harris
- Roy Harris (1931-) British
- Zellig Harris (1909-1992) American
- John Hawkins
- Sarah Hawkins
- Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa (1906-1992) American
- Valerie Hazan
- Irene Heim American/German (semantics)
- Randall Hendrick
- Luc Herman Belgian
- Daniel Hirst (1946-) British/French (speech prosody)
- Louis Hjelmslev (1899-1965) Danish
- Charles F. Hockett (1914-2000) American
- Harry Hoijer
- Harry Hollien
- Paul Hopper
- Norbert Hornstein
- Jill House
- Mark Huckvale
- Wilhelm von Humboldt (1787-1835) German
- Rodney Huddleston British/Australian
- Richard Hudson (1939-) British
- Dell Hymes American

I

- Sabine Iatridou (1958-) American/Greek
- Vladislav Illich-Svitych (1934-1966) Russian/Ukrainian
- Frances Ingemann
- Pavle Ivić (1924-1999) Serbian

J

- Ray Jackendoff (1945-) American
- Vatroslav Jagić (1838 - 1923) Croatian
- Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) Russian
- Katarzyna Jaszczolt Polish
- Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) Danish
- Jimmy Mello ( 1979 ) Brazil
- Keith Johnson
- Daniel Jones (1881-1967) British
- Sir William Jones (1746-1794) British
- Allard Jongman
- Brian Joseph
- Dan Jurafsky

K

- Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787–1864) Serb
- Ahmad Kasravi (1890–1946) Iranian
- Paul Kay American
- Michael Kenstowicz
- M. Dale Kinkade
- Paul Kiparsky (born 1941) Finnish/American
- Yuri Knorosov (1922—1999) Russian (Maya hieroglyphics)
- Alice Kober (1907–1950) British (Linear B)
- Đorđe Kostić (1909–1995) Serbian (speech recognition and machine translation in analogue technology, phonetics and phonology, etc.; surrealist)
- Hilda Koopman
- Stephen Krashen
- Angelika Kratzer American/German (semantics)
- Michael Krauss
- Alfred L. Kroeber
- Henry Kucera (born 1925) Hungarian

L

- William Labov (born 1927) American (founder of sociolinguistics)
- Peter Ladefoged
- Itziar Laka
- George Lakoff American
- Robin Lakoff
- Sydney Lamb (born 1929) American
- Richard Larson
- Howard Lasnik
- Karl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884) German
- August Leskien (1840–1916) German
- Charles N. Li (Chinese)
- Yafei Li
- Alvin Liberman
- Mark Liberman
- David Lightfoot
- Lin Hua (Chinese)
- John Lipski
- Philip Locke
- Fred Lukoff (1920–2000) American (Korean language)

M

- Monica Macaulay
- Marlys Macken
- Miura Tsutomu (1911-1989) Japanese
- Pádraic I. M. MacUidhir
- Ian Maddieson
- Susan Major
- Sean Mann, American expert in Korean dialect
- Alec Marantz
- Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr (1864-1934), Russian/Georgian
- André Martinet
- Joan Mascaro
- Peter Matthews (born 1934) British
- John J. McCarthy
- James D. McCawley
- John McWhorter American, expert on Creole languages
- Carl Meinhof (1857-1944) German
- Franc Miklošič (1813-1891) Slovene
- Carl Mills (1942-2003) American
- Ken Miner
- Jason Merchant
- Marianne Mithun
- Richard Montague (1930-1971) American
- Pamela Munro American

N

- Johanna Nichols
- Francis Nolan
- Jerry Norman (Chinese)
- Jon Nissenbaum

O

- William O'Grady
- Hermann Osthoff (1847-1909) German
- Karel Oštir (1888-1973) Slovene
- Janez Orešnik Slovene
- Marc Okrand - Klingon Language
- Walter J. Ong - American
- Öner Özçelik - Turkish

P

- Pāṇini (some time between the 7th and 4th centuries BC) Indian
- Barbara Partee
- Hermann Paul (1864-1940) German
- Andrew Pawley
- Holger Pedersen (1867-1953) Danish
- Mario Pei (1901-1978) Italian-American
- David Pesetsky (1957-) American
- Ann Peters
- Robert Phillipson (1942-) British
- Janet Pierrehumbert
- Kenneth L. Pike (1912-2000) American
- Predrag Piper Serbian (slavist)
- Jean-Yves Pollock
- Rebecca Posner
- Paul Postal (1936-) American
- Dennis Preston
- Alan S. Prince
- Ernst Pulgram Italic and Romance languages
- Geoffrey Pullum (1945-) British/American
- Clifton Pye
- Thomas Pyles

Q

- Randolph Quirk British

R

- Fran Ramovš (1890-1952) Slovene
- Robert Rankin
- Eduardo Raposo
- Rasmus Christian Rask (1787-1832) Danish
- Charles Read
- Kenneth Rehg
- Lawrence A. Reid
- Norvin Richards American
- Luigi Rizzi (1952-) Italian
- Ian Roberts (1957-) British
- Sara Thomas Rosen
- Háj John R. Ross American
- Malcolm Ross
- Alain Rouveret French
- Merritt Ruhlen American
- Mihaj N. Radan Romanian

S

- Harvey Sacks
- Hiralal Shukla[Semiotica Indica]India
- Jerrold Sadock
- Ivan Sag American
- Joseph Salmons
- Geoffrey Sampson (1944-) British
- Beatrice Santorini
- Edward Sapir (1884-1939) American
- Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Swiss
- Irena Sawicka Polish
- Archibald Henry Sayce (1845-1933) British (Akkadian)
- August Schleicher (1821-1868) German
- Johannes Schmidt (1843-1901) German
- Wilhelm Schmidt (1868-1954) German
- John Searle (1932-) American
- Elizabeth Selkirk
- Sequoyah (1760-1843) American (Cherokee)
- Joan Sereno
- Sibawayh(i) (d.793) Persian
- Eduard Sievers (1850-1932) German
- Neil Smith
- Paul Smolensky
- David Stampe American
- Stanley Starosta American
- Donca Steriade American/Romanian
- Takao Suzuki Japanese
- Morris Swadesh American
- Zdenko Škreb Croatian

T

- Deborah Tannen (1951-) American
- Julee Tate
- Bruce Tesar
- Eric Thompson (1898-1975) American
- Laurence C. Thompson
- Sandra A. Thompson (Chinese)
- Tokieda Motoki (1900-1967) Japanese
- J. R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973) British
- George L. Trager
- Larry Trask (1944-2004) American
- Lisa Travis
- Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) Russian
- Peter Trudgill

U

- J. Marshall Unger (1947-) American (Japanese)

V

- Hans van de Koot
- Teun A. Van Dijk
- George van Driem Dutch, expert on Tibeto-Burman languages
- Max Vasmer (1886-1962) Russian/German
- Michael Ventris (1922-1956) British (Linear B)
- Jean-Roger Vergnaud French
- Karl Verner (1846-1896) Danish
- Valentin Voloshinov Russian
- Alexander Vovin born Russian, naturalized American

W

- Gregory Ward
- John Wells (born 1939, British)
- Paul Werth (British)
- John Westbury
- Diedrich Westermann (1875-1956, German)
- Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal (1919-1990)
- Lydia White
- Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941, American)
- Henry Widdowson (British)
- Anna Wierzbicka (born 1938, Polish)
- Edwin Williams
- Nicholas Williams (born 1943, Irish and Cornish)
- David Willis
- Deirdre Wilson
- Robert Dick Wilson (1856–1930, American)
- Walt Wolfram
- Arok Wolvengrey
- Alison Wray

Y

- Yamada Yoshio Japanese
- Victor Yngve (1920-) American
- Androula Yiakoumetti Cypriot
- Moira Yip
- Richard Young

Z

- Karen Zagona
- L. L. Zamenhof (1859-1917) Polish (creator of the constructed language Esperanto)
- Raffaella Zanuttini
- Draga Zec
- Ghil'ad Zuckermann Israeli/British (originator of the theory that "Israeli", his term for "Modern Hebrew", is a Semito-European hybrid language)
- Arnold Zwicky List of linguists Linguists ja:言語学者の一覧

Philologist

Philology is the study of ancient texts and languages. The term originally meant a love (Greek philo-) of learning and literature (Greek -logia). In the academic traditions of several nations, a wide sense of the term "philology" describes the study of a language together with its literature and the historical and cultural contexts which are indispensable for an understanding of the literary works and other culturally significant texts. Philology thus comprises the study of the grammar, rhetoric, history, interpretation of authors, and critical traditions associated to a given language. Such a wide-ranging definition is becoming rare nowadays, and "philology" tends to refer to a study of texts from the perspective of historical linguistics. In its more restricted sense of "historical linguistics", philology was one of the 19th century's first scientific approaches to human language but gave way to the modern science of linguistics in the early 20th century due to the influence of Ferdinand de Saussure, who argued that the spoken language should have primacy. In the United States, the American Journal of Philology was founded in 1880 by Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve, a professor of Classics at Johns Hopkins University.

Branches of philology

Comparative philology

One branch of philology is comparative linguistics, which studies the relationship between languages. Similarities between Sanskrit and European languages were first noted in the early 18th century and led to the speculation of a common ancestor language from which all of these descended - now named Proto-Indo-European. Philology's interest in ancient languages led to the study of what were in the 19th century "exotic" languages for the light they could cast on problems in understanding and deciphering the origins of older texts.

Radical philology

Radical philology is a contemporary re-appropriation of a centuries-old tradition of scholarly interaction with the materiality of texts. In its main outlines, radical philology diverges from main-stream philology in its understanding of the relationship between textual scholarship and literary interpretation. While main-stream philology uses the fruits of textual research as "evidence" for broader, more abstract claims, radical philology sees textual research as an end in itself.

Text reconstruction

Philology also includes elements of textual criticism, trying to reconstruct an ancient author's original text based on variant manuscript copies. A related study, known as Higher criticism, which studies the authorship, date, and provenance of texts, proves invaluable in these attempts, but also is informed by them. These philological issues are often inseparable from issues of interpretation, and thus there is no clear-cut boundary between philology and hermeneutics. As such, when the content of the text has a significant political or religious influence (such as the reconstruction of early versions of christian gospels), it is difficult to find neutral or honest conclusions.

Deciphering ancient texts

Another branch of philology is the decipherment of ancient writing systems, which had spectacular successes in the 19th century involving Egyptian and Assyrian. Beginning with the sensational publication of the decipherment of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, a number of individuals attempted to decode the great inscriptions of the ancient world. Work on the ancient languages of the middle east progressed rapidly, with Hittite decoded in 1915 by Bedřich Hrozný, and the cuneiform languages of the Behistun Inscription, namely Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian, being decoded by Sir Henry Rawlinson. The most famous inscriptions, also amongst the most important for what they tell of the ancient Mediterranean civilisations, are Linear A, and Linear B. While Linear B was deciphered in the 1950's by Michael Ventris and proclaimed as an early form of Greek (indicating that the Mycenaean language, and thus likely the Mycenaeans, was Greek), this conclusion is still heavily debated in the field. Linear A, the unknown language of the Minoans (which would shed much light on this ancient civilisation), on the other hand, still resists translation. Work still continues on scripts such as Mayan hieroglyphics (with great progress made in the late 20th century), and on Etruscan. J.R.R. Tolkien was a noted philologist of his day, although he is now best known for writing The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Another was C.S. Lewis, his friend and colleague at Oxford, who wrote the Chronicles of Narnia and the Space Trilogy. Perhaps the most famous however was Friedrich Nietzsche, who started his career with an extensive knowledge in classical philology ( He was Extraordinary Professor of Classical Philology at the University Of Basel) but soon took up philosophy. However his love of language never left him, and it formed the basis of some of his most illuminating works.

External links

- [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology (ed. José Ángel García Landa, University of Zaragoza, Spain)] Category:Historical linguistics Category:Writing ja:文献学 ko:고전문헌학

AME

AME is an abbreviation that can refer to:
- The African Methodist Episcopal Church
- Aircraft Maintenance Engineer (in Canada)
- Alternate Mission Equipment
- Aviation Medical Examiner (in the United States) AmE usually stands for American English

Pan-Slavism

in 1848]] Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid 19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic people. The main focus was in the Balkans where Southern Slavs had been ruled over by the two great empires, Austria and the Ottoman Empire. It was also used as political tool by the Russian Empire and Soviet Union.

Origins

Although pan-Slavic ideas were first expounded by Juraj Krizanic in the mid-17th century, full-scale Pan-Slavism began much like Pan-Germanism, both of which grew from the sense of unity and Nationalism experienced within ethnic groups under the domination of France during the Napoleonic Wars. Like other Romantic nationalist movements, Slavic intellectuals and scholars in the developing fields of history, philology, and folklore actively encouraged the passion of their shared identity and ancestry. Pan-Slavism also co-existed with the Southern Slavic independence. Commonly used symbols of the Pan-Slavic movement were the Pan-Slavic colours (red, white and blue) and the Pan-Slavic anthem, Hey, Slavs. The movement began following the end of the wars in 1815. In the aftermath, the European leaders sought to restore the pre-war status quo. Austria's representative in the Congress of Vienna, Metternich, felt the threat to this status quo in Austria was the nationalists demanding independence from the empire. While their subjects were composed of numerous ethnic groups (such as Italians, Romanians, Hungarians, etc), most of the subjects were Slavs. The first Pan-Slav convention was held in Prague, Bohemia in 1848 while the Southern Slavic movement was active after Serbia regained independence from Turkish Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, Austria pursued its extremely repressive domestic policies to curb the nationalists, who Austria feared would endanger their empire.

Pan-Slavism in Central Europe

The first Pan-Slavic convention was held in Prague in 1848 and was specifically both anti-Austrian and anti-Russian. Pan-Slavism has some supporters among Czech politicians but never gained dominant influence, possibly other than treating Czechs and Slovaks as branches of a single nation. Pan-Slavism was used as propaganda tool by Russian Empire. In time the Pan-Slavic movement was dominated by Russians, and the idea of Slavic unity changed to a vision of the Russian Empire ruling over all Slavs; Russian proponents of the idea believed that Russian people are "true" Slavs. Some even believed other nations of Slavic origins should adopt Russian language, Orthodox religion, and Cyrilic writing. Such behaviour led many former supporters of this idea to denounce it either as outdated or simple Russification. During World War I Captured Slavic soldiers were asked to fight against "oppressive" Austrian Empire: some did (see Czechoslovak Legions). Creation of an independent Czechoslovakia made the old ideals of Pan-Slavism anachronistic. Relations with other Slavic states varied, sometimes being tense. Even tensions between Czechs and Slovaks had appeared. Establishment of Eastern Bloc after World War II and especially Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968 made Pan-Slavism ridiculed and dead. Resentment of cultural and economical dominance of Czechs by Slovaks led to dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993.

Pan-Slavism in the Balkans

Pan-Slavism in the south was vastly different, instead it often turned to Russia for support. The Southern Slavic movement advocated the independence of the Slavic peoples in Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The Serbian people sought to unite all of the Southern, Balkan Slavs under their rule. Serbia, just having gained independence, was a small nascent state, whereas the Austro-Hungarian Empire, though unstable, was still a strong opponent to Serbia. In this circumstance, the idea of Russia involving the Southern Slavic unity was favored. The Southern Slavs were some of the first to revolt against the decaying Ottoman Empire. In 1806 and again in 1815, the Serbs secured their independence from the Ottomans. Almost immediately after Serbia's independence, the Serbs began seeking expansion and unity of all the Southern Slavs under Serbian rule. A successful emancipation there would result in the disintegration of the Austrian Empire; Austria therefore pursued an aggressive response to these challenges with its extremely repressive domestic policies. This was one of the causes for initiating the World War I. After World War I the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, under Serbian royalty, did unite most Southern Slavs. The problem that Yugoslavia would face was the Serb domination in the kingdom.

Pan-Slavism in Poland

Although early Pan-Slavism has found interest among some Poles, it soon lost its appeal as the movement was becoming dominated by Russia, and while Russian panslavists spoke of liberation of other Slavs through Russian actions, Poles themselves were under an oppressive occupation by the Russian Empire since the partitions of Poland. Poland often preferred to ally itself with non-Slavic nations such as Hungary, or Lithuania under the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1795. The influence of 19th century Pan-Slavism had little impact in Poland except for creating sympathy towards the other oppressed Slavic nations to regaining independence. A Pan-Slavic federation was proposed, but on the condition that the Russian Empire would be excluded from such an entity. After Poland regained its independence (from Prussia, Austria and Russia) in 1918 no major or minor force considered Pan-Slavism as a serious alternative, viewing the Russification demanded by Panslavism similar to Germanization. During Poland's communist era the USSR used Pan-slavism as propaganda tool to justify its control over the country[http://www.princeton.edu/~gradconf/index_files/papers/Babiracki.pdf]. Since 1989 the issue of the Pan-Slavism has completely fallen off of the political agenda, and is widely seen as a Russian imperialism ideology.

Modern day developments

The idea of unity of the Slavic people was all but gone after World War II. With failures in establishing and harmonizing within Pan-Northern (Czechoslovakia) or Pan-Southern (Yugoslavia) Slavic state, the idea of Pan-Slavic unity is considered dead. Varying relations between the Slavic countries existed nowadays; Generally such countries with good relationship have mutual respect on equal footing and sympathy towards one another. None, other than culture and heritage oriented organizations, are currently considered as a form of rapprochement among the countries of Slavic Europe.

Reference

- Cultures of Forgery: Making Nations, Making Selves Culturework: a Bookseries from the Center for Literacy and Cultural Studies at Harvard by Judith Ryan (Editor), Alfred Thomas (Editor) Routledge August, 2003 Category:Slavs Category:Political movements ja:汎スラヴ主義

Vatroslav Jagic

Vatroslav Jagić (July 6, 1838 - August 5, 1923), was a Croatian language researcher and the world most famous expert in the area of the Slavic languages (Slavistics) in the second half of the 19th century. 19th century

Life

Jagić was born in Varaždin where he attended the elementary school and is the place where he started his middle school education. He finished that level of education at Gymnasium in Zagreb. Having the particular interest in philology, he moved to Vienna where he was lectured slavistics under the guidance of Franz Miklošič. He continued studies and defended his doctoral dissertation Das Leben der Wurzel de in Croatischen Sprachen - Leipzig (Germany) in 1871. Upon finishing the studies Jagić returned to Zagreb where in the period between 1860 - 1870 he held the position of the professor at Gymnasium. With the year 1869, Jagić was elected full member of the national and correspondent member of the Academy of Sciences in Petrograd (Russia). Next year, 1871, he became the professor of Slavistics in Odessa and worked also in Berlin where he moved in 1874 to become the very first professor of Slavistics on prestigious Humboldt University. Jagić held the mentioned post until 1880 when he moved again and became teacher at the University of Petrograd. In 1886 he returned to Vienna where his studies started to be replacement for retiring former lecturer Miklošič at the University of Vienna. Here he educated, researched, published and worked until his own retirement in 1908. The Slavist died in Vienna but was put to rest in native Varaždin.

Works

Works on the literature and language written by Jagić started to be published for the first time in the reports of the Gymnasium where he worked. In 1863, with his fellow researchers Franjo Torbar and Franjo Rački he initiated a journal named Književnik. Within, he published several articles regarding the problematic of the grammar, syntax as well that one of history of the language used by Croats. His works were noticed within the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts (JAZU) founded in Croatia in 1866. His works and polemics were mainly related to verbs, its paleography, vocalization of the language, folk poetry and its sources. At that time he also initiated publishing the collection of the works written by old Croatian writers. In Berlin, he initiated publishing Archive fuer slavische Philologie ("Archives for Slavic Philology"), and kept editting it for 45 years. The very periodical focused the attention of scholars and that one of ordinary people to Slavs, increased their interest in Slav language and their culture. It also confirmed the inportance of Slavistic, its methodology and validity as the scientific discipline of his own. While in Vienna, his intention was to write an encyclopedia related to the philology of the Slavs. This idea caused him to write Istorija slavjanskoj filologii ("History of Slavic philology"). Book was published in Petrograd in 1910 and contains the retrospective on the development of Slavistics since beginning to the end of 19th century. Jagić's work is impressive in scope and quality: Croatian linguist Josip Hamm has remarked that Jagić's collected works would, put together, number more than 100 volumes of large format.

Interests

He was very interested in the language of old Slavs (staroslavenski jezik, Old Church Slavonic), concluded and proved that it did not originate in the central plains of Pannonia as most of experts claimed, but in southern Macedonia. Jagić was interested in the life and work of Juraj Križanić (1618-1683), a Dominican priest who had shown considerable interest in Pan-Slavism and the cooperation of Catholicism and Orthodoxy. He spent greater portion of his life out of Croatia but promoted it through his lecturing and was always in touch with events relating to the language and culture at home. Politically, he was a person often criticized for being insensitive and lacking in action and involvement politically beneficial for the Croats. However, this opinion, although not without foundation, when dispassionately analyzed, has lost much of its edge: Jagić's numerous articles and books on Croatian language, its grammatical structure and historical morphology recorded in earliest written works had done much to ascertain and chart the continuity of modern Croatian standard language with its medieval and Renaissance vernacular origin.

External link

- [http://www.moljac.hr/biografije/jagic.htm Jagić's biography] in Croatian Jagic, Vatroslav Jagic, Vatroslav Jagic, Vatroslav Jagic, Vatroslav

1923

1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January-June

- January 1 - Grouping of all UK railway companies into four larger companies
- January 10 - Lithuania seizes and annexes Memel
- January 11 - Troops from France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr area to force Germany to pay its reparation payments
- February 16 - Howard Carter unseals the burial chamber of Pharaoh Tutankhamun
- February 22 - Barcelona (Catalonia): Albert Einstein visits the city, invited by the scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa, as part of the monografics course of High Studies and Exchange organized by the Mancomunitat de Catalunya and conducted by Rafael de Campalans.
- March - Antigone by Jean Cocteau appears on a Paris stage. Settings by Pablo Picasso, music by Arthur Honegger, and costumes by Gabrielle Chanel. Antonin Artaud played the part of Tiresias.
- March 1 - USS Connecticut decommissioned
- March 2 - Time Magazine hits newsstands for the first time
- March 9 - Vladimir Lenin suffers a stroke, his third, which renders him bedridden and unable to speak; consequently he retires his position as Chairman of the Soviet government.
- April - End of Irish Civil War
- April 12 - Kandersteg International Scout Centre came into existence.
- April 23 - Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia Seaport
- April 26 - Wedding of Prince Albert and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in Westminster Abbey
- May 23 - Launch of Belgium's SABENA Airlines
- May 27 - Ku Klux Klan defies law requiring publication of its members
- June 9 - Military coup in Bulgaria - prime minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski is ousted (he is killed June 14)
- June 18 - Etna volcano erupts - 60.000 made homeless

July-September

- July 6 - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics established
- July 10 - Large hailstones kill 23 in Rostow, Soviet Russia
- July 19-20 night - Assassination of Pancho Villa
- July 24 - The Treaty of Lausanne, settling the boundaries of modern Turkey, is signed in Switzerland by Greece, Bulgaria and other countries that fought in the First World War
- August 2 - Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States (1921 - 1923) dies in office and is succeeded by Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929).
- August 13 - First major sea-going ship arrives at Gdynia, newly constructed Polish seaport
- August 13 - Gustav Stresemann is named chancellor and founds a coalition government in Weimar Republic Germany
- September 1 - Great Kantō earthquake devastates Tokyo and Yokohama killing 142.807 people
- September 4 - In Lakehurst, New Jersey, the first American airship, the "USS Shenandoah, takes to the sky for the first time
- September 6 - Italian navy occupies Corfu in retaliation of murder of an Italian officer. League of Nations protests and they leave September 29
- September 8 - Honda Point Disaster: Seven US Navy destroyers ran aground off the California coast.
- September 9 - Atatürk founded the CHP.
- September 13 - Military coup in Spain - Miguel Primo de Rivera takes over, setting up a dictatorship.
- September 18-26 - Newspaper printers strike in New York
- September 26 - In Bayern, Gustav von Kuhr declares independence from Berlin

October-December

- October 29 - Turkey becomes a republic following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
- November 8 - Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government. Police and troops crush the attempt the next day
- November 12- Her Highness Princess Maud of Fife marries Captain Charles Alexander Carnegie in Wellington Barracks, London.
- November 15 - The inflation in Germany reaches its height. One dollar is worth 4,200,000,000,000 Reichsmarks (4.2 trillion). Gustav Stresemann abolishes the old currency
- November 23 - Gustav Stresemann's coalition government collapses
- December 12 - Po river dam bursts - 600 dead
- December 27 - Assassination attempt against the crown prince of Japan in Tokyo

Unknown dates

- Juan de la Cierva invents the autogyro, a rotary-winged aircraft with an unpowered rotor.
- Finnish flag carrier Finnair airline is started in Aero Oy.
- Interpol is set up.
- International Police Conference in Vienna
- Hoda Cha'arawi Association (formerly The Egyptian Feminist Union) is established in Egypt.
- Trade unions banned in Spain for 10 years.
- Police strike in Australia
- Regia Aeronautica, air force of Fascist Italy, is founded.
- American Law Institute established
- Moderation League of New York became part of movement for repeal of prohibition in United States.

Births

January-February

- January 1 - Roméo Sabourin, Canadian World War II spy (d. 1944)
- January 5 - Sam Phillips, American record producer (d. 2003)
- January 6 - Jacobo Timerman, Argentine writer (d. 1999)
- January 7 - Hugh Kenner, Canadian literary critic (d. 2003)
- January 8 - Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985)
- January 16 - Anthony Hecht, American poet (d. 2004)
- January 19 - Jean Stapleton, American actress
- January 25 - Arvid Carlsson, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 26 - Anne Jeffreys, American actress
- January 29 - Paddy Chayefsky, American writer (d. 1981)
- January 31 - Norman Mailer, American writer and journalist
- February 2 - James Dickey, American poet and author (d. 1997)
- February 2 - Liz Smith, American gossip columnist
- February 9 - Brendan Behan, Irish author (d. 1964)
- February 12 - Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film and opera director
- February 13 - Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (d. 2003)
- February 13 - Chuck Yeager, American pilot and NASA official
- February 20 - Forbes Burnham, President of Guyana (d. 1985)
- February 24 - David Soyer, American cellist
- February 27 - Dexter Gordon, American jazz saxophone player (d. 1990)

March-April

- March 6 - Ed McMahon, American television personality
- March 9 - Walter Kohn, Austrian-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- March 10 - Val Logsdon Fitch, American nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- March 12 - Wally Schirra, astronaut
- March 21 - Shri Mataji Nirmala Shrivastava, Indian founder of Sahaja Yoga
- March 25 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003)
- March 26 - Bob Elliott, American comedian
- March 27 - Louis Simpson, Jamaican-born poet
- March 30 - Milton Acorn, Canadian writer (d. 1986)
- April 2 - G. Spencer-Brown, British mathematician
- April 8 - George Fisher, American political cartoonist (d. 2003)
- April 8 - Edward Mulhare, Irish actor (d. 1997)
- April 13 - Don Adams, American actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- April 20 - Mother Angelica, American founder of the Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN)
- April 22 - Bettie Page, American model
- April 22 - Aaron Spelling, American television producer and writer
- April 23 - Dolph Briscoe, Governor of Texas

May-August

- May 1 - Joseph Heller, American novelist (d. 1999)
- May 2 - Patrick Hillery, President of Ireland
- May 3 - Ralph Hall, American politician
- May 5 - Richard Wollheim, British philosopher (d. 2003)
- May 7 - Anne Baxter, American actress (d. 1985)
- May 13 - Bea Arthur, American actress
- May 15 - John Lanchbery, English composer (d. 2003)
- May 16 - Merton Miller, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- May 18 - Hugh Shearer, Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2004)
- May 21 - Armand Borel, Swiss mathematician (d. 2003)
- May 21 - Dorothy Hewe