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Blackwall

Blackwall

Blackwall is an area of the East End of London, situated in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is perhaps most well-known for having given its name to the Blackwall Tunnel, which passes under the adjacent River Thames to north Greenwich. There was a railway from Minories to Blackwall via Stepney (called the London and Blackwall Railway). It ran a distance of three and half miles. Much of the current DLR track around Limehouse and Blackwall is on the old viaducts. This was authorised in 1836 as "The Commercial Railway", running close to Commercial Road in the East End. It has been the home of such noted seamen as Horatio Nelson and Walter Raleigh. In 1606 it was the departure point of the invasion of north America launched by the London Virginia Company. Blackwall is also the location of a fictitious fire-station featured in the London Weekend Television series London's Burning. Category:Districts of London Category:Tower Hamlets

East End of London

The term East End is most commonly used to refer to the East End of London. London

Location

The term East End was first applied to the districts immediately to the east of, and entirely outside, the mediaeval walled City of London. These included Whitechapel and Stepney. By the late 19th century the East End roughly corresponded to the metropolitan boroughs of Stepney, Bethnal Green, Poplar and Shoreditch, which correspond to the modern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and part of Hackney. The East End is an informal designation, and has no fixed boundaries. It is however to the north of the River Thames. Since 1900 development has spread far into districts which were formerly in the county of Middlesex, but are now in Greater London. Parts or all of Newham are sometimes considered to be in the East End, however the River Lee is often considered to be the eastermost boundary of the area and this definition would exclude the borough but place it at the heart of East London.

History

East London The East End has always been one of the poorest areas of London. The main reasons for this include the undesirability of living in the direction of the prevaling wind from the city centre in the days of open fires, the large amount of low paid employment in the docks and related industries, and the location of the court and political centre of London on the opposite western side of the City of London. Throughout history the area has absorbed waves of immigrants who have each added a new dimension to the culture and history of the area. Most notably these have been the French protestant Huguenots, the Jews and the Bangladeshi community. Whilst these immigrants have enriched both the area and the country, the East End has also been a focus for racism in Britain. Racist events include the anti-Catholic Gordon riots in 1780, an anti-semitic Fascist march in 1936 (which was famously abandoned when blocked by a larger force of locals; c.f. the Battle of Cable Street), and recent anti-Asian violence, including a council seat win for the 'far right' British National Party in 1993 (since lost), and a 1999 bombing in Brick Lane. In 1888 the area became notorious as the site of the crimes of Jack the Ripper. In 1911 it was the site of the Sidney Street Siege, and in the 1960s it was the area most associated with gangster activity, most notably that of the Krays. Traditionally the home of London's docks and a large part of its industry, especially industries based on processing foodstuffs and other imported raw materials, the area was a continuous target during the blitz of World War II. Much of what little housing remained was removed as part of 'slum clearance' programmes. Post war, specifically 1960s, architecture dominates the housing estates of the area. From the mid 20th century, the docks declined in use and they are now all closed. London's main port is now at Tilbury outside the boundary of Greater London.

Today

Tilbury The East End is now home to various urban regeneration projects, most notably Canary Wharf, a huge commercial and housing development on the Isle of Dogs. Many of the 1960s tower blocks have been demolished or have been renovated. The area around Old Spitalfields market and Brick Lane has been extensively regenerated and is famous, amongst other things, as London's curry capital, as well as being the home of a number of London's smaller art galleries, including the famous White Cube in Hoxton Square. With rising costs elsewhere in the capital, the East End has become a desirable place for business.

Media

East End Film Society (EEFS) is a filmmaking club for people who live, work or study in East London. It is the UK's biggest film community with over 450 members. EEFS is supported by [http://www.filmacademy.co.uk Film Academy] and is currently in partnership with the Fusion East project to facilitate network meetings, screenings, seminars, training workshops and more. Fusion East has been devised by a consortium of three neighbouring local authorities: Hackney, Newham and Tower_Hamlets, alongside Leaside Regeneration, and the Cultural Industries Development Agency (CIDA). For more details visit [http://www.twylyte.co.uk/filmacademy/film-society.htm East End Film Society] The film To Sir, with Love and the BBC soap opera EastEnders are set here.

External links

- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/h2g2/guide/A513596 The East End of London] on the site of the BBC. Category:Geography of London Category:Districts of London Category:Tower Hamlets

Blackwall Tunnel

The Blackwall Tunnel is the name given to a pair of road tunnels underneath the River Thames in east London, linking the London Borough of Greenwich with the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.

Overview

The southern entrances are just west of the Millennium Dome on the Greenwich Peninsula; the northern portal lies just south of the A13 in Poplar. The tunnel crossing is a key link between north and south sides of the river and forms part of a key route into central London from south-east London and Kent. The southern approach takes traffic from the A2 trunk route (for some years, the section north of the A2 Rochester Way Relief Road was regarded as a motorway (the A102M); however, this reverted back to being the A102 in September 1999 when the opening of the A12 north of the tunnel prompted a rationalisation of the area's road numbering systems).

History

The western tunnel was built at the end of the 19th century, while the other was added some 70 years later. The older western tunnel, designed by Sir Alexander Binnie and built by S Pearson & Sons for London County Council (although originally commissioned by the Metropolitan Board of Works) at a cost of £1.4 million, was opened by the Prince of Wales on 22 May 1897. It was then the longest underwater tunnel in the world at 4,410 feet (1,344 m) long. It took six years to construct, using tunnelling shield and compressed air techniques (shield pioneer James Henry Greathead was a consultant; Sir Joseph Bazalgette was also involved in the original planning of the project), and seven people died in the process. To clear the site in Greenwich, more than 600 houses had to be demolished, including one reputedly once owned by Sir Walter Raleigh. Today the western bore is only used for north-bound traffic (and is not accessible to high-sided vehicles). The southern portal features a striking gateway built of red brick. The tunnel itself has several sharp bends. Some suggest these were built so that horses would not bolt once they saw the daylight (motor vehicles were rare in 1897), though the bends may also have been created so that the tunnel avoided the foundations of other structures. The tunnel carries two lanes of traffic, though higher vehicles need to keep to the left-hand lane so that they do not hit the tunnel's inner lining. The newer, eastern, tunnel, opened on 2 August 1967, is much wider, with fewer height restrictions and no sharp corners — very much designed for 20th century road traffic.

Traffic management

The Blackwall Tunnel is a notorious traffic bottleneck. Long tailbacks form in the morning 'rush-hour' on weekdays as traffic heads north from SE London and Kent towards central London. The transport authorities therefore try to increase flows by opening one lane of the eastern tunnel to northbound traffic for two hours; this, of course, means there is only one lane for southbound traffic so the northern approaches quickly become jammed each morning. Unfortunately, the western tunnel is not suitable to operate a similar two-way flow in the evening, so the northern approaches are frequently even more congested in the late afternoon/early evening. The nearest alternative crossings are the Rotherhithe Tunnel three miles (5km) to the west or the Woolwich Ferry two miles (3 km) to the east. The tunnels do not allow pedestrians, but a bus route (number 108) operates through the tunnel. When the service is not running, the nearest pedestrian crossings of the river are the Woolwich foot tunnel adjacent to the Woolwich Ferry (see above) and the Greenwich foot tunnel about two miles (3 km) to the west.

External links

- [http://www.ukroads.org.uk/ UK Roads Portal] (Links to information about the UK road network) Category:Bridges and tunnels in London Category:Tower Hamlets Category:Greenwich

Greenwich, London

:This page is about Greenwich in England. For other uses see Greenwich (disambiguation) Greenwich (pronounced 'gren-itch' , or by the locals) is a town, now part of the south eastern urban sprawl of London, on the south bank of the River Thames in the London Borough of Greenwich.

Geography

Greenwich is located at a latitude and longitude of 51° 28' 38" N and 0º 0' 0" E/W (by definition).

Sites of interest

London Borough of Greenwich buildings on the bank of the River Thames]] River Thames River Thames River Thames The Royal Greenwich Observatory is located in Greenwich and the Prime Meridian passes through the building. Greenwich Mean Time was at one time based on the time observations made at the Royal Greenwich Observatory, before being superseded by Coordinated Universal Time. While Greenwich no longer hosts a working astronomical observatory, a ball still drops daily to mark the exact moment of noon (UTC) 1pm (13:00)(BST), and there is a good museum of astronomical and navigational tools. The observatory is situated in Greenwich Park, which used to be the grounds of the Royal Palace of Placentia. At the bottom of the park is the National Maritime Museum which also includes the Queen's House, designed by Inigo Jones. It is free to visit all these buildings. Greenwich also features the world's only museum dedicated to fans, the Fan Museum, in a Georgian townhouse at 10–12 Croom's Hill (fee payable). Also on Croom's Hill, on the corner of the junction with Nevada Street is Greenwich Theatre, formerly Crowder's Music Hall. The Cutty Sark (a clipper ship) is moored in a dry dock by the river. Nearby for many years was also displayed Gipsy Moth IV, the 54 yacht sailed by Sir Francis Chichester in his single-handed, 226-day circumnavigation of the globe during 1966–67. In 2004, Gypsy Moth IV was removed from Greenwich for extensive restoration work to be followed by a return to the sea and a second sailing career. By the Cutty Sark, there is a pedestrian tunnel, the Greenwich foot tunnel, to the Isle of Dogs. This comes out in Island Gardens, from where the famous view of Greenwich Hospital painted by Canaletto can be seen. On the riverside in front of the north-east corner of the Hospital is an obelisk erected in memory of Arctic explorer Joseph René Bellot. The Millennium Dome was built on a disused British Gas site here. It is next to North Greenwich tube station, about three miles from Greenwich town centre, north of Charlton. With the Greenwich Millennium Village a new development on the reclaimed land near to the Millennium Dome. The University of Greenwich and the Trinity College of Music are now based in the Greenwich Hospital (formerly the Royal Naval College) buildings between Greenwich Park and the river. These buildings were designed by Sir Christopher Wren and include the Painted Hall, painted by James Thornhill and St Paul's Chapel. These are also open to the public for free. The church dominating the western side of the town centre is St Alfege's Church, designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor in 1714, and marks the place where Archbishop of Canterbury Alfege (also spelt 'Alphege') was murdered in 1012. The town centre features Greenwich Market, a covered market popular with tourists at the weekends. In 1997, maritime Greenwich was added to the list of World Heritage Sites. In recognition of the suburb's astronomical links, Asteroid 2830 has been named 'Greenwich'.

Famous residents

(In alphabetical order)
- Astronomer Royal Sir George Airy lived in the White House, Croom's Hill
- Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, statesman and man of letters, lived in the Ranger's House, Chesterfield Walk, SE10.
- Dr Samuel Johnson, compiler of the first English dictionary, lived in Greenwich Church Street when he first came to London in 1736
- comedian Dan Leno rented accommodation at the Spreadeagle Tavern, Stockwell Street in 1902
- Poet Cecil Day-Lewis lived at 6 Croom's Hill
- Architect Samuel Sanders Teulon was born in Greenwich.
- Artist Sir James Thornhill was said to have lived in Park Hall on Croom's Hill (originally designed for architect John James who never actually occupied the house).
- Interior designer and television presenter Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen lives in the Borough and often appears in support of local activities.
- Architect Sir John Vanbrugh lived at 121 Maze Hill in a house of his own design overlooking Greenwich Park
- Benjamin Waugh, founder of the UK charity the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children lived in Croom's Hill.
- General James Wolfe lived in McCartney House in Croom's Hill, and was buried in St Alfege's Church

Transport

Nearby tube stations:
- North Greenwich tube station can be reached by 188 bus from the town centre. Nearby DLR stations:
- Cutty Sark for Maritime Greenwich
- Island Gardens
- Greenwich (The same as the railway station) Nearby railway stations:
- Greenwich
- Maze Hill
- Blackheath
- Deptford
- Westcombe Park
- Charlton Nearby River service piers:
- Greenwich Pier, close to Cutty Sark for Maritime Greenwich

External links

- [http://www.greenwichwhs.org.uk/ Greenwich World Heritage Site — official website]
- [http://www.greenwich.gov.uk/Greenwich/LeisureCulture/VisitorInformation/GreenwichTouristInformationCentre.htm Greenwich Tourist Information Centre]
- [http://www.greenwich-guide.org.uk/ Greenwich Guide]
- [http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=538681&y=177906&z=2&sv=538681,177906&st=4&mapp=newmap.srf&searchp=newsearch.srf Map] Category:Districts of London Category:World Heritage Sites in England Category:Greenwich Category:River Thames

Minories

The Minories is an area of London close to the Tower of London. The street called "Minories" runs north-south between Aldgate and Tower Hill underground stations. Its name is derived from the Abbey of the Minoresses of St. Mary of the Order of St. Clare, founded in 1294, which stood on the site. A "minoress" was a nun.

External links

- [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/ British History Online] Category:Districts of London Category:City of London

Stepney

Stepney is an inner-city district in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is located 3.6 miles (5.8 km) east north-east of Charing Cross and forms part of the East End of London. The area consists of mostly post-war high density housing and a few streets of terraced housing that escaped slum-clearance. There is light industry and a few warehouses although this is mostly in decline. Commercial Road, part of the A13, passes through the area east to west. Stepney is served by Stepney Green tube station which takes its name from the open space Stepney Green. The area has thusfar mostly escaped mass gentrification although the nearby areas of Whitechapel, Wapping, Limehouse and Mile End, which surround Stepney, are becoming increasingly redeveloped. St Dunstan's is Stepney's oldest church.

History

In 1085 Stepney was listed in the Domesday Book survey of England which was recorded in Old French, and whose translation includes: III. The land of the Bishop of London In 'Ossulstone' hundred the Bishop of London holds Stepney 32 hides. There is land for 25 ploughs. To the demesne belong 14 hides, and there are 3 ploughs; and 22 ploughs among the villans. There are 44 villans each on 1 virgate, and 7 villans each on half a hide, and 9 villans each on half a virgate, and 46 cottars on 1 hide: they pay 30s a year. There are 4 mills rendering £4.16s less 4d, meadow for 25 ploughs, pasture for the livestock of the vill and 15s, woodland for 500 pigs and 40s. In all it is worth £48: and when received, the same: £50. This manor belonged and belongs to the bishopric. Bishop William held this land in demesne, in the manor of Stepney, on the day on which King Edward was alive and dead. In the same vill Ranulph Flambard holds 31/2 hides of the bishop.

Nearest places

- Limehouse
- Mile End
- Shadwell
- Whitechapel

Nearest stations

- Mile End tube station
- Stepney Green tube station
- Limehouse station (Docklands Light Railway and c2c)

Sources

- "Domesday Book - A Complete Translation" Folio 127V: MIDDLESEX. Penguin Books. Nov 2002. ISBN 0141005238 Category:Districts of London Category:Tower Hamlets

London and Blackwall Railway

Originally called the Commercial Railway, this railway line ran from the Minories to Blackwall via Stepney, in east London, England. It was authorised by an Act of Parliament entitled "An Act for making a Railway from the Minories to Blackwall, with Branches, to be called "The Commercial Railway"" dated 28 July 1836 in the reign of William IV. A copy of the Act can be read at the Bancroft Road library in Tower Hamlets and the appendix makes fascinating reading for those historians who want to see who owned and who were the tenants of the properties destroyed. The company changed its name to the London & Blackwall Railway on completion of an extension to Fenchurch Street railway station. Although much of the railway was abandoned the original viaducts were reused for the modern Docklands Light Railway service. Category:London's railways Category:Tower Hamlets

Limehouse

] where it meets the Limehouse Basin]] Limehouse is a place in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is on the northern bank of the River Thames opposite Cuckold's Point. Geographically, Limehouse is commonly thought to be centred on Narrow Street and the Limehouse Basin. The name 'Limehouse' is often thought to have been derived from the nickname for the seamen that disembarked there, who had earned the name 'Lime-juicers' or 'limeys' after the obligatory ration of lime juice the English Navy gave their sailors to ward off scurvey. However, the name is in fact due to the local lime-kilns operated by the large potteries that served the London docks. Sir Humphrey Gilbert (1539 - 1578), the exponent of opening up the Northwest Passage lived here. This inspired Martin Frobisher to sail to Greenland returning with a mysterious black rock. Gilbert set up the Society of the New Art with Lord Burghley and the Earl of Leicester who had their alchemical laboratory in Limehouse. However their attempts to transmute the black rock into gold proved fruitless. (Humphrey's brother Adrian Gilbert was reputed a great alchemist and worked closely with John Dee.) St Anne's Limehouse was built by Nicholas Hawksmoor. A pyramid originally planned to be put atop the tower now stands in the graveyard. The church is next door to Limehouse Town Hall. For several years this housed the National Museum of Labour History and included trade union banners and other artefacts including the table that once belonged to Peter Kropotkin, the Russian Anarchist Prince. Now it is the home of the FacultyUnix FreeBSD workshops, Boxing Club and the Space Hijackers. Across the road is the Sailors' Mission, where the Situationist International held its conference in 1960. The building subsequently became a run down hostel for the homeless which became notorious for its squalor. The Limehouse area was also notorious for opium dens in the late 19th century. This notion of limehouse as a lurid, crime-ridden area was often featured in pulp fiction works by Sax Rohmer and others. Like much of the East End it was a focus for immigration, particularly by Chinese people. As the community prospered it moved west to the current Chinatown in Soho. The area inspired Douglas Furber (lyricist) and Phillip Braham (composer) in 1922 to write the popular jazz standard "Limehouse Blues". jazz Limehouse library has a statue of Clement Attlee, who was Member of Parliament for Limehouse from 1922 and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951. On January 25, 1981 MPs Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins, William Rodgers and David Owen made the Limehouse Declaration from Owen's house in Limehouse, which announced the formation of the Council for Social Democracy in opposition to the granting of block votes to the trade unions in the Labour Party to which they had previously belonged. They soon became leading politicians in the Social Democratic Party. From Sunday May 11 to Sunday June 15, 2003 the Cartographic Congress, a meeting of maps and mapmakers from all corners of cartography took place in Limehouse Town Hall. Nearest places:
- Poplar
- Isle of Dogs
- Stepney
- Rotherhithe
- Bethnal Green
- Ratcliffe Nearest stations:
- Stepney Green tube station
- Limehouse station
- Westferry DLR station Category:Districts of London Category:Tower Hamlets

Viaduct

bridges the Don valley; road traffic uses the upper deck, rail traffic uses the lower deck.]] A viaduct is a bridge that connects points of equal height in a landscape, usually by bridging a river valley or other eroded opening in an otherwise flat area. Often such valleys have roads descending either side (with a small bridge over the river, where necessary) that become inadequate for the traffic load, necessitating a viaduct for through traffic. Such bridges also lend themselves for use by rail traffic, which requires straighter and flatter routes. It gets its name from an analogy with aqueduct, which must be level, while a bridge for people, pack animals or non-rail vehicles can be hump-backed and gain a structural advantage (i.e., less material or design sophistication needed) from that shape. Some well-known viaducts include:
- Bloor Street Viaduct
- Millau Viaduct
- Glenfinnan Viaduct
- Thelwall Viaduct
- Lethbridge Viaduct
- Cypress Viaduct
- Interstate 805 Viaduct
- Nuselsky most in Prague

1836

1836 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January - Book by Maria Monk claims that she was sexually exploited in a Canadian convent
- February 3 - United States Whig Party holds its first convention in Albany, New York.
- February 23 - The siege of the Alamo begins in San Antonio, Texas.
- February 24 - Samuel Colt receives a patent for the Colt revolver
- March 1 - Convention of delegates from 57 Texas communities convenes in Washington-on-the-Brazos to deliberate independence from Mexico
- March 1 - Antonio García Gutiérrez's play El Trovador played for the first time
- March 2 - Declaration of independence of the Republic of Texas from Mexico.
- March 5 - Samuel Colt makes the first pistol (.34-caliber).
- March 6 - After a 13-day siege by an army of 3,000 Mexican troops, the 189 Texas volunteers defending the Alamo are defeated and the fort taken.
- March 27 - Texas Revolution: Goliad massacre - Antonio López de Santa Anna orders the Mexican army to kill about 400 Texans at Goliad, Texas
- March 31 - Marshall College, named for John Marshall, opens in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. It later merges with Franklin College to become Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
- April 20 - U.S. Congress passes act creating the Wisconsin Territory
- April 21 - Texas Revolution: Battle of San Jacinto - Republic of Texas forces under Sam Houston defeat troops under Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna. (Santa Anna and hundreds of his troops are taken prisoner along the San Jacinto River the next day.)
- May 15 - Francis Baily, during an eclipse of the sun, observes the phenomenon named after him as Baily's beads
- June 15 - Arkansas is admitted as the 25th U.S. state.
- July 11 - President Andrew Jackson issues the Specie Circular, beginning the failure of the land speculation economy that would lead to the Panic of 1837.
- September 1 - Narcissa Whitman, one of the first white woman to settle west of the Rocky Mountains, arrives at Walla Walla, Washington.
- September 5 - Sam Houston is elected as the first president of the Republic of Texas.
- September 8 - Transcendental Club founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts
- October 2 - Naturalist Charles Darwin returns to Falmouth, England aboard the HMS Beagle after a 5-year journey collecting biological data he will later use to develop his theory of evolution.
- October 31 - Bristol riot - In Bristol, England, large crowd protests against the decision of the House of Lords to defeat the Reform Act. They burn down 100 houses, including the Bishop's Palace, the Custom House and the Mansion House and release prisoners. The dragoons attack the crowd and kill and wound hundreds
- November - Martin Van Buren defeats William Henry Harrison in the U.S. presidential election
- December 10 - Emory College, the forerunner of Emory University, is chartered in Oxford, Georgia.
- December 20 - Sudden freeze kills many travelers in Illinois.
- December 28 - Proclamation of the colony of South Australia, now celebrated in the state of South Australia as Proclamation Day.
- December 28 - Spain recognizes independence of Mexico.

Unknown dates

- Chartists in Britain demand universal male suffrage.
- Boers in South Africa begin the Great Trek across the Orange River.
- Henry R. Campbell builds the first 4-4-0, a steam locomotive type that will soon become the most common on all railroads of the United States.
- First printed literature in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic is produced by Justin Perkins, an American Presbyterian missionary.
- Andrew Crosse's electrical experiment seems to produce strange insects; they are named acarus calvanicus
- American Temperance Union established.

Births

- January 2 - Mendele Moykher Sforim, Russian Yiddish writer (d. 1917)
- January 14 - Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter (d. 1904)
- January 27 - Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian writer (d. 1895)
- February 16 - Robert Halpin, Irish mariner and cable layer (d. 1894)
- February 18 - Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Bengali religious leader (d. 1886)
- February 21 - Léo Delibes, French composer (d. 1891)
- February 24 - Winslow Homer, American artist (d. 1910)
- March 20 - Sir Edward Poynter, French-born artist (d. 1919)
- April 27 - Major Charles Bendire, U.S. Army captain and ornithologist (d. 1897)
- May 27 - Jay Gould, American financier (d. 1892)
- May 28 - Alexander Mitscherlich, German chemist (d. 1918)
- May 31 - Jules Chéret, French printmaker (d. 1932)
- June 2 - Mily Balakirev, Russian composer (d. 1910)
- July 8 - Joseph Chamberlain, British politician (d. 1914)
- July 9 - Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1908)
- August 13 - Bishop Nikolai of Japan, Russian Orthodox priest (d. 1912)
- August 24 - Susan Agnes Bernard, First Lady of Canada (d. 1920)
- August 25 - Bret Harte, American writer (d. 1902)
- September 11 - Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American author (d. 1870)
- October 15 - James Tissot, French artist (d. 1902)
- November 11 - Thomas Bailey Aldrich, American poet and novelist (d. 1907

Horatio Nelson

The Right Honourable Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, KB (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was an Englishman, and a British admiral who won fame as a leading naval commander. He is famous for his participation in the Napoleonic Wars, most notably in the Battle of Trafalgar, where he lost his life. He became the greatest naval hero in the history of the United Kingdom, eclipsing Admiral Robert Blake in fame, and is one of the most famous naval commanders in world history. His biography by the poet Robert Southey appeared in 1813, while the wars were still being fought. His love affair with Emma Hamilton, the wife of the British ambassador to Naples is also well known, and he is honoured by the London landmark of Nelson's Column, which stands in Trafalgar Square.

Early life

Horatio Nelson was born in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England to the Reverend Edmund Nelson and Catherine Nelson. (His mother was a grandniece of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford.) His mother died when Nelson was nine. He learned to sail on Barton Broad on the Norfolk Broads, was briefly educated at Paston Grammar School, North Walsham and Norwich School and by the time he was twelve, he had enrolled in the Royal Navy. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate Raisonnable as an Ordinary Seaman and coxswain. Nelson’s maternal uncle Captain Maurice Suckling commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training. Ironically, Nelson found that he suffered from chronic seasickness, a complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life. By 1777 he had risen to the rank of lieutenant, and was assigned to the West Indies, during which time he saw action on the British side of the American Revolutionary War. By the time he was 20, in June 1779, he made captain; the 28-gun frigate Hinchinbrook, newly captured from the French, was his first command. In 1781 he was involved in an action against the Spanish fortress of San Juan in Nicaragua. Though a success, the efforts involved still damaged Nelson's health to the extent that he returned to England for more than a year. He eventually returned to active duty and was assigned to Albemarle, in which he continued his efforts against the American rebels until the official end of the war in 1783.

Command

In 1784, Nelson was given command of the 28-gun Boreas, and assigned to enforce the Navigation Act in the vicinity of Antigua. This was during the denouement of the American Revolutionary War, and enforcement of the act was problematic—now-foreign American vessels were no longer allowed to trade with British colonies in the Caribbean Sea, an unpopular rule with both the colonies and the Americans. After seizing four American vessels off Nevis, Nelson was sued by the captains of the ships for illegal seizure. As the merchants of Nevis supported them, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment and had to remain sequestered on Boreas for eight months. It took that long for the courts to deny the captains their claims, but in the interim Nelson met Fanny Nesbit, a widow native to Nevis, whom he would marry on 11 March 1787 at the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean. Nelson lacked a command from 1789, and lived on half pay for several years (a reasonably common occurrence in the peacetime Royal Navy). However, as the French Revolutionary government began aggressive moves beyond France's borders, he was recalled to service. Given the 64-gun Agamemnon in 1793, he soon started a long series of battles and engagements that would seal his place in history. He was first assigned to the Mediterranean, based out of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1794 he was wounded in the face by stones and debris thrown up by a close cannon shot during a joint operation at Calvi, Corsica. This cost him the sight in his right eye and half of his right eyebrow. Despite popular legend, there is no evidence that Nelson ever wore an eye patch, though he was known to wear an eyeshade to protect his remaining eye. In 1796, the commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to be commodore and to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast. Agamemnon, often described as Nelson's favourite ship, was by now worn out and was sent back to England for repairs. Nelson was appointed to HMS Captain.

Admiralty

HMS Captain 1797 was a full year for Nelson. On February 14, he was largely responsible for the British victory at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent. In the aftermath, Nelson was knighted as a member of the Order of the Bath (hence the postnominal initials "KB"). In April of the same year he was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Blue, the ninth highest rank in the Royal Navy. Later in the year, during an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife, he was shot in the right arm with a musket ball, fracturing his humerus bone in multiple places. Since medical science of the day counseled amputation for almost all serious limb wounds (to prevent gangrene, and subsequent death) Nelson lost almost his entire right arm, and was unfit for duty until mid-December. He referred to the stub as "my fin." This was not his only reverse. In December 1796, on leaving Elba for Gibraltar, Nelson transferred his flag to the frigate Minerve (of French construction, commanded by Captain Cockburn). A Spanish frigate, Santa Sabina, was captured during the passage and Lieutenant Hardy was put in charge of the captured vessel. The following morning, two Spanish ships of line and one frigate appeared. Nelson decided to flee, leaving the Sabina to be recovered by the Spanish and Hardy was captured. The Spanish captain who was on board Minerve was later exchanged for Hardy in Gibraltar. In 1798, Nelson was once again responsible for a great victory over the French. The Battle of the Nile (also known as the Battle of Abukir Bay) took place on 1 August, 1798 and, as a result, Napoleon's ambition to take the war to the British in India came to an end. The forces Napoleon had brought to Egypt were stranded. Napoleon attempted to march north along the Mediterranean coast but was defeated at the Siege of Acre by Captain Sir Sidney Smith. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships. Sidney Smith For the spectacular victory of the Nile, Nelson was granted the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile (Nelson felt cheated that he was not awarded a more prestigious title; Sir John Jervis had been made Earl of St Vincent for his part in that battle, but the British Government insisted that an officer who was not the commander-in-chief, could not be raised to any peerage higher than a barony. Nelson felt throughout his life that his accomplishments were not fully rewarded by the British government, a fact he ascribed to his more humble birth and lack of political connections when compared to Sir John Jervis, or The Duke of Wellington). Sir John Jervis, at the height of her beauty in the 1780s]] Not content to rest on his laurels, he then rescued the Neapolitan royal family from a French invasion in December. During this time, he fell in love with Emma Hamilton—the young wife of the elderly British ambassador to Naples. She became his mistress, returning to England to live openly with him, and eventually they had a daughter, Horatia. Some have suggested that a head wound he received at Abukir Bay was partially responsible for that conduct, and for the way he conducted the Neapolitan campaign—due simultaneously to his English hatred of Jacobins and his status as a Neapolitan royalist (he had been made Duke of Bronte in Sicily by the King of Naples in 1799)—now considered something of a disgrace to his name. He was accused of allowing the monarchists to kill prisoners contrary to the laws of war. In 1799, he was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Red, the seventh highest rank in the Royal Navy. He was then assigned to the new second-rate Foudroyant. In July, he aided Admiral Ushakov with the reconquest of Naples, and was made Duke of Bronte by the Neapolitan king. His personal problems, and upper-level disappointment at his professional conduct caused him to be recalled to England, but public knowledge of his affection for Lady Hamilton eventually induced the Admiralty to send him back to sea if only to get him away from her. On 1 January 1801, he was promoted to Vice Admiral of the Blue (the sixth highest rank). Within a few months he took part in the Battle of Copenhagen (2 April 1801) which was fought in order to break up the armed neutrality of Denmark, Sweden and Russia. During the battle, Nelson was ordered to cease the battle by his commander Sir Hyde Parker who believed that the Danish fire was too effective. In a famous incident, however, Nelson claimed he could not see the signal flags conveying the order, pointedly raising his telescope to his blind eye. His action was approved in retrospect, and in May, he became commander-in-chief in the Baltic Sea, and was awarded the title of Viscount Nelson by the British crown. Napoleon was amassing forces to invade England, however, and Nelson was soon placed in charge of defending the English Channel to prevent this. However, on 22 October an armistice was signed between the British and the French, and Nelson—in poor health again—retired to England where he stayed with his friends, Sir William and Lady Hamilton. The three embarked on a tour of England and Wales, culminating in a stay in Birmingham, during which they visited Matthew Boulton on his sick bed at Soho House, and toured his Soho Manufactory.

Trafalgar

Soho Manufactory Soho Manufactory The Peace of Amiens was not to last long though, and Nelson soon returned to duty. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean, and assigned to HMS Victory in May 1803. He joined the blockade of Toulon, France, and would not again set foot on dry land for more than two years. Nelson was promoted to Vice Admiral of the White (the fifth highest rank) while he was still at sea, on 23 April 1804. The French fleet slipped out of Toulon in early 1805 and headed for the West Indies (see battle of Cape Finisterre (1805) for a summary of this campaign). A stern chase failed to turn them up and Nelson's health forced him to retire to Merton in England. Within two months, his ease ended. On 13 September 1805, he was called upon to oppose the French and Spanish fleets, which had managed to join up and take refuge in the harbour of Cádiz, Spain. On 21 October 1805, Nelson engaged in his final battle, the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon Bonaparte had been massing forces once again for the invasion of the British Isles. However, he had already decided that his navy was not adequate to secure the Channel for the invasion barges and had started moving his troops away for a campaign elsewhere in Europe. On the 19th, the French and Spanish fleet left Cádiz, probably because Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, the French commander, had heard that he was to be replaced by another admiral. Nelson, with twenty-seven ships, engaged the thirty-three opposing ships. Nelson's last dispatch, written on the 21st, read:

At daylight saw the Enemy's Combined Fleet from East to E.S.E.; bore away; made the signal for Order of Sailing, and to Prepare for Battle; the Enemy with their heads to the Southward: at seven the Enemy wearing in succession. May the Great God, whom I worship, grant to my Country, and for the benefit of Europe in general, a great and glorious Victory; and may no misconduct in any one tarnish it; and may humanity after Victory be the predominant feature in the British Fleet. For myself, individually, I commit my life to Him who made me, and may his blessing light upon my endeavours for serving my Country faithfully. To Him I resign myself and the just cause which is entrusted to me to defend. Amen. Amen.

As the two fleets moved towards engagement, he then ran up a thirty-one flag signal to the rest of the fleet which spelled out the famous phrase "England expects that every man will do his duty". The original signal that Nelson wished to make to the fleet was England confides that every man will do his duty (meaning 'is confident that they will'). The signal officer asked Nelson if he could substitute the word 'expects' for 'confides' as 'expects' was included in the telegraphic code devised by Sir Home Popham whereas 'confides' would have to be spelled letter by letter. Nelson agreed and the signal was run up Victorys mizzenmast. mizzenmast After crippling the French flagship Bucentaure, the Victory moved on to the Redoutable. The two ships entangled each other, at which point snipers in the fighting tops of the Redoutable were able to pour fire down onto the deck of the Victory. Nelson was one of those hit: a bullet entered his shoulder, pierced his lung, and came to rest at the base of his spine. Nelson retained consciousness for four hours, but died soon after the battle was concluded with a British victory. The Victory was then towed to Gibraltar, with Nelson's body on board preserved in a barrel of brandy. Upon his body's arrival in London, Nelson was given a state funeral and entombment in St. Paul's Cathedral. He was laid to rest in a wooden coffin made from the mast of L'Orient which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile. The sarcophagus in which he was entombed was originally built for Cardinal Wolsey, but when Wolsey fell from favour, it was confiscated by Henry VIII.
Legacy
Henry VIII Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: "The Nelson Touch". Famous even while alive, after his death he was lionized like almost no other military figure in British history (his only peers are the Duke of Marlborough and Nelson's contemporary, the Duke of Wellington). Nelson was included in the top 10 of the 100 Greatest Britons poll sponsored by the BBC and voted for by the public. Most military historians believe Nelson's ability to inspire officers of the highest rank and seamen of the lowest was central to his many victories, as was his unequaled ability to both strategically plan his campaigns and tactically shift his forces in the midst of battle. He may have been the greatest field commander in history. Certainly, he stands as the greatest warrior afloat. It must also be said that his "Nelson touch" also worked with non-seamen; he was beloved in England by virtually everyone. (The only people not affected by him were those offended by his affair with Lady Hamilton!)
Monuments to Nelson
The monumental Nelson's Column and the surrounding Trafalgar Square are notable locations in London to this day, and Nelson was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. The first large monument to Nelson was a 43.5m tall pillar on Glasgow Green erected less than year after his death in 1806. Nelson's Monument was later constructed atop Calton Hill in Edinburgh. The first moument funded by popular subscription, sculpted by Richard Westmacott, was erected in Birmingham in 1809. Westmacott also sculpted memorials in Liverpool and Barbados. A Monument in Great Yarmouth to Nelson was started before his death but only completed in 1819. This is sometimes known as the Britannia monument as it is topped by that martial female rather than a statue of Nelson; a statue of Nelson can however be found in the grounds of Norwich Cathedral alongside the other Napoleonic hero, the Duke of Wellington, near the school he attended. In Montreal there is a monument to Nelson erected in 1809 in Place Jacques-Cartier which was a market place at the time. It has carved scenes from Nelson's career around the base and the statue on top was claimed to be the oldest public statue of Nelson in the world. It was removed for several years due to excessive weathering but has been replaced after restoration. There is also the Nelson memorial in Swarland, Northumberland which was raised as a private memorial of Nelson by his friend and sometime agent, Alexander Davison. Nelson's Pillar, a monument to Nelson in Dublin was destroyed by an bomb planted by former IRA men in 1966. The city of Nelson, New Zealand bears his name as well as Nelson Island on the Sunshine Coast, British Columbia, Canada.
Nelson and the Royal Navy
Sunshine Coast, British Columbia Victory is still kept on active commission in honour of Nelson — it is the flagship of the Second Sea Lord, and is the oldest commissioned ship of the Royal Navy. She can be found in Number 2 Dry Dock of the Royal Navy Museum at the Portsmouth Naval Base, in Portsmouth, England. Two Royal Navy battleships have been named HMS Nelson in his honour. The Royal Navy celebrates Nelson every 21 October by holding Trafalgar Day dinners and toasting "The Immortal Memory" of Nelson. The bullet that killed Nelson is permanently on display in the Grand Vestibule of Windsor Castle. The uniform that he wore during the battle, with the fatal bullet hole still visible, can be seen at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich. A lock of Nelson's hair was given to the Imperial Japanese Navy from the Royal Navy after the Russo-Japanese War to commemorate the victory at the Battle of Tsushima. It is still on display at Kyouiku Sankoukan, a public museum maintained by the Japan Self-Defense Forces.
Nelson's descendants
Nelson had no legitimate children; his illegitimate daughter by Lady Hamilton, Horatia, subsequently married the Rev. Philip Ward and died in 1881. She and Rev. Ward had nine children: Horatio Nelson Ward (born 8 December 1822); Eleanor Phillipa Ward (born April 1824); Marmaduke Philip Smyth Ward (born 27 May 1825); John James Stephen Ward (13 February 1827-1829); Nelson Ward (born 8 May 1828); William George Ward (born 8 April 1830); Edmund Ward (10 July, 1832-1833); Horatio Ward (born 24 November, 1833), Philip Ward (born May 1834); Caroline Ward (born January 1836). Because Lord Nelson had no legitimate heirs, the Viscountcy and 1798 Barony of Nelson (both "of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk") became extinct upon his death. However, the 1801 Barony of Nelson ("of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk") passed by a special remainder to Lord Nelson's brother, The Revd William Nelson. William was also created Earl Nelson in recognition of his brother's services, which title is still extant.
Literary influences
Although Nelson's exploits are often claimed to have provided inspiration for fictional characters such as Jack Aubrey, Horatio Hornblower and Honor Harrington, a close reading of the books does not bear this out. It is more likely Nelson's fame makes him the only Naval figure of the time that reviewers recall. Nelson appears, unnamed but recognizable, in Susan Sontag's novel The Volcano Lover: A Romance, which centers around Lady Emma Hamilton's affair with him. Nelson himself appears as a ghost, in Amber Benson's and Christopher Golden's Ghosts of Albion.
Last words
Nelson's final words (as related by Victory's Surgeon William Beatty, based on the accounts of those who were with Nelson when he died) were "Thank God I have done my duty". According to Beatty, he repeated these words several times until he became unable to speak. In his dying hours, Nelson was also attended by his chaplain, Alexander Scott, his steward, Chevalier and Walter Burke, the purser, whose accounts have been available for modern biographers of Nelson. In those accounts, Nelson's last words were "Drink, drink. Fan, fan. Rub, rub.". This was a request to alleviate his symptoms of thirst, heat and the pains of his wounds (Pocock, Horatio Nelson, 1987, p.331). It is a common misconception that Nelson's last words were "Kiss me, Hardy", spoken to the captain of HMS Victory, Thomas Hardy. Nelson did, in fact, say this to Hardy a short time before his death, but they were not his last words, and Hardy was not present at his death (having been called back on deck). Some have speculated that Nelson actually said "Kismet, Hardy", but this is impossible, since the word kismet did not enter the English language until much later.
"Tapping the Admiral"
According to a legend, naval rum rather than brandy was used to preserve his body in a barrel until it was returned to England. It is claimed that his crew had drunk half of the rum from the barrel by the time they reached London; the crew were supposed to have sucked out the rum using thin straws. However, this legend is unlikely, due to the great respect that the crew had for Nelson, and because his body was guarded night and day by a marine. Nevertheless, this legend has given rise to the slang term "tapping the Admiral", meaning illicit drinking, and may be related to the nickname given to Naval rum rations later, "Nelson's Blood" (although this may possibly be a deliberate echo of the Communion ritual).
Titles
Lord Nelson's full title, at the time of his death, was Vice Admiral of the White The Right Honourable Horatio, Viscount Nelson, Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath. In addition, he was Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Hillborough in the County of Norfolk, Duke of Bronte in the nobility of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit and a Knight of the Ottoman Empire's Order of the Crescent, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of St Joachim, Colonel of the Marines, and Freeman of Norwich, Bath, Yarmouth, London, Salisbury and Exeter.
References

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- Joel S. A. Hayward. For God and Glory: Lord Nelson and His Way of War. 2003
- Edgar Vincent. Nelson: Love & Fame. 2003
- Christopher Hibbert. Nelson A Personal History. 1994
- Tom Pocock, 1987. Horatio Nelson. The Bodley Head. London. ISBN 0-370-31124-8
- William Beatty. The Death of Lord Nelson[http://www.lulu.com/content/175902]. 1807.
Further reading

- Michener, James, A. 1989. Caribbean. Secker & Warburg. London. ISBN 0-436-27971-1 (Especially Chap. VIII. "A Wedding on Nevis", pp. 289-318). Some of it is fictionalised, ". . . but everything said about Nelson and his frantic search for a wealthy life is based on fact."
- Pocock, Tom 1987, Horatio Nelson. The Bodley Head. London. ISBN 0-370-31124-8
- Lambert, Andrew Nelson - Britannia's God of War. Faber and Faber. London. ISBN 0-571-21222-0 Good new general biography; particularly helpful final two chapters on reactions to Nelson after his death, down to the current day.
- Sugden, John Nelson - A Dream of Glory. Jonathan Cape. London. ISBN 0-224-06097-X Outstanding and extremely thorough account of Nelson's life as far as the battle of St. Vincent.
- National Geographic magazine for October, 2005, has an article covering the Battle of Trafalgar, in recognition of its 200th anniversary.
External links

- [http://www.badley.info/history/Nelson-Horatio-Great-Britain.biog.html Nelson Chronology World History Database]
- [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/19c/west.asp 'The Death of Nelson' (1806)] by Benjamin West
- http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/
- [http://www.nelson-society.org.uk The Nelson Society]
- [http://www.hmsvictory.ngfl.gov.uk Life onboard HMS Victory: an educational resource]
- [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-tap1.htm Tapping the Admiral] from World Wide Words.
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- [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15233 The Death of Lord Nelson], 1807, by William Beatty from Project Gutenberg (also available in print from [http://www.lulu.com/content/175902 LuLu.com])
- [http://www.indepthinfo.com/band-of-brothers/lord-nelson.shtml Band of Brothers In History and Literature]
- [http://www.trafalgar200th.com A Tribute to Nelson's Navy] Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson ja:ホレーショ・ネルソン

1606

Events

- January 27 - The trial of Guy Fawkes and other conspirators begins ending in their execution on January 31
- May 17 - Supporters of Vasili Shusky invade the Kremlin and kill Premier Dmitri
- December 26 - Shakespeare's King Lear performed in court
- Storm buries a village of St Ismail's near modern-day Kidwelly, Carmarthenshire, Britain
- The Treaty of Zsitva-Torok ends the Long War between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans in Hungary. The independence of Transylvania is recognized by both sides and Austria's annual tribute to the Ottoman Empire is abolished.
- First Union Flag created.
- The Jesuit Joannis Stribingius visits Latvia, describes Latvian mythology

Births

- February 12 - John Winthrop, the Younger, Governor of Connecticut (died 1676)
- March 3 - Edmund Waller, English poet (died 1687)
- May 23 - Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish writer (d. 1682)
- May 25 - Saint Charles Garnier, Jesuit missionary (died 1649)
- June 6 - Pierre Corneille, French author (died 1684)
- June 16 - Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier (died 1675)
- June 19 - James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, Scottish statesman (died 1649)
- July 15 - Rembrandt, Dutch painter (died 1669)
- September 22 - Li Zicheng, Chinese rebel (died 1645)
- November 12 - Jeanne Mance, French settler in Montreal (died 1673)
- Richard Busby, English clergyman (died 1695)
- Leonard Calvert, governor of Baltimore (died 1647)
- Edmund Castell, English orientalist (died 1685)
- William Davenant, English poet and playwright (died 1668)
- Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester (died 1680)
- Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, Italian architect and painter (died 1680)
- Thomas Harrison, English puritan soldier and Fifth Monarchist (died 1660)
- Thomas Herbert, English traveller and historian (died 1682)
- John Robartes, 1st Earl of Radnor (died 1685)
- Pierre du Ryer, French dramatist (died 1658)
- Joachim von Sandrart, German art-historian and painter (died 1688)
- Tokugawa Tadanaga, Japanese nobleman (died 1633)
- Thomas Washbourne, English clergyman and poet (died 1687) See also :Category:1606 births.

Deaths

- January 30 - Everard Digby, English conspirator (executed) (born 1578)
- January 30 - Robert Wintour, English conspirator (executed) (born 1565)
- January 31 - Guy Fawkes, English conspirator (executed) (born 1570)
- January 31 - Ambrose Rokewood, English conspirator (executed)
- January 31 - Thomas Wintour, English conspirator (executed) (born 1571)
- March 23 - Justus Lipsius, Flemish humanist (born 1547)
- April 3 - Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devon, English politician (born 1563)
- May 3 - Henry Garnet, English Jesuit missionary (born 1555)
- October 5 - Philippe Desportes, French poet (born 1546)
- November 13 - Geronimo Mercuriali, Italian philologist and physician (b. 1530)
- November 20 - (burial date) John Lyly, English writer (born 1553)
- François de Bar, French scholar (born 1538)
- False Dmitry I, pretender to the Russian throne
- Leonhard Lechner, German composer and music editor (born 1553)
- Carel van Mander, Dutch painter and poet (born 1548)
- Akaza Naoyasu, Japanese nobleman
- Jean Nicot, French diplomat and scholar (born 1530)
- Nicolaus Taurellus, German philosopher and theologian (born 1547)
- Gaspar de Zuniga y Azevedo, Spanish colonial administrator and viceroy of Mexico (born 1540) See also :Category:1606 deaths. Category:1606 ko:1606년 ms:1606

London Virginia Company

The London Company (also called the Virginia Company of London) was an English joint stock company established by royal charter by James I on April 10 1606 with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America. It was one of two such companies, along with the Plymouth Company, that was granted an identical charter as part of the Virginia Company. The London Company was responsible for establishing the Jamestown Settlement, the first permanent English settlement in the United States, in 1607. The territory granted to the company included the coast of North America from 34th parallel (Cape Fear) north to the 41st parallel (in Long Island Sound, but being part of the Virginia Company and Colony, The London Company owned a large portion of Atlantic and Inland Canada. The company was permitted by its charter to establish a 100 mile square (26,000 km²) settlement within this area. The portion of the company's territory north of the 38th parallel was shared with the Plymouth Company, with the stipulation that neither company found a colony within 100 miles (160 km) of each other. In 1607, the company established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River in Chesapeake Bay. By 1609, the Plymouth Company had abandoned its effort to establish the Popham Colony and had dissolved. As a result, the charter for the London Colony was adjusted with a new grant that extended from "sea to sea" of the previously-shared area between between the 34th and 40th parallel.

History of the London Company

Popham Colony Popham Colony The business of the company was the settlement of the Virginia colony using as the labour force volunteer adventurers under the customary indenture system whereby in exchange for seven years of labour for the company, the company provided passage, food, protection and land ownership. In December 1606, the Virginia Company's three ships, containing 104 men and boys, set sail. On May 13, 1607, these first settlers selected the site of Jamestown Island as the place to build their fort. In addition to survival, the early colonists had another pressing mission: to make a profit for the stockholders of the Virginia Company. Although the settlers were disappointed that gold did not wash up on the beach and gems did not grow in the trees, they realized there was great potential for wealth of other kinds in their new home. Early industries such as glass manufacture, pitch and tar production and beer and wine making took advantage of natural resources and the land's fertility. However, the settlers could not devote as much time as the Virginia Company would have liked to their financial responsibilities. They were too busy trying to survive. Within the three-sided fort erected on the banks of the James, the settlers quickly discovered that they were, first and foremost, employees of the Virginia Company of London, following instructions of the men appointed by the Company to rule them. In exchange, the laborers were armed and received clothes and food from the common store. After seven years, they were to receive land of their own. The gentlemen, who provided their own armor and weapons, were to be paid in land, dividends or additional shares of stock. Initially, the colonists were governed by a president and seven-member council selected by the King. Leadership problems quickly erupted and Jamestown's first two leaders coped with varying degrees of success with sickness, Indian assaults, poor food and water supplies and class strife. When Captain John Smith became Virginia's third president, he proved the strong leader that the colony needed. Industry flourished and relations with Chief Powhatan's people improved. In 1609, the Virginia Company received its Second Charter, which allowed the Company to choose its new governor from amongst its shareholders. Investment boomed as the Company launched an intensive recruitment campaign. Over 600 colonists set sail for Virginia between March 1608 and March 1609. Unfortunately for these new settlers, Sir Thomas Gates, Virginia's deputy governor, bound for the colony, was shipwrecked in Bermuda and did not assume his new post until 1610. When he arrived, he found only a fraction of the colonists had survived the infamous "Starving Time" of 1609-1610. All too soon, the Mother Country learned of Virginia's woeful state. The result was predictable: financial catastrophe for the Company. Many new subscribers reneged payment on their shares, and the Company became entangled in dozens of court cases. On top of these losses, the Company was forced to incur further debt when it sent hundreds more colonists to Virginia. There was little to counter this crushing debt. No gold had been found in Virginia; trading commodities produced by exploitation of the raw materials found in the New World were minimal. Attempts at producing glass, pitch, tar and potash had been barely profitable and, regrettably, such commodities could be had far more cheaply on the other side of the Atlantic. Increasingly bad publicity, political infighting and financial woes led the Virginia Company to organize a massive advertising campaign. The Company plastered street corners with tempting broadsheets, published persuasive articles, and even convinced the clergy to preach of the virtues of supporting colonization. Before the Company was dissolved, it would publish 27 books and pamphlets promoting the Virginia venture. To make shares more marketable, the Virginia Company changed its sales pitch. Instead of promising instant returns and vast profits for investors, the Company exploited patriotic sentiment and national pride. A stockholder was assured that his purchase of shares would help build the might of England, to make her the superpower she deserved to be. The heathen natives would be converted to the proper form of Christianity, the Church of England. People out of work could find employment in the New World. The standard of living would increase across the nation. How could any good, patriotic Englander resist? The English rose to the bait. The gentry wished to win favor by proving its loyalty to the crown. The growing middle class also saw stock purchasing as a way to better itself. But the news was not all good. Although the population of Jamestown rose, high settler mortality kept profits unstable. By 1612, the Company's debts had soared to over £1000. A third charter provided a short-term resolution to the Virginia Company's problems. The Company was permitted to run a lottery as a fundraising venture. Other attractive features of the charter allowed Virginia's assembly to act as the colony's legislature and also added 300 leagues of ocean to the colony's holdings, which would include Bermuda as part of Virginia. But the colony was still on shaky ground until John Rolfe's successful experiment with tobacco as a cash crop provided a way to recoup financially. Unfortunately by 1616, the Virginia Company suffered further adversity. The original settlers were owed their land and stock shares; initial investors at home were owed their dividends. The Company was forced to renege on its cash promises, instead distributing 50 acre (200,000 m²) lots in payment. The next year, the Company instituted the headright system, a way to bring more settlers to Virginia. Investors and residents were able to acquire land in paying the passage of new settlers. In most cases, these newcomers spent a period of time in servitude on the investor's land. Sir Edwin Sandys, a leading force in the Virginia Company, strongly supported the headright system, for his goal was a permanent colony which would enlarge British territory, relieve the nation's overpopulation, and expand the market for English goods. Sir Thomas Smith, as the Company's Treasurer, had a different dream: the Virginia Company's mission was to trade and to make a profit. In the end, it was Sandys' vision which prevailed. When he became Treasurer of the Company in 1619, he moved forward to populate the colony and earn a protective status for the tobacco crop which had become the cash crop of Virginia. At the same time, he urged colonists to diversify their plantings and thus become less reliant on only one staple. The colonists ignored this advice, to their later dismay. In 1621, the Company was in trouble; unpaid dividends and increased use of lotteries had made future investors wary. The Company debt was now over £9000. Worried Virginians were hardly reassured by the advice of pragmatic Treasurer Sandys, who warned that the Company "cannot wish you to rely on anything but yourselves." March 1622, the Company's and the colony's situation went from dire to disastrous when the Powhatan Indians staged an uprising which wiped out a quarter of the European population of Virginia. When a fourth charter, severely reducing the Company's ability to make decisions in the governing of Virginia, was proposed by the Crown, subscribers rejected it. King James I forthwith changed the status of Virginia in 1624. Virginia was now a royal colony to be administered by a governor appointed by the King. The Virginia Assembly finally received royal approval in 1627 and this form of government, with governor and assembly, would oversee the colony of Virginia until 1776, excepting only the years of the English Commonwealth.

Indian relationships

The instructions issued to Sir Thomas Gates on November 20 called for a forcible conversion of Native Americans to Anglicanism and subordination to the colonial administration. The records of the company record a discussion during one of their first meetings about publishing a justification of their business enterprise and methods "give adventurers, a clearness and satisfactione, for the justice of the action, and so encourage them". Others opposed this, arguing that "there is much a confession in every apology" and called for "quietness and no doubting" not wanting to create a public debate where Catholics and neutrals might attack them. Whereas Catholic arguments would be in support of Spanish legal claims to the New World under the Treaty of Tordesillas, it was feared that the neutral "pen-adversaries" might "cast scruples into our conscience" by criticising the lawfulness of the plantation. It was decided to forego such a publication of a justification. However in 1608 Sir Edward Coke, in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice offered a ruling in Calvin's Case which went beyond the issue at hand: whether a Scotsman could seek justice at an English Court. Coke distinguished between aliens from nations at war with England and friendly aliens, those from nations in league with England. Friendly aliens could have recourse to English courts. But he also ruled that "all infidels" (i.e. those from non-Christian nations) there can be no peace and a state of perpetual hostility would exist between them and Christians. In 1609 the company issued instructions to kidnap Native American children so as to indoctrinate them with English values and religion. These instructions also sanctioned attacking the Iniocasoockes, the cultural leaders of the local Powhatans. However it was only when Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr arrived in 1610 that the Company was able to commence a war against the Powhatan with the First Anglo-Powhatan War. De La Warr was replaced by Sir Thomas Dale, who continued the war. It was during this period that Pocahontas married John Rolfe. The military offensive was accompanied by a propaganda war: Alderman Robert Johnson published Nova Britannia in 1609 which compared Native Americans to wild animals - "heardes of deere in a forest". While it portrayed the Powhatans as peace loving, it nevertheless threatened to deal with any who resisted conversion to Anglicanism as enemies of 'their' country. (Johnson was the son-in-law of Sir Thomas Smith, leader of one of the court factions within the Company in London.) In 1622 the Second Anglo-Powhatan War was started. Its origins are disputed. English apologists for the company say that Opchanacanough initiated the war. Robert Williams, a contemporary Native American Law Professor argues that Opchanacanough had secured concessions from Governor Yeardley which the company would not accept. Thus Opchanacanough's attack on March 22 1622 may have been an attempt to defeat the colony before reinforcements arrived. 350 out of 1,240 colonists were killed. The Virginia Company quickly published an account of this attack which was steeped in Calvinist theology - the massacre was the work of providence in that it gave an excuse for the complete genocide of the Powhatan, and the building of settlements on their former towns. New orders called for a "perpetual war without peace or truce" "to root out from being any longer a people, so cursed a nation, ungratefull to all benefitte, and incapable of all goodnesses."

External links

- [http://www.nps.gov/colo/Jthanout/VACompany.html National Park Service brief]
- [http://www.dinsdoc.com/osgood-8-3-4-2.htm The Dissolution of the Virginia Company of London] Chapter 2 of The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century by Herbert L. Osgood
- [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/mtjhtml/mtjser8.html Library of Congress] images of manuscript and printed editions of the Records of the Virginia Company of London
- [http://www.virginiaplaces.org/nativeamerican/anglopowhatan.html The Anglo-Powhatan Wars]