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The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue And Tale

The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale

The Canon's Yeoman's Tale is one of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. The Canon and his Yeoman are not mentioned in the General Prologue of The Canterbury Tales, where most of the other pilgrims are described, but they arrive later after riding fast to catch up with the group. The tale the Canon's Yeoman tells is in two parts. The first part is an expose of the shady business of his master the Canon as an alchemist. The second part is about another canon who is also an alchemist who is even more devious than the first. It is not known if the introduction of these characters was an afterthought by Chaucer or if they were part of the design of the Tales from the start. It is believed it was one of the last tales to be written and it seems to many scholars such a lively attack on alchemists that Chaucer must have had a real person in mind. In 1374 a chaplain called William de Brumley confessed to making counterfeit gold coins after being taught by William Shuchirch. Shuchirch was a canon at King's Chapel, Windsor and in 1390 Chaucer supervised repairs of the chapel so he may have known Shuchirch. There is no source for the tale although it has similarities to one by Ramon Llull. Chaucer probably got much of the technical detail from Speculum Naturale (Mirror of Nature) by Vincent of Beauvais and Arnold of Villanova is mentioned within the tale itself although he may have read many other alchemical texts. Chaucer's grasp of alchemy seems very accurate and in the 17th century the tale was cited by Elias Ashmole as proof that Chaucer was master of the science. Chaucer did have a great interest in science and technology, writing a Treatise on the Astrolabe. The Yeoman seems much the more talkative of the two arrivals and when Harry Bailly, the host, asks the Canon for a tale his yeoman chips in telling how he clever his master is saying: :That al this ground on which we been ridyng, :Til that we come to Caunterbury toun, :He koude al clene turne it up-so-doun, :And pave it al of silver and of gold. The host then asks why the Canon is dressed so poorly if he is so clever and the Yeoman admits that he may have wit but he misuses it. He then explains his master is an alchemist: :And borwe gold, be it a pound or two, :Or ten, or twelve, or manye sommes mo, :And make hem wenen, [think] at the leeste weye, :That of a pound we koude make tweye. [double] The Canon tries unsuccesfully to silence his Yeoman but ends up fleeing in shame; after which the Yeoman feels free to tell the history of the Canon. He describes how the Canon works to discover the philosopher's stone and many of the processes he goes through but how in the end the pot breaks and they lose most of the metal they had. He then continues with a story of a second canon who sells to a priest an alchemical 'recipe' for producing silver after tricking him into believing that he can produce the metal spontaneously. After each of the tales the Yeoman adds a moral such as: :But al thyng which that shineth as the gold :Nis nat gold, as that I have herd it told; He also explains that we should not try to discover things God keeps secret as it will not succeed and be like picking a fight with God. :He wills that it not discovered be, :Save where it's pleasing to His diety... :...Since God in Heaven :Wills that Philosophers shall not say even :How any man may come upon that stone, :I say, as for the best let it alone. Ben Jonson's play The Alchemist bears many similarities to Chaucer's tale.

External links


- [http://www.librarius.com/canttran/yeotrfs.htm Side by side modern translation of "The Canon's Yeoman's Tale"] Canon's Yeoman's Tale

The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). The tales, some of which are originals and others not, are contained inside a frame tale and told by a group of pilgrims on their way from Southwark to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas à Becket's at Canterbury Cathedral. The Canterbury Tales are written in Middle English.

The individual tales

The themes of the tales vary, and include topics such as courtly love, treachery and avarice. The genres also vary, and include romance, Breton lai, sermon, and fabliau. The characters, introduced in the General Prologue of the book, tell tales of great cultural relevance. The Tales include:
- The General Prologue
- The Knight's Tale
- The Miller's Prologue and Tale
- The Reeve's Prologue and Tale
- The Cook's Prologue and Tale
- The Man of Law's Prologue and Tale
- The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale
- The Friar's Prologue and Tale
- The Summoner's Prologue and Tale The Summoner's Prologue and Tale
- The Clerk's Prologue and Tale
- The Merchant's Prologue and Tale
- The Squire's Prologue and Tale
- The Franklin's Prologue and Tale
- The Physician's Tale
- The Pardoner's Prologue and Tale
- The Shipman's Tale
- The Prioress' Prologue and Tale
- Chaucer's Tale of Sir Topas
- The Tale of Melibee
- The Monk's Prologue and Tale
- The Nun's Priest's Prologue and Tale
- The Second Nun's Prologue and Tale
- The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale
- The Manciple's Prologue and Tale
- The Parson's Prologue and Tale
- Chaucer's Retraction Some of the tales are serious and others humorous; however, all are very precise in describing the traits and faults of human nature. Religious malpractice is a major theme as well as focusing on the division of the three estates. Most of the tales are interlinked with similar themes running through them and some are told in retaliation for other tales in the form of an argument. The work is incomplete, as it was originally intended that each character would tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the return journey. This would have meant a possible one hundred and twenty tales which would have dwarfed the twenty-six tales actually written. People have sought political overtones within the tales, particularly as Chaucer himself was a significant courtier and political figure at the time, close to the corridors of power. There are many hints at contemporary events, although few are proven, and the theme of marriage common in the tales is presumed to refer to several different marriages, most often those of John of Gaunt. Aside from Chaucer himself, Harry Bailly of the Tabard Inn was a real person and the Cook has been identified as quite likely to be Roger Knight de Ware, a contemporary London cook.

The complete work

The work was begun some time in the 1380s with Chaucer stopping work on it in the late 1390s. It was not written down fully conceived as it seems to have had many revisions with the addition of new tales at various times. It has been suggested that the unfinished state in which it comes down to us was actually deliberate on Chaucer's part and it should be noted that the plan for one hundred and twenty tales is actually from the general prologue. It is announced by Harry Bailly, the host, that there will be four tales each and this is not necessarily the opinion of Chaucer himself; who appears as the only character to tell more than one tale. The structure of The Canterbury Tales is easy to find in other contemporary works, such as The Book of Good Love by Juan Ruiz and Boccaccio's Decameron, which may have been one of Chaucer's main sources of inspiration. Chaucer indeed adapted several of Boccaccio's stories to put in the mouths of his own pilgrims, but what sets Chaucer's work apart from his contemporaries' is his characters. Compared to Boccaccio's main characters - seven women and three men, all young, fresh and well-to-do, and given Classical names - the characters in Chaucer are of extremely varied stock, including representatives of most of the branches of the middle classes at that time. Not only are the participants very different, but they tell very different types of tales, with their personalities showing through both in their choices of tales but also in the way they tell them. The idea of a pilgrimage appears to have been mainly a useful device to get such a diverse collection of people together for literary purposes. The Monk would probably not be allowed to undertake the pilgrimage and some of the other characters would be unlikely ever to want to attend. Also all of the pilgrims ride horses, there is no suggestion of them suffering for their religion. None of the popular shrines along the way are visited and there is no suggestion that anyone attends mass, so that it seems much more like a tourist's jaunt. It may be that Chaucer's intent was to ridicule the sort of people who unthinkingly went on such pilgrimages. Chaucer does not pay that much attention to the progress of the trip. He hints that the tales take several days but he does not detail any overnight stays. Although the journey could be done in one day this speed would make telling tales difficult and three to four days was the usual duration for such pilgrimages. The 18th of April is mentioned in the tales and Walter William Skeat, a 19th century editor, determined 17 April, 1387 as the probable first day of the tales. Scholars divide the tales into ten fragments. The tales that make up a fragment are directly connected, usually with one character speaking to and handing over to another character, but there is no connection between most of the other fragments. This means that there are several possible permutations for the order of the fragments and consequently the tales themselves. The above listing is perhaps the most common in modern times, with the framents numbered I-X, but an alternative order is listing them A-G, with the tales from the Physician's until the Nun's Priest's placed before the Wife of Bath's. The exception to the independence between fragments are the last two. The Manciple's tale is the last tale in XI but fragment X starts with the parson's prologue by saying that the Manciple had finished his tale. The reason that they are kept as two different fragments is that the Manciple starts his short tale in the morning but the parson's tale is told at four in the afternoon. It is assumed that Chaucer would have amended his manuscript or inserted more tales to fill the time. Two early manuscripts of the tale are the Hengwrt manuscript and the Ellesmere manuscript.

Significance

It is sometimes argued that the greatest contribution that this work made to English literature was in popularising the literary use of the vernacular language, English (rather than French or Latin). However, several of Chaucer's contemporaries—John Gower, William Langland, and the Pearl Poet—also wrote major literary works in English, making it unclear how much Chaucer was responsible for starting a trend rather than simply being part of it. The title of the work has become an everyday phrase in the language and has been variously adapted and adopted. Recently an animated version of some of the tales has been produced for British television. As well as a version with Modern English dialogue, there were versions in the original Middle English and Welsh. The postulated return journey has intrigued many and continuations have been written as well as tales written for the characters who are mentioned but not given a chance to speak. The Tale of Beryn is a tale by an anonymous author within a 15th century manuscript of the work. The tales are rearranged and there are some interludes in Canterbury, which they had finally reached, and Beryn is the first tale on the return journey, told by the Merchant. John Lydgate's Siege of Thebes is also a depiction of the return journey but the tales themselves are actually prequels to the tale of classical origin told by the Knight in Chaucer's work.. In 2004, Professor Linne Mooney was able to identify the scrivener who worked for Chaucer as an Adam Pinkhurst. Professor Mooney, working at the University of Cambridge, was able to match Pinkhurst's signature on an oath he signed to his lettering on a copy of The Canterbury Tales that was transcribed from Chaucer's working copy.

Notes

The shrine was later destroyed by Henry VIII; a visitor attraction called The Canterbury Tales may currently be seen in Canterbury.

External links


- [http://www.bookrags.com/notes/ct/ BookRags Study Guide] for "Canterbury Tales" at [http://www.bookrags.com BookRags.com]
-
- [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/caxton/homepage.html Originals from the British Library]High resolution scans of William Caxton's two editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (probably printed in 1476 and 1483)
- Audio clip from [http://people.bu.edu/bobl/middle_english.htm The Miller's Tale and The Second Nun's Tale]
- [http://www.llgc.org.uk/drych/drych_s007.htm The Hengwrt Chaucer]
- [http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/miller1.mp3 Audio clip from the first part of the Miller's Tale]
- [http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/miller2.mp3 Audio clip from the second part of the Miller's tale]
- [http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/prologue.mp3 Audio clip from the prologue of the Canterbury Tales]
- [http://www.canterburytales.org/canterbury_tales.html Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ~ Presented by ELF]
- [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=5 Changes in the Griselda Story: Chaucer's The Clerk's Tale]
- [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=6 The Purpose of Chaucer's Retraction] an article from [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/ Shadowed Realm - Your Guide to Medieval History]
- [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/canterbury/ Spark Notes]
- [http://www.gradesaver.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/canterbury/ Classic Notes]

Further reading

Kolne, V.A. and Glending Olson (Eds.) (2005). The Canterbury Tales: Fifteen Tales and The General Prologue; Authoritative Text, Sources and Backgrounds, Criticism (2nd ed.). New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-92587-0. LC PR1867.K65 2005. A Norton Critical Edition, this book offers valuable primary texts and secondary criticism. Canterbury Tales ja:カンタベリー物語

Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343 – October 25, 1400) was an English author, poet, philosopher, bureaucrat (courtier), and diplomat. Chaucer is best known as the author of The Canterbury Tales. He is sometimes credited with being the first author to demonstrate the artistic legitimacy of the vernacular English language, rather than French or Latin.

Life

Latin] Chaucer was born around 1343 probably in London, although the exact date and location is not known. His father and grandfather were both London wine merchants (vintners) and before that, for several generations, the family were merchants in Ipswich. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffrey's father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the twelve year-old boy to her daughter; an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the £250 pounds fine levied suggests that the family was well-to-do, upper middle-class if not in the elite. John married Agnes Copton, who in 1349 inherited property including twenty-four shops in London from her uncle, Hamo de Copton, who is described as the "moneyer" at the Tower of London. There are no details of Chaucer's early life and education but compared to his near contemporary poets, William Langland and The Pearl Poet, his life is well documented with nearly five hundred written items testifying to his career. The first time he is mentioned is in 1357, in the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess of Ulster when his father's connections enabled him to become a page to the noble lady. In 1359, in the early stages of the Hundred Years' War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, Elizabeth's husband, as part of the English army. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Reims, becoming a prisoner of war. Edward contributed £16 as part of a ransom, and Chaucer was released. After this Chaucer's life is uncertain but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain and Flanders, possibly as a messenger and perhaps even going on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Around 1366 Chaucer married Philippa (de) Roet, a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen, Philippa of Hainault, and possibly a sister of Katherine Swynford, who later (ca. 1396) became the third wife of Chaucer's friend and patron, John of Gaunt. It is uncertain as to how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but 3 or 4 are the numbers most widely agreed upon. Thomas Chaucer had an illustrious career, chief butler to four kings, envoy to France and Speaker of the House of Commons. Thomas' great-grandson, Geoffrey’s great-great-grandson, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III, before he was deposed. Geoffrey's other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IV's coronation and another son Lewis Chaucer. Chaucer is presumed to have studied law in the Inner Temple an Inn of Court at about this time, although definite proof is lacking. It is recorded that he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a valet or esquire on 20 June 1367 a position which could entail any number of jobs. He travelled abroad many times with at least some of them being in his role as a valet. In 1368 he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, in Milan. Two literary stars of the era who were in attendance were Jean Froissart and Petrarch. Chaucer also travelled to Picardy the following year as part of a military expedition and visited Genoa and Florence in 1373. It is on this Italian trip that it is speculated he came into contact with medieval Italian poetry, the forms and stories of which he would use later. While he may have been exposed to manuscripts of these works the trips were not usually long enough to learn sufficient Italian. It may have been his upbringing among the merchants and immigrants in the docklands of London that gave him the opportunity to learn the language. One other trip he went on in 1377 seems shrouded in mystery with records of the time conflicting in details. Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage between the future Richard II and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years War. If this was the purpose of their trip, they seem to have been unsuccessful as no wedding occurred. Richard II Another indication of his early poetic life came on St. George's Day in 1374 when Edward III granted Chaucer a gallon of wine daily for life for some unspecified service. An unusual grant, Chaucer nonetheless regularly collected it until Richard II came to power and converted it to a monetary grant. A more substantial job was that of Comptroller of the Customs for the port of London which Chaucer began on 8 June 1374. He must have been suited for the role as he continued in it for twelve years; a long time in such a post at that period. His life goes undocumented for much of the next ten years and it is not known if he was in the city at the time of the Peasants' Revolt. He was mentioned in law papers of 4 May 1380, involved in the raptus of Cecilia Chaumpaigne. What raptus means, rape or possibly kidnapping, is unclear but the incident seems to have been resolved quickly and did not leave a stain on Chaucer's reputation. While still working as comptroller Chaucer appears to have moved to Kent, being appointed as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent, at a time when French invasion was a possibility. He also became a Member of Parliament for Kent in 1386. There is no further reference after this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife, and she is presumed to have died in 1387. He survived the political upheavals caused by the Lords Appellants and some of the men executed over the affair Chaucer had known well. On 12 July 1389 Chaucer was appointed the clerk of the king's works, a sort of foreman organising most of the king's building project. No major works were begun during his tenure but he did conduct repairs upon Westminster Palace, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, continue building the wharf at the Tower of London and build the stands at tournament held in 1390. It may have been a difficult job but it paid well; two shillings a day, over three times the salary as a comptroller. In September 1390, records say that he was robbed, and possibly injured, while conducting the business and it was shortly after on 17 June 1391 that he stopped working in this capacity. Almost immediately on 22 June he began as deputy forester in the royal forest of North Petherton, Somerset. This was no sinecure, with maintenance an important part of the job, although there were many opportunities to derive profit. Soon after the overthrow of his patron Richard II, Chaucer vanished from the historical record. He is believed to have died of unknown causes on 25 October, 1400 but there is no firm evidence for this date which is from the engraving on his tomb; built over one hundred years after his death. There is some speculation—most recently in Terry Jones' book Who Murdered Chaucer? : A Medieval Mystery—that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on the orders of his successor Henry IV. The new king did renew the grants assigned to Chaucer by Richard but in The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse Chaucer hints that they might not have been paid. The last mention of Chaucer in the historical record is on 5 June 1400 when some monies owing to him were paid. Chaucer was buried in Westminster Abbey in London as was his right owing to the jobs he had performed and the new house he had leased nearby on 24 December 1399. In 1556 his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making Chaucer the first writer interred in the area now known as Poets' Corner.

Works

Poets' Corner]] Chaucer's first major work The Book of the Duchess was an elegy for Blanche of Lancaster. Although unlikely that it was commissioned by her husband John of Gaunt, as some scholars have claimed, he did grant Chaucer a £10 annuity on 13 June 1374. Two other early works were Anelida and Arcite and The House of Fame. Chaucer wrote many of his major works in a prolific period while working as customs comptroller. His Parlement of Foules, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde all date from this time. He is best known as the writer of The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories (told by fictional pilgrims on the road to the cathedral at Canterbury) that would help to shape English literature. The Canterbury Tales contrasts with other literature of the period in the naturalism of its narrative, the variety of stories the pilgrims tell and the varied characters who are engaged in the pilgrimage which sets it apart from other literature of the period. Many of the stories narrated by the pilgrims seem to fit their individual characters and social standing, although some of the stories seem ill-fitting to their narrators, probably representing the incomplete state of the work. Chaucer drew on real life for his cast of Pilgrims; the inn keeper shares the name of a contemporary keeper of an Inn in southwark, and real life identities for the Wife of Bath, the Merchant, the Man of Law and the Student have been suggested. The many jobs Chaucer held in medieval society; page, soldier, messenger, valet, bureaucrat, foreman and administrator probably exposed him to many of the types of people he depicted in the Tales. He was able to ape their speech, satirise their manners and still offer them popular literature. Chaucer's works are sometimes grouped into, first a French period, then an Italian period and finally an English period, with Chaucer being influenced by those countries' literatures in turn. Certainly Troilus and Criseyde is a middle period work with its reliance on the forms of Italian poetry, little known in England at the time, but to which Chaucer was probably exposed during his frequent trips abroad on court business. In addition, its use of a classical subject and its elaborate, courtly language sets it apart as one of his most complete and well-formed works. In Troilus and Criseyde Chaucer draws heavily on his source, Bocaccio, and on the late Latin philsopher Boethius. However, it is The Canterbury Tales, wherein he focuses on English subjects, with bawdy jokes and respected figures often being undercut with humour, that has cemented his reputation. Chaucer also translated such important works as Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy and The Romance of the Rose by Guillaume de Lorris (extended by Jean de Meun). However, while many scholars maintain that Chaucer did indeed translate part of the text of The Romance of the Rose as Roman de la Rose, others claim that this has been effectively disproved. Many of his other works were very loose translations of, or simply based on, works from continental Europe. It is in this role that Chaucer receives some of his earliest critical praise. Eustache Deschamps wrote a ballade on the great translator and called himself a "nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry". In 1385 Thomas Usk made glowing mention of Chaucer, and John Gower, Chaucer's main poetic rival of the time, also lauded him. This reference was later edited out of Gower's Confessio Amantis and it has been suggested by some that this was because of ill feeling between them, but it is likely due simply to stylistic concerns. One other significant work of Chaucer's is his Treatise on the Astrolabe, possibly for his own son, that describes the form and use of that instrument in detail. Although much of the text may have come from other sources, the treatise indicates that Chaucer was versed in science in addition to his literary talents. Another scientific work discovered in 1952, Equatorie of the Planetis, has similar language and handwriting compared to some considered to be Chaucer's and it continues many of the ideas from the Astrolabe. The attribution of this work to Chaucer is still uncertain.

Influence

Linguistic

1952 Chaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic metre, a style which had developed since around the twelfth century as an alternative to the alliterative Anglo-Saxon metre. Chaucer is known for metrical innovation, inventing the rhyme royal, and he was one of the first English poets to use the five-stress line, the iambic pentameter, in his work, with only a few anonymous short works using it before him. And the arrangement of these five-stress line into rhyming couplets was first seen in his The Legend of Good Women, was used in much of his later work and became one of the standard poetic forms in English. His early influence as a satirist is also important with the common humorous device, the funny accent of a regional dialect, apparently making its first appearance in The Reeve's Tale. The poetry of Chaucer, along with other writers of the era, is credited with helping to standardise the London Dialect of the Middle English language; a combination of Kentish and Midlands dialect. This is probably over-stated with the influence of the court, chancery and bureaucracy—of which Chaucer was a part—remains a more probable influence on the development of Standard English. Modern English is somewhat distanced from the language of Chaucer's poems due to the effect of the Great Vowel Shift some time after his death. This change in pronunciation of English, still not fully understood, leaves the reading of Chaucer for modern audiences difficult. The status of the final -e in Chaucer's verse in uncertain; it seems likely during the period of Chaucer's writing the final -e was dropping out of colloquial English, and that its use was somewhat irregular. Chaucer's versification suggests that the final -e is sometimes to be vocalised, and sometimes remains silent; however, this remains a point on which there is disagreement. Apart from the irregular spelling much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader. Chaucer is also recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as the first author to use many common English words in his writings. These words though were probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest manuscript source. Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army, arrogant, arsenic, arc, artillery and aspect are just some of those from the first letter of the alphabet.

Literary

Chaucer's early popularity is attested by the many poets who imitated his works. John Lydgate was one of earliest imitators who wrote a continuation to the Tales. Later a group of poets including Gavin Douglas, William Dunbar and Robert Henryson were known as the Scottish Chaucerians for their indebtedness to his style. Many of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these admiring poets and the later romantic era poets' appreciation of Chaucer was coloured by their not knowing which of the works were genuine. It was not until the late 19th century that the official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon. One hundred and fifty years after his death, The Canterbury Tales was selected by William Caxton to be one of the first books to be printed in England.

Monuments and Tributes

A building has been named in Chaucer's honour at the United Kingdom Civil Service College.

Historical Reception and Representation

Manuscripts

As early as 1400, Chaucer's courtly audience grew to include members of the rising literate, middle and merchant classes, which included many Lollard sympathizers who would have been inclined to read Chaucer as one of his own, particularly in his satirical writings about priests and various religious. We would not have so many manuscripts of Chaucer's works today if this group of readers had not created a great demand for them.

Printed Books

Early on, representations of Chaucer began to circle around two co-existing identites: 1) a courtier and a king's man, an international humanist familiar with the classics and continental greats; 2) a man of the people, a plain-style satirist and a critic of the church. All things to all people (barring some sensitive moralists), for a combination of mixed aesthetic and political reasons, Chaucer was held in high esteem by high and low audiences--certainly a boon for printers and booksellers. [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg073.htm The sixteenth-century folio editions of Chaucer's Works] were seminal events in the construction of this national literary forefather who could be read in support of both radical and conservative positions as well as different historical narratives: a popular, reformation from below and a court-controlled reformation from above. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Chaucer was printed more than any other English author, and he was the first author to have his works collected in comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer canon began to cohere. Some scholars contend that that sixteenth-century editions of Chaucer's Works set the precedent for all other English authors in terms of presentation, prestige and success in print. These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's biography and the canonical list of works attributed to him. William Caxton's [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg076.htm two folio editions] of The Canterbury Tales were published in 1478 and 1483. Richard Pynson, the King's Printer for about twenty years, was the first to collect and sell something that resembled an edition of the collected works of Chaucer, introducing in the process five previously printed texts that are not Chaucer's. (The collection is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.) There is a likely connection between Pynson's product and William Thynne's a mere six years later. Thynne had a successful career from the 1520s until his death in 1546, when he was one of the masters of the royal household. His editions of Chaucers Works in 1532 and 1542 were the first major contributions to the existence of a widely recognized Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his edition as a book sponsored by and supportive of the king who is praised in the preface by Sir Brian Tuke. Thynne's canon brought the number of apocryphal works associated with Chaucer to a total of 28, even if that was not his intention. As with Pynson, once included in the Works, pseudepigraphic texts stayed within it, regardless of their first editor's intentions. Probably the most significant aspect of the growing apocrypha is that, beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to include medieval texts that made Chaucer appear as a proto-Protestant Lollard, primarily the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale. As "Chaucerian" works that were not considered apocryphal until the late nineteenth century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, with English Protestants carrying on the earlier Lollard project of appropriating existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic--or malleable enough to be construed as sympathetic--to their cause. The official Chaucer of the early printed volumes of his Works was construed as a proto-Protestant as the same was done, concurrently, with William Langland and Piers Plowman. The famous Plowman's Tale did not enter Thynne's Works until the second, 1542 edition. Its entry was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of Thomas Usk's Testament of Love in the first edition. The Testament of Love imitates, borrows from, and thus resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer. (Testament of Love also appears to borrow from Piers Plowman.) Since the Testament of Love mentions its author's part in a failed plot (book 1, chapter 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollard) heresy, all this was associated with Chaucer. (Usk himself was executed as a traitor in 1388.) Interestingly, John Foxe took this recantation of heresy as a defense of the true faith, calling Chaucer a "right Wiclevian" and (erroneously) identifying him as a schoolmate and close friend of John Wycliffe at Merton College, Oxford. (Thomas Speght is careful to highlight these facts in his editions and his "Life of Chaucer.") No other sources for the Testament of Love exist--there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript sources he had. John Stow (1525-1605) was an antiquarian and also a chronicler. [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg077.htm His edition of Chaucer's Works in 1561] brought the apocrypha to more than 50 titles. More were added in the seventeenth century, and they remained as late as 1810, well after Thomas Tyrwhitt pared the canon down in [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg079.htm his 1775 edition]. The compilation and printing of Chaucer's works was, from its beginning, a political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an English national identity and history that grounded and authorized the Tudor monarchy and church. What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favorably to Protestant England. In his 1598 edition of the Works, Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) made good use of Usk's account of his political intrigue and imprisonment in the Testament of Love to assemble a largely fictional "Life of Our Learned English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer." Speght's "Life" presents readers with an erstwhile radical in troubled times much like their own, a proto-Protestant who eventually came around the the king's views on religion. Speght states that "In the second year of Richard the second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands into his protection. The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some rash attempt of the common people." Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Gaunt, Speght further explains: ::Yet it seemeth that [Chaucer] was in some trouble in the daies of King Richard the second, as it may appeare in the Testament of Loue: where hee doth greatly complaine of his owne rashnesse in following the multitude, and of their hatred of him for bewraying their purpose. And in that complaint which he maketh to his empty purse, I do find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Stow (whose library hath helped many writers) wherein ten times more is adjoined, then is in print. Where he maketh great lamentation for his wrongfull imprisonment, wishing death to end his daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with that in the Testament of Love. Moreover we find it thus in Record. Later, in "The Argument" to the Testament of Love, Speght adds: ::Chaucer did compile this booke as a comfort to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to loose the fauour of his best friends. Speght is also the source of the famous tale of Chaucer being fined for beating a Franciscan friar in Fleet Street, as well as a fictitious coat of arms and family tree. Ironically--and perhaps consciously so--an introductory, apologetic letter in Speght's edition from Francis Beaumont defends the unseemly, "low," and bawdy bits in Chaucer from an elite, classicist position. Francis Thynne noted some of these inconsistencies in his Animadversions, insisting that Chaucer was not a commoner, and he objected to the friar-beating story. Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular religious reform, associating Chaucer's views with his father William Thynne's attempts to include The Plowman's Tale and The Pilgrim's Tale in the 1532 and 1542 Works.

Foxe's Chaucer

Alongside Chaucer's Works, the most impressive literary monument of the period is John Foxe's Acts and Monuments.... As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant to English Protestant identity and included Chaucer in its project. Foxe's Chaucer both derived from and contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's Works, particularly the pseudepigrapha. Jack Upland was first printed in Foxe's Acts and Monuments, and then it appeared in Speght's edition of Chaucer's Works. Speght's "Life of Chaucer" echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon the earlier editions that added the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale to their pages. Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Chaucer was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor. In his 1563 edition, Foxe "thought it not out of season . . . to couple . . . some mention of Geoffrey Chaucer" with a discussion of John Colet, a possible source for John Skelton's character Colin Clout. Probably referring to the 1542 Act for the Advancement of True Religion, Foxe says he "marvel[s] to consider . . . how the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises which might bring the people to any light of knowledge, did yet authorise the works of Chaucer to remain still and to be occupied; who, no doubt, saw into religion as much almost as even we do now, and uttereth in his works no less, and seemeth to be a right Wicklevian, or else there never was any. And that, all his works almost, if they be thoroughly advised, will testify (albeit done in mirth, and covertly); and especially the latter end of his third book of the Testament of Love . . . . Wherein, except a man be altogether blind, he may espy him at the full : although in the same book (as in all others he useth to do), under shadows covertly, as under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, as both privily she may profit the godly-minded, and yet not be espied of the crafty adversary. And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works but for jests and toys, in condemning other books, yet permitted his books to be read." It is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads into his history of "The Reformation of the Church of Christ in the Time of Martin Luther" when "Printing, being opened, incontinently ministered unto the church the instruments and tools of learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and unknown. The science of printing being found, immediately followed the grace of God; which stirred up good wits aptly to conceive the light of knowledge and judgment: by which light darkness began to be espied, and ignorance to be detected; truth from error, religion from superstition, to be discerned." Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, insisting that it all testifies to his piety. Material that is troubling is deemed metaphoric, while the more forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally.

List of Works

The following major works are in rough chronological order but scholars still debate the dating of most of Chaucer's output and works made up from a collection of stories may have been compiled over a long period.

Major works


- Translation of Roman de la Rose, possibly extant as The Romaunt of the Rose
- The Book of the Duchess
- The House of Fame
- Anelida and Arcite
- The Parliament of Fowls
- Translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy as Boece
- Troilus and Criseyde
- The Legend of Good Women
- Treatise on the Astrolabe
- The Canterbury Tales

Short poems


- An ABC
- Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn
- The Complaint unto Pity
- The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse
- The Complaint of Mars
- The Complaint of Venus
- A Complaint to His Lady
- The Former Age
- Fortune
- Gentilesse
- Lak of Stedfastnesse
- Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scogan
- Lenvoy de Chaucer a Bukton
- Proverbs
- To Rosemounde
- Truth
- Womanly Noblesse

Poems dubiously ascribed to Chaucer


- Against Women Unconstant
- A Balade of Complaint
- Complaynt D'Amours
- Merciles Beaute
- The Visioner's Tale
- The Equatorie of the Planets - Rumored to be a rough translation of a Latin work derived from an Arab work of the same title. It is a description of the construction and use of what is called an 'equatorium planetarum', and was used in calculating planetary orbits and positions (Remember, at the time it was believed the sun orbited the Earth). The belief this work is ascribed to Chaucer comes from similar 'treatise' on the Astrolabe. However, the evidence Chaucer wrote such a work is questionable, and as such is not included in The Riverside Chaucer. If Chaucer did not compose this work, it was probably written by a contemporary (Benson, perhaps?). (S. Curran)

Works mentioned by Chaucer, presumed lost


- Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde, possible translation of Innocent III's De miseria conditionis humanae
- Origenes upon the Maudeleyne
- The book of the Leoun - An interesting argument. The Book of the Leon is mentioned in Chaucer's retraction at the end of the Canterbury Tales. It is likely he wrote such a work; one suggestion is that the work was such a bad piece of writing it was lost, but if so, Chaucer would not have included it in the middle of his retraction. Indeed, he would not have included it at all. A likely source dictates it was probably a 'redaction of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story about courtly love, a subject which Chaucer scholars agree he frequently wrote about (Le Romaunt de Rose).

Pseudepigraphies and Works Plagiarizing Chaucer


- The Pilgrim's Tale -- Written in the sixteenth-century with many Chaucerian allusions
- The Plowman's Tale AKA [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plwtlint.htm The Complaint of the Ploughman] -- A Lollard satire later appropriated as a Protestant text
- Pierce the Ploughman's Crede -- A Lollard satire later appropriated by Protestants
- [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plgtlint.htm The Ploughman's Tale] -- Its body is largely a version of Thomas Hoccleve's "Item de Beata Virgine"
- [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/sym4int.htm "La Belle Dame Sans Merci"] -- Richard Roos' translation of a poem of the same name by Alain Chartier
- [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/shoaf.htm The Testament of Love] -- Actually by Thomas Usk
- Jack Upland -- A Lollard satire
- God Spede the Plow -- Borrows parts of Chaucer's Monk's Tale

See also


- Literature
- Middle English
- Middle English literature
- Middle English poetry
- Medieval literature
- Chaucer College, a graduate school of the University of Kent, England; North Petherton.
- Asteroid 2984 Chaucer, named after the poet
- The movie A Knight's Tale was very loosely based on The Knight's Tale, one of the Canterbury Tales, and a fictionalised Chaucer himself appears as a character in it.

External links


-
- [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6565 Chaucer's Official Life] by James Root Hulbert
- [http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/ Anthology of Middle English Literature]
- [http://www.bartleby.com/212/0703.html Early Editions of Chaucer] Educational institutions
- [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/caxton/homepage.html Caxton's Chaucer] Complete digitized texts of Caxton's two earliest editions of the Canterbury Tales from the British Library
- [http://www.unc.edu/depts/chaucer/ Chaucer Metapage] - Project in addition to the 33rd International Congress of Medieval Studies
- [http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/index.html Chaucer Page] by Harvard University
- [http://www.towson.edu/~duncan/chaucer/images.htm Three near-contemporary portraits of Chaucer] Chaucer, Geoffrey Chaucer, Geoffrey Chaucer, Geoffrey Chaucer, Geoffrey Chaucer, Geoffrey Chaucer, Geoffrey Chaucer, Geoffrey als:Geoffrey Chaucer ja:ジェフリー・チョーサー

General Prologue

The General Prologue is the assumed title of the series of portraits that precedes The Canterbury Tales. It was the work of 14th Century English writer and courtier Geoffrey Chaucer. The conceit of the poem, as set out in the 858 lines which make up the general prologue, is that of a religious pilgrimage. Chaucer is in the Tabard Inn, and meets a motley crew of middle class folk from all around England. Coincidentally, they are all on the way to Canterbury, the site of the Shrine of Saint Thomas à Becket. He seeks to describe their 'condition', their 'array', and their social 'degree': :To telle yow al the condicioun :Of ech of hem, so as it semed me, :And whiche they weren, and of what degree, :And eek in what array that they were inne; The pilgrims include: a knight, a squire, a yeoman, a prioress, a second nun, the nun's priest, a monk, a friar, a merchant, a clerk, a sergeant of law, a franklin, a haberdasher, a carpenter, a weaver, a dyer, a tapistry weaver, a cook, a shipman, a doctor of physic, a wife of Bath, a parson, a plowman, a miller, a manciple, a reeve, a summoner, a pardoner, the host and a portrait of Chaucer himself. A canon and his yeoman join the pilgrimage later and tell one tale. After a classically poetic, highly amorous introduction, which describes the renewed reproductive energy of Spring, after a long winter, Chaucer introduces the first pilgrim, the 'perfect, gentle Knight.' This crusader had travelled the length of Europe to the borders of Asia Minor defending his religion. The highest ranked of all the pilgrims; he is followed by portraits of the members of his retinue. His son, the Squire, 'loved hotly,' and had pressed curls in his hair. He is the personification of the springtime vigour and sexual energy Chaucer embraces in his introduction, and it is this energy he seeks to highlight even in his less attractive pilgrims. There follows short descriptions of many of the other pilgrims containing details on how they are dressed, the horses they ride and often sly digs at their personalities. Some of the people in the prologue have descriptions but no tale assigned to them whereas characters such as the second nun are not described. Directly after mention of the second nun it says and preestes thre but this causes problems with line 24 which says that twenty-nine pilgrims set out and there is only one nun's priest. It is assumed a short portrait of the second nun and the priest would be included by Chaucer in a later amendment. The portraits of the characters are one of the distinguishing parts of the Tales as they have far more life and depth then most other characters in literature at this time. Not only does Chaucer describe the pilgrims' clothing he also puts in details about their physiognomy, a familiar short-cut for medieval people in understanding a character. Appearance was linked to the balance of the four humours within a person and so the Reeve's choleric humour is shown in his tall, slender nature and suggests his likelihood to become quarrelsome. Chaucer's satirical asides directed at these people are more muted than what was typical in contemporary stories. Similar characters at that time were often savagely attacked by their narrators leaving a character little more than a cipher. When Chaucer does attack his characters it is usually done by one of the other protagonists between tales and frequently with not quite the obvious clichés. Only Hubert the Friar and Eglentyne the Prioress are given names during the prologue although others are named later. The general prologue seems deliberately disorganised implying the same sort of confused rabble that have set out that April day.

External links


- [http://www.librarius.com/canttran/gptrfs.htm A side by side translation with modern English version in iambic pentameter]
- [http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/teachslf/gp-par.htm Read "The General Prologue" with interlinear translation]
- [http://www.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/sc/chaucer/chaucer.htm 15th century pictures of Chaucer's pilgrims] from the Ellesmere manuscript General Prologue



Canon (priest)

A canon (from the Latin canonicus and Greek κανωνικωσ 'relating to a rule') is a priest who is a member of certain bodies of the Christian clergy subject to a rule (canon). Originally, a canon was a cleric living with others in a clergyhouse or, later, in one of the houses within the precinct or close of a cathedral and ordering his life according to the orders or rules of the church. This way of life began to become common (and be referred to in manuscripts) in the eighth century. In the eleventh century, some churches required clergy so living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private property. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinian or regular canons, whilst those who did not were known as secular canons. One of the functions of the cathedral canons in the Roman Catholic Church is to elect a Vicar Capitular to serve during a sede vacante period of the diocese.

Secular canons

All canons of the Church of England have been secular (that is, not professed monks) since the Reformation. Mostly, however, they are ordained (that is, priests or members of the clergy). Today, the system of canons is retained almost exclusively in connection with cathedral churches. A canon is a member of the chapter of (for the most part) priests, headed by a Dean, which is responsible for administering a cathedral or certain other churches that are styled collegiate church. The Dean and Chapter are the formal body which has legal reponsibility for the Cathedral and for electing the (arch)bishop. In addition to their regular (ordained clergy) canons, cathedrals of the Church of England may also have lay canons, who are not clergy.

Honorary canons

Canon is still used as a largely honorary title in many dioceses to senior parish priests. This is usually awarded as a recognition of long and dedicated service to the Diocese. These priests are entitled to call themselves Canon and still have a role in the administration of the cathedral. Honorary canons are members of the Chapter in name but are non-residential and receive no emoluments. Minor canons are those clergy who are members of the cathedral's establishment and take part in the daily services but are not part of the formal Chapter.

Canons regular

The members of certain religious orders in the Roman Catholic church, exclusively composed of priests, notably:
- Canons Regular of the Lateran
- Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross
- Confederation of Canons Regular of St. Augustine
- Order of the Canons Regular of Premontre; Norbertines
- Order of the Holy Cross
- Swiss Congregation of Canons Regular of Saint Maurice of Agaune :(not to be confused with clerics regular)

References


- [http://catholic-hierarchy.org/country/xrel.html Catholic-hierarchy]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/ Catholic Encyclopaedia]
- [http://www.oed.com/ Oxford English Dictionary] Category:Catholic Priesthood Category:Christian leaders

Chaplain

A chaplain is typically a priest or a member of the clergy serving a group of people who are not organized as a mission or church, lay chaplains are also found in some settings such as universities. For example a chaplain is often attached to a military unit (often known as padre), a private chapel, a ship, a prison, a hospital, a college or other (especially boarding) school, even a parliamentary assembly and so on. Favored theories of the derivation of the term relate to the relic cloak (capa or capella) of St. Martin of Tours or from the Latin term Capellanus. In various languages, the word equivalent to Almoner (e.g. Aumonier in French, Aalmoezenier in Dutch) is used in many instances where English uses chaplain, sometimes there are still other terms (e.g. also Proost, otherwise equivalent to Provost, in Dutch).

Origins

History records various 'equivalents' from ancient Assyria onwards, sometimes redered as 'chaplains', but such anachronistic term has no real meaning. In the Old Testament book of Joshua, Levite priests accompany the Israelites' military and political expedition into Israel; carrying the Ark of the Covenant and playing a major role in the goodwill of military matters. While these priests cannot be considered "chaplains" with the current meaning, their role as spiritual aides provides a model for modern chaplains to rely upon. Originally a Christian chaplain had a function of serving as an aide to a bishop and various chaplains still help the pope in his ecclesiastical duties. In other circumstances their duties were limited to saying a mass in certain functions. In many catholic parishes the curate has (or had, manpower is usually to low for such luxury) one or more younger priests, styled Chaplains, attached to him, under his ordinary jurisdiction.

Court

Many historical monarchies and major noble houses also had or still have one or often several 'private' chaplains, either following them or attached to a castle or other residence which generally had at least one 'chapel', sometimes as grand as a cathedral (as St.Georges chapel in Windsor castle, also the 'home' of the Order of the Garter). As in feudal times most laymen, for centuries even most noblemen, were poorly or not educated, this literate clergy was often employed as advisers and secretarial staff (as in a chancery) until the advent of legists and proper bureaucratic civil service (mainly under Absolutism), hence the term clerk derived from Latin clericus ('clergyman'), making them very influential in temporal affairs as well the moral impact as hearing the confession of the elite.

Military

The first English military-oriented chaplains appeared during the reign of King Edward I, although their duties included jobs that today would come under the jurisdiction of military engineers and medical officers. A priest attached to a feudal noble household would follow his liege lord into battle. In 1796 the Parliament of Great Britain passed a Royal Warrant that established the Royal Army Chaplains' Department in the British Army. The current form of military chaplain dates from the era of the First World War. A chaplain conducts religious services in the field and tries to maintain morale. In the British Armed Forces, chaplains are traditionally referred to (and addressed) as padres. Christianity is not the only faith to have chaplain-equivalent positions. Other religions, such as Judaism or Islam, may also provide chaplains for military service. In the United States Air Force, the Air Force Religious Pin recognizes chaplains from four of the major religious faiths. The British Armed Forces traditionally only employed Christian and Jewish chaplains; the appointment of chaplains from other faith groups occurred for the first time in October 2005. Chaplains are nominated in different ways in different countries. A military chaplain can be an army-trained soldier with additional theological training or a priest nominated to the army by religious authorities. In Britain, the Ministry of Defence employs the chaplains but their authority comes from the church. In France, the existence of military chaplains has come under debate because of the separation of Church and State; however, their position has been maintained as of 2004.[http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/orgs_ext/aumoneries/]

United States Armed Forces Roman Catholic Chaplains

The United States Armed Forces are served by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA. This Archdiocese oversees all the Catholic chaplains in the Armed Forces. Catholic Chaplains can serve in the Army, Navy, or Air Force. In the United States, Catholic Priests are required to seek permission from their diocesean Bishop or religious superior to be released from parish or other diocesean work for at least three years. Candidates are given medical examinations to see if they would be healthy enough to serve. They are also required to fill out an application, and have letters of recommendation. The findings are presented to a board which evalulates each candidate. The application process usually takes from two to six months to complete.

Noncombatant status

Chaplains are nominally noncombatants under the Geneva Conventions. Still, many of them have died in the field due to a stray bullet, during bombing or artillery barrage. Many have been decorated for bravery in action (and five have even won Britain's highest award for gallantry, the Victoria Cross). The Chaplain's Medal for Heroism is a special military decoration of the United States of America which honors military chaplains who have been killed in the line of duty, although it has only been awarded once. Some Chaplains also break the Geneva Conventions and act as combatants, usually only if and when the situation warrants itself. Examples of this include such incidents as recorded by Chaplain (then Captain) James D. Johnson, of the 9th Infantry Division, Mobile Riverine Force in Vietnam. In his work Combat Chaplain: A Thirty-Year Vietnam Battle, Johnson explains his "unofficial training" with the M-16 assault rifle and Colt 1911 .45 caliber pistol, as well as carrying the M-16 while embedded with a combat patrol. While this is the exception rather than the rule, chaplains, like other noncombatants (including medics) have been recorded as breaking the Conventions under extenuating circumstances.

Badges and Insignia

Military Chaplains are accorded officer status. In most navies, their badges and insignia do not differentiate their levels of responsibility and status. By contrast, in Air Forces and Armies, they typically carry ranks and are differentiated by crosses or other equivalent religious insignia. Chaplain's badges and insignia follow this general pattern (taken from the Royal Australian Navy):
- A gilt cross is worn by chaplains of all Christian denominations and worn in the same manner as specialist badges.
- A chaplain’s cap badge is of the same design as an officer’s cap badge except that the laurel leaves are embroidered in black silk, edged and veined in gold. The peak of the cap is covered with black cloth.
- A clerical collar stock and/or black military style clerical shirt may be worn instead of white shirt and tie (including dress shirt and bow tie for evening wear.)
- The badge worn by chaplains on shoulder boards consists of a gold embroidered foul anchor on a Maltese cross of embroidered silver. This is similar, in embroidery, for soft rank insignia for shirts.
- Honorary Chaplains to the Sovereign wear a red cassock and a special bronze badge consisting of the Royal Cypher and crown within an oval wreath. The badge is worn above medal ribbons or miniature medals during the conduct of religious services. On the left side of the scarf by chaplains, who wear the scarf and on academic or ordinary clerical dress by other chaplains.

Various Non-Military

Chaplains also can be attached to emergency services agencies (see the [http://www.icpc4cops.org International Conference of Police Chaplains] or the [http://firechaplains.org Federation of Fire Chaplains]), educational institutions like universities and colleges, scout troops, ships, places like hospitals and prisons, and on occasion private companies and corporations. Chaplains also serve in hospice programs and retirement centers. The term can also refer to priests attached to Roman Catholic convents. Many hospitals and hospices employ chaplains to assist with the spiritual needs of patients, families and staff. In the United States, healthcare chaplains are typically educated through the [http://www.acpe.edu Association for Clinical Pastoral Education] and may be certified by one of the following organizations:[http://www.professionalchaplains.org The Association of Professional Chaplains], [http://www.nacc.org The National Association of Catholic Chaplains], or [http://www.najc.org The National Association of Jewish Chaplains]. In Canada, they may be certified by the [http://www.cappe.org Canadian Association for Pastoral Practice and Education]. Certification typically requires a Masters of Divinity degree, faith group ordination or commissioning, faith group endorsement, and four units (1600 hours) of Clinical Pastoral Education. Even some large businesses employ chaplains for their staff and/or clientele. [http://www.nibic.com The National Institute of Business and Industrial Chaplains] is one of the agencies that certify chaplains for business settings in the United States.

See also


- Almoner
- Hospice chaplain
- Minister
- Priest
- Royal Army Chaplains' Department

References


- Johnson, James D., Combat Chaplain: A 30-Year Vietnam Battle (University of North Texas Press, 2001)

External links


- [http://www.acpe.edu Association for Clinical Pastoral Education]
- [http://www.cappe.org Canadian Association for Pastoral Practice and Education]
- [http://www.une.edu.au/campus/chaplaincy/tcma/ Tertiary Campus Ministry Association] - Australian national association of multifaith chaplains
- [http://www.nibic.com The National Institute of Business and Industrial Chaplains]
- [http://www.professionalchaplains.org The Association of Professional Chaplains]
- [http://www.nacc.org The National Association of Catholic Chaplains]
- [http://www.najc.org The National Association of Jewish Chaplains]
- [http://www.geocities.com/usacpg The United States Army Chaplaincy in World War II]
- [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week739/tribute.html PBS Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly Tribute: World War II U.S. Military Chaplains (May 28, 2004)]
- [http://www.usachcs.army.mil/ United States Army Chaplain Center and School at Fort Jackson, SC]
- [http://www.usachcs.army.mil/museum/nav1/mainpage.html US Army Chaplain Museum at Fort Jackson, SC]
- [http://www.milarch.org/history/index.html Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA]
- [http://www.nmajmh.org/ National Museum of Jewish Military History] Category:Religious workers Category:Military occupations Category:Military ranks Category:Ecclesiastical titles

Windsor, Berkshire

Windsor (IPA: usually , but also ) is a suburban town and tourist destination in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, South East England. The town is situated 21 miles (34 km) west of Charing Cross. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms the boundary with Eton. The town is also known as New Windsor, to contrast it with Old Windsor, a couple of miles south.

History

Windsor is first mentioned in mediaeval literature. The name originates from Winch-furnished-Riverbank. Soon after 1066 William the Conqueror selected a rocky outcrop on land owned by the manor of Clewer (west of Windsor) as the location for a defensive motte and bailey castle. The town gained the right to hold a market by 1261 which is a sign of its status and royal patronage.

Tourism

Windsor is a popular tourist destination and location of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British royal family. The castle was originally established by King William I of England but has been substantially altered and added to over the centuries. As a result of the royal residence Windsor has facilities usually found in larger towns: two railway stations, a theatre and several substantial hotels. The town is also the location of Legoland, built on the site of Windsor Safari Park. On construction, several tons of hippo dung had to be removed from the enclosure used by the animals.

Transport

Windsor Safari Park As well as bus links, and good road access from the M4 & A4 (via Slough and a 'Relief Road'), Windsor features two railway stations; Windsor and Eton Central station, and the Windsor and Eton Riverside station. The first station provides a one-stop route to Slough, where there is access to trains into London Paddington, or out west to Maidenhead and as far as Bristol. The latter station provides a direct route (with stops, but no changes) to London Waterloo. Both stations were built at around the same time in the 19th Century as the two train companies who owned the lines at the time wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege. Windsor is linked to the town of Eton (which is situated on the opposite bank of the River Thames) by Windsor Bridge. Originally a fully trafficked road bridge, Windsor Bridge is now for pedestrians only and provides an excellent walking route from central Windsor to Eton's High Street. To the south of the town lies Windsor Great Park and the towns of Old Windsor, Egham and Virginia Water.

Politics

The town is part of the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead, and administered by an elected unitary authority. The mayor is Councillor Emrys Richards (Liberal Democrat). The current MP for the Windsor constituency (which includes surrounding small towns and villages, such as Eton and Datchet) is Adam Afriyie (Conservative), who was elected at the 2005 General Election.

See also

2005 General Election
- List of places in Berkshire
- List of towns in England

External links


-
- [http://www.windsor.gov.uk The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead website]
- [http://www.windsor-berkshire.co.uk Windsor Berkshire Website]
- [http://www.thisiswindsor.co.uk The Windsor site of one of the local newspapers]
- [http://www.wefc.co.uk The official website of Windsor & Eton Football Club]
- [http://www.thamesweb.co.uk/windsor/index.htm ThamesWeb Windsor website]
- [http://www.windsorcc.com Windsor Cricket Club]
- [http://www.oldwindsorlifeguards.co.uk Old Windsor Lifeguard Club]
- [http://www.britannia.com/history/berks/windsor.html Windsor history]
- Category:Towns in Berkshire

1390

Events


-

Births


- December 27 - Anne de Mortimer, claimant to the English throne (died 1411)
- Domenico da Piacenza, Italian dancemaster (died 1470)
- John Dunstable, English composer (died 1453)
- Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, Swedish statesman and rebel leader (died 1436)
- Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (died 1447)
- John VIII Palaeologus Byzantine Emperor (died 1448)

Deaths


- April 19 - King Robert II of Scotland (born 1316)
- August 14 - John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, English soldier (b. 1364)
- September 23 - John I, Duke of Lorraine (born 1346)
- October 9 - King John I of Castile (fall from a horse) (born 1358)
- Altichiero, Italian painter (born 1330)
- Towtiwil, Prince of Black Ruthenia Category:1390 ko:1390년

Ramon Llull

Ramon Llull (1235 – June 29, 1315) (sometimes Raymond Lully or in Latin Raimundus or Raymundus Lullus) was a writer and philosopher born into a wealthy family in Palma, Majorca, in the Balearic Islands, now part of Spain.

Early life

Llull was well educated, and became the tutor of James II of Aragon. He wrote in Arabic, Latin and Catalan. In 1265 he had a religious epiphany, and became a tertiary Franciscan. His first major work Art Abreujada d 'Atrobar Veritat (The Art of Finding Truth) was written in Catalan and then translated into Latin. He wrote treatises on alchemy and botany, Ars Magna, and Llibre de meravelles. He wrote the romantic novel Blanquerna, the first major work of literature written in Catalan, and perhaps the first European novel. Llull pressed for the study of Arabic and other then-insufficiently studied languages in Spain for the purpose of the conversion of Muslims to Christianity. Schopenhauer described Llull's conversion, as recorded in Johann Jakob Brucker's Critical History of Philosophy, Book IV, Part I, page 10. "Hence men who have led a very adventurous life under the pressure of passions, men such as kings, heroes, or adventurers, have often been seen suddenly to change, resort to resignation and penance, and become hermits and monks. To this class belong all genuine accounts of conversion, for instance, that of Raymond Lull, who had long wooed a beautiful woman, was at last admitted to her chamber, and was looking forward to the fulfillment of all his desires, when, opening her dress, she showed him her bosom terribly eaten away with cancer. From that moment, as if he had looked into hell, he was converted; leaving the court of the King of Majorca, he went into the wilderness to do penance." (The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, § 68.

Ars generalis ultima

Around 1275, Llull designed a method, which he first published in full in his Ars generalis ultima or Ars magna (1305), of combining attributes selected from a number of lists. He also invented numerous 'machines' for the purpose, each of which consisted of two or more paper discs inscribed with alphabet letters that referred to the lists of attributes. The discs could be rotated individually to generate a large number of combinations of ideas. The method was an early attempt to use logical means to produce knowledge. Llull hoped to show that Christian doctrines could be obtained artificially from a fixed set of preliminary ideas. For example, one of the tables listed the attributes of God: goodness, greatness, eternity, power, wisdom, will, virtue, truth and glory. Llull knew that all believers in the monotheistic religions - whether Jews, Muslims or Christians - would agree with these attributes, giving him a firm platform from which to argue. The idea was developed further by Giordano Bruno in the 16th century, and by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century for investigations into the philosophy of science. Leibniz gave Llull's idea the name ars combinatoria, by which it is now often known. Some computer scientists have adopted Llull as a sort of founding father, claiming that his system of logic was the beginning of information science. Llull was vocally opposed by the Grand Inquisitor of Aragon, Nicolas Eymeric. As a result, Pope Gregory XI banned some of his writings.

First mission

In 1285 Llull visited Rome and from there embarked on a mission to convert the 'infidels' of Tunis to Christianity. He was violently expelled from Tunis, in an incident which was magnified by some later historians into a stoning to death, and therefore a martyrdom. On his return, Llull began to preach for a unification of the three monotheistic faiths - Judaism, Christianity and Islam - which, together, he hoped, would be able to defeat the Asian invaders then threatening Europe and the Middle East. Llull had always found his spiritual beliefs close to those of Francis of Assisi, and around 1295 he joined the Franciscan order. In 1297 Llull met Duns Scotus, after which he was given the nickname Doctor Illuminatus.

Second mission

Llull travelled to Tunis a second time in about 1314, and wrote numerous letters to the king of Tunis, but little else is known about this part of his life.

Third mission

In the early 14th century Llull visited North Africa on a reconnaissance mission for a crusade being planned by the Pope. He returned in 1308, reporting that the conquest should be achieved through prayer, not through military force. Llull died at home in Palma some years later.

Reputation after death

Posthumously, Llull became celebrated as a great alchemist, although he had been opposed to occult beliefs. At some time he was credited with having discovered ether, in about 1275, although there is no contemporary evidence for this. Chairs for the propagation of the theories of Llull were set up at the University of Barcelona and the University of Valencia. His rationalistic mysticism was formally condemned by Pope Gregory XI in 1376 and the condemnation was renewed by Pope Paul IV. Nonetheless, the Roman Catholic Church has given Llull the status of a Blessed (Bl. Ramon Lull), in that his cult was confirmed in 1858 by Pope Pius IX, although he has not been canonized. He has also been called, 'Doctor Illuminatus', but is not one of the 33 Doctors of the Church. He is regarded as one of the most influential authors in Catalan; the language is sometimes referred to as la llengua de Llull, as other languages might be referred to as la langue de Molière (French) or la lengua de Cervantes (Castilian).

Recent Coverage

Martin Gardner has written extensively about Llull. His analyses can be found in Logic Machines and Diagrams and Science - Good, Bad and Bogus.

Bibliography

Llull is known to have written at least 265 works, including:
- The Book of the Lover and the Beloved
- Blanquerna (a novel; 1283)
- Desconort (on the superiority of reason)
- Tree of Science (1295)
- Tractatus novus de astronomia
- Ars Magna (The Great Art) (1305) or Ars Generalis Ultima (The Ultimate General Art)
- Ars Brevis (The Short Art; an abbreviated version of the Ars Magna)
- Llibre de meravelles
- Practica compendiosa
- Liber de Lumine (The Book of Light)
- Ars Infusa (The Inspired Art)
- Book of Propositions
- Liber Chaos (The Book of Chaos)
- Book of the Seven Planets
- Liber Proverbiorum (Book of Proverbs)
- Book on the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit
- Ars electionis (on voting)
- Ars notatoria
- Introductoria Artis demonstrativae
- Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men About another 400 works are doubtfully or spuriously attributed to him.

External links


- [http://lullianarts.net English translations of lullian works, freeware version of Ars Magna]
- [http://orbita.bib.ub.es/ramon/p.asp Ramon Llull Database, University of Barcelona]
- [http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/teachers/RamonLull.htm Theosophy Library Online]
- [http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintr73.htm Patron Saints Index]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12670c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] Llull, Ramon Llull, Ramon Llull, Ramon Llull, Ramon Llull, Ramon Llull, Ramon Llull, Ramon Llull, Ramon

Arnold of Villanova

Arnaldus de Villa Nova or Arnaldus de Villanueva, Arnaldus Villanovanus, Arnaud de Ville-Neuve or Arnau de Vilanova, (ca. 1235-1313), alchemist, astrologer and physician, appears to have been of Spanish origin, and to have studied chemistry, medicine, physics, and also Arabic philosophy. After having lived at the court of Aragon, he went to Paris, where he gained a considerable reputation; but he incurred the enmity of the ecclesiastics and was forced to flee, finally finding an asylum in Sicily. About 1313 he was summoned to Avignon by Pope Clement V, who was ill, but he died on the voyage. Many alchemical writings, including Thesaurus Thesaurorum or Rosarius Philosophorum, Novum Lumen, and Flos Florum, are ascribed to him, but they are of very doubtful authenticity. Collected editions of them were published at Lyons in 1504 and 1532 (with a biography by Symphorianus Campegius), at Basel in 1585, at Frankfort in 1603, and at Lyons in 1686. He is also the reputed author of various medical works, including Breviarium Practicae. Among his rumoured achievements was the discovery of carbon monoxide and pure alcohol. See J. B. Haureau in the Histoire litteraire de la France (1881), vol. 28; E. Lalande, Arnaud de Villeneuve, sa vie et ses oeuvres (Paris, 1896). A list of writings is given by J. Ferguson in his Bibliotheca Chemica (1906). See also U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist., &c., Bio-bibliographie (Paris, 1903). Arnaldus de Villa Nova Arnaldus de Villa Nova Category:Alchemists Category:Astrologers Category:Physicians Category:Spanish physicians Vilanova, Arnau de

17th century

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700 in the Gregorian calendar. Gregorian calendar, Iran (completed 1638) is considered to be one of the world's greatest architectural achievements.]] 1638.]]

Events


- 1602: Dutch East India Company founded. Its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age.
- 1603: Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England.
- 1603: Tokugawa Ieyasu seizes control of Japan and establishes the Tokugawa Shogunate which rules the country until 1868.
- 1603-23: After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands Persia by capturing territory from the Ottomans and the Portuguese.
- 1605: Gunpowder Plot foiled in England.
- 1607: The London Company establishes the Jamestown Settlement in North America precipitating the British colonization of the Americas.
- 1608: Quebec City founded by Samuel de Champlain in New France (present-day Canada).
- 1613: The Time of Troubles in Russia ends with the establishment of the House of Romanov which rules until 1917.
- 1615: The Mughal Empire grants extensive trading rights to the British East India Company.
- 1618-48: The Thirty Years' War devastates Central Europe.
- 1624-42: As chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu centralizes power in France.
- 1625: New Amsterdam founded by the Dutch West India Company in North America.
- 1637: The Dutch tulip mania bubble bursts.
- 1637: The Pequot War, the first of the American Indian Wars
- 1638: Completion of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran, instigated by Shah Abbas I of Safavid Persia.
- 1639-51: Wars of the Three Kingdoms, civil wars throughout Scotland, Ireland, and England.
- 1640: Portugal regains its independence from Spain bringing an end to the Iberian Union.
- 1640: Torture is outlawed in England.
- 1641: The Tokugawa Shogunate institutes Sakoku- foreigners are expelled and no one is allowed to enter or leave Japan.
- 1644: The Manchu conquer China ending the Ming Dynasty. The subsequent Qing Dynasty rules until 1912.
- 1648: The Peace of Westphalia ends the