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Guillaume Delisle

Guillaume Delisle

Guillaume Delisle (February 28, 1675 - January 25, 1726) was a French cartographer, born in Paris, France (he also died there). His father, Claude Delisle (1644-1720) studied law and then later settled in Paris as private teacher in geography and history, and afterwards filled the office of royal censor. He was also a cartographer. Guillaume Delisle's first works were "The Map of the World" and "The Map of the Continents", both published in 1700. These and the terrestrial maps produced subsequently, which surpassed all similar publications, established the son's fame. In 1702 he became élève, in 1716 adjoint, and in 1718 associé of the Académie des Sciences; and, as the young king's instructor in geography, received the title of First Royal Geographer with a fixed salary, an office which was then created for the first time. Guillaume Delisle adopted entirely new principles in cartography and set about making a thorough reform in that subject. The map-publishers of the time did not know how to utilize the material supplied mainly by the French astronomers of the latter half of the seventeenth century, and Delisle recognized that the new methods of measuring by scale and of marking the places were very valuable for cartography; with this help he therefore produced a new and more accurate picture of the world. When his astronomical information fell short he carefully examined and sifted all the books of travel and all the maps he could find, and the products of this reading were dovetailed neatly into the facts which he had already at hand. According to a fixed method he worked up the several continents and countries one by one, France in particular. In disputed points he named his source on the map or wrote additional notes, the majority of which were published in the writings of the Academy. One particular recommendation of his charts is that he employed a fixed scale of measurement for regions closely connected with one another. No less famous than his astronomical corrections are the completeness of his topography and the care displayed in the orthography of the names. Image:CartedAmerique.jpeg
Delisle's Carte d'Amérique, 1722 Delisle, Guillaume Delisle, Guillaume Delisle, Guillaume

February 28

February 28 is the 59th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 306 days remaining, 307 in leap years. In a common year it is the last day of February

Events

- 364 - Valentinian I is elevated as Roman Emperor.
- 1700 - Today is followed by March 1 in Sweden, thus creating the Swedish calendar.
- 1784 - John Wesley charters the Methodist Church.
- 1827 - The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad is incorporated, becoming the first railroad in America offering commercial transportation of both people and freight.
- 1844 - A gun on USS Princeton explodes while the boat is on a Potomac River cruise, killing two United States Cabinet members and several others.
- 1849 - Regular steamboat service from the west to the east coast of the United States begins with the arrival of the SS California in San Francisco Bay, 4 months 21 days after leaving New York Harbor.
- 1850 - The University of Utah opens in Salt Lake City, Utah.
- 1854 - The United States Republican Party is organized in Ripon, Wisconsin.
- 1861 - Colorado is organized as a United States territory.
- 1870 - The Bulgarian Exarchate is established by decree of Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz of the Ottoman Empire.
- 1883 - The first vaudeville theater opens in Boston, Massachusetts.
- 1885 - The American Telephone and Telegraph Company is incorporated in New York State as the subsidiary of American Bell Telephone. (American Bell would later merge with its subsidiary.)
- 1897 - Queen Ranavalona III, the last monarch in Madagascar, was deposed by a French military force.
- 1900 - The Second Boer War: The 118-day "Siege of Ladysmith" is lifted.
- 1922 - The United Kingdom accepts the independence of Egypt.
- 1933 - Gleichschaltung: The Reichstag Fire Decree is passed in Germany a day after the Reichstag fire.
- 1935 - Nylon is discovered by Wallace Carothers.
- 1939 - The word "Dord" is discovered in the Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition, prompting an investigation.
- 1940 - Basketball is televised for the first time (Fordham University vs. the University of Pittsburgh in Madison Square Garden).
- 1947 - February 28 Incident: In Taiwan, civil disorder is put down with large loss of civilian lives.
- 1948 - Bud Gartiser sets a new world record after clearing the 50-yard low hurdles in 6.8 seconds.
- 1952 - End of 8th Winter Olympic Games in Oslo.
- 1953 - James D. Watson and Francis Crick announce to friends that they have determined the chemical structure of DNA; formal announcement April 25 following publication in April Nature (pub. April 2).
- 1960 - End of 10th Winter Olympic Games in Squaw Valley, California
- 1972 - Sino-American relations: The United States and People's Republic of China sign the Shanghai Communiqué.
- 1974 - After seven years, the United States and Egypt re-establish diplomatic relations.
- 1975 - A major tube train crash at Moorgate station, London kills 43 people.
- 1983 - The final episode of M
- A
- S
- H is broadcast in the USA, becoming the most watched television episode in history, with 106–125 million viewers in the U.S. (estimate varies by source).
- 1986 - Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden, is assassinated in Stockholm.
- 1993 - Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms agents raid the Branch Davidian compound in Waco, Texas with a warrant to arrest cult leader David Koresh. Four BATF agents and five Davidians die in the initial raid, starting a 51-day standoff.
- 1998 - Kosovo War: Serbian police begin the offensive againt the KLA in Kosovo.
- 2001 - An earthquake measuring 6.9 on the Richter Scale hits the Nisqually Valley area of the U.S. state of Washington.
- 2002 - Ethnic conflict in India: At least 55 are killed in Ahmadabad, India when Hindus burn Muslim homes.
- 2004 - Over 1 million Taiwanese participating in the 228 Hand-in-Hand Rally form a 500-kilometre (300-mile) long human chain to commemorate the 228 Incident in 1947

Births

- 1155 - Henry the Young King, son of Henry II of England (d. 1183)
- 1533 - Michel de Montaigne, French writer and philosopher (d. 1592)
- 1552 - Joost Bürgi, Swiss clockmaker and mathematician (d. 1632)
- 1612 - John Pearson, English theologian (d. 1686)
- 1670 - Benjamin Wadsworth, American President of Harvard University (d. 1737)
- 1675 - Guillaume Delisle, French cartographer (d. 1726)
- 1683 - René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, French scientist (d. 1757)
- 1704 - Louis Godin, French astonomer (d. 1760)
- 1712 - Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, French military commander (d. 1759)
- 1724 - George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend, British field marshal (d. 1807)
- 1820 - John Tenniel, English illustrator (d. 1914)
- 1823 - Ernest Renan, French philosopher (d. 1892)
- 1827 - Blondin, French tightrope walker (d. 1897)
- 1833 - Alfred von Schlieffen, German field marshal (d. 1913)
- 1878 - Pierre Fatou, French mathematician (d. 1929)
- 1882 - Geraldine Farrar, American soprano (d. 1967)
- 1882 - José Vasconcelos, Mexican writer and politician (d. 1959)
- 1894 - Ben Hecht, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 1964)
- 1896 - Philip Showalter Hench, Americah physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1965)
- 1900 - Wolfram Hirth, German pilot and aircraft designer (d. 1959)
- 1901 - Linus Pauling, American chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Peace (d. 1994)
- 1903 - Vincente Minnelli, American director (d. 1986)
- 1906 - Bugsy Siegel, American gangster (d. 1947)
- 1908 - Billie Bird, American actress (d. 2002)
- 1909 - Stephen Spender, English poet (d. 1995)
- 1915 - Peter Medawar, Brazilian-born scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1987)
- 1915 - Zero Mostel, American actor (d. 1977)
- 1923 - Charles Durning, American actor
- 1926 - Svetlana Alliluyeva, Soviet defector, daughter of Joseph Stalin
- 1929 - Hayden Fry, American football coach
- 1929 - Frank Gehry, Canadian-American architect
- 1930 - Leon Neil Cooper, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1930 - Gavin MacLeod, American actor
- 1931 - Dean Smith, American basketball coach
- 1933 - Rein Taagepera, Estonian politician
- 1939 - Daniel C. Tsui, Chinese-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1939 - Tommy Tune, American dancer, choreographer, and actor
- 1940 - Mario Andretti, American race car driver
- 1940 - Joe South, American singer and songwriter
- 1942 - Frank Bonner, American actor and director
- 1942 - Brian Jones, English musician (The Rolling Stones) (d. 1969)
- 1942 - Joe South, American musician
- 1942 - Dino Zoff, Italian footballer
- 1944 - Kelly Bishop, American actress
- 1944 - Sepp Maier, German footballer
- 1944 - Win Aung, Burmese politician
- 1945 - Bubba Smith, American football player and actor
- 1946 - Robin Cook, British politician (d. 2005)
- 1946 - Syreeta Wright, American singer (d. 2004)
- 1947 - Stephanie Beacham, British actress
- 1948 - Steven Chu, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1948 - Mike Figgis, English director, writer, and composer
- 1948 - Bernadette Peters, American actress and singer
- 1948 - Mercedes Ruehl, American actress
- 1952 - William Finn, American composer and lyricist
- 1955 - Gilbert Gottfried, American comedian and actor
- 1957 - John Turturro, American actor
- 1960 - Dorothy Stratten, Canadian actress and model (d. 1980)
- 1961 - Rae Dawn Chong, Canadian actress
- 1961 - Mark Latham, Australian politician
- 1969 - Robert Sean Leonard, American actor
- 1970 - Noureddine Morceli, Algerian athlete
- 1970 - Lemony Snicket, American writer
- 1971 - Tristan Louis, American writer
- 1973 - Eric Lindros, Canadian hockey player
- 1974 - Lee Carsley, Irish footballer
- 1979 - Primož Peterka, Slovenian ski jumper
- 1980 - Pascal Bosschaart, Dutch footballer
- 1985 - Jelena Jankovic, Serbian tennis player
- 1986 - Daniel Broderick, Australian musician
- 2001 - Smarty Jones, American racehorse

Deaths

- 1261 - Henry III, Duke of Brabant
- 1326 - Duke Leopold I of Austria (b. 1290)
- 1453 - Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine (b. 1400)
- 1485 - Niclas, Graf von Abensberg, German soldier (b. 1441)
- 1510 - Juan de la Cosa, Spanish cartographer and explorer
- 1572 - Aegidius Tschudi, Swiss historian (b. 1505)
- 1621 - Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1590)
- 1648 - King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway, (b. 1577)
- 1746 - Hermann von der Hardt, German historian (b. 1660)
- 1786 - John Gwynn, English architect and engineer (b. 1713)
- 1788 - Thomas Cushing, American Continental Congressman (b. 1725)
- 1916 - Henry James, American writer (b. 1843)
- 1936 - Charles Nicolle, French bacteriologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1866)
- 1941 - King Alfonso XIII of Spain (b. 1886)
- 1942 - Karel Doorman, Dutch admiral (b. 1889)
- 1959 - Maxwell Anderson, American playwright and film writer (b. 1888)
- 1967 - Henry Luce, American publisher (b. 1898)
- 1974 - Bobby Bloom, American singer/songwriter (b. 1946)
- 1977 - Eddie 'Rochester' Anderson, American actor (b. 1905)
- 1978 - Philip Ahn, American actor (b. 1905)
- 1978 - Zara Cully, American actress (b. 1892)
- 1985 - David Byron, British singer (Uriah Heep) (b. 1947)
- 1985 - Ray Ellington, British singer (b. 1916)
- 1986 - Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1927)
- 1991 - Reinhard Bendix, German sociologist (b. 1916)
- 1993 - Ruby Keeler, Canadian actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1910)
- 1998 - Dermot Morgan, Irish actor and comedian (b. 1952)
- 1998 - Arkady Shevchenko, Soviet diplomat (b. 1930)
- 2002 - Mary Stuart, American actress (b. 1926)
- 2002 - Helmut Zacharias, German violinist (b. 1920)
- 2003 - Chris Brasher, British athlete (b. 1928)
- 2003 - Fidel Sánchez Hernández, President of El Salvador (heart attack) (b. 1917)
- 2003 - Roger Michael Needham, British cryptographer (b. 1935)
- 2004 - Daniel J. Boorstin, American historian, writer, and Librarian of Congress (b. 1914)
- 2004 - Andres Nuiamäe, Estonian soldier (killed in battle) (b. 1982)

Holidays and observances

- Bahá'í Faith - Day 3 of Ayyám-i-Há (Intercalary Days) - days in the Bahá'í calendar devoted to service and gift giving.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/28 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050228.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- February 27 - February 29 - March 1 - January 28 - March 28 -- listing of all days ko:2월 28일 ms:28 Februari ja:2月28日 simple:February 28 th:28 กุมภาพันธ์

January 25

January 25 is the 25th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 340 days remaining (341 in leap years).

Events

- 41 - After a night of negotiation, Claudius is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the Senate.
- 1327 - Edward III becomes King of England.
- 1494 - Alfonso II becomes King of Naples.
- 1533 - Henry VIII of England secretly marries his second wife Anne Boleyn.
- 1554 - Foundation of São Paulo city, Brazil.
- 1755 - Moscow University established.
- 1791 - The British Parliament splits the old province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada.
- 1792 - The London Corresponding Society is founded
- 1858 - The Wedding March by Felix Mendelssohn becomes a popular wedding recessional after it is played on this day at the marriage of Queen Victoria's daughter, Victoria, and Friedrich of Prussia.
- 1881 - Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell form the Oriental Telephone Company.
- 1890 - The United Mine Workers of America is founded.
- 1890 - Nellie Bly completes her round-the-world journey in 72 days.
- 1915 - Alexander Graham Bell inaugurates U.S. transcontinental telephone service.
- 1917 - The Danish West Indies is sold to the United States for $25 million.
- 1919 - The League of Nations is founded.
- 1924 - The 1924 Winter Olympics open in Chamonix, France (in the French Alps), inaugurating the Winter Olympic Games.
- 1941 - Pope Pius XII elevates the Apostolic Vicariate of the Hawaiian Islands to the dignity of a diocese. It becomes the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu.
- 1942 - Thailand declares war on the United States and United Kingdom.
- 1946 - The United Mine Workers rejoins the American Federation of Labor.
- 1949 - At the Hollywood Athletic Club the first Emmy Awards are presented.
- 1949 - The first Israeli election -- David Ben-Gurion becomes Prime Minister.
- 1960 - The National Association of Broadcasters reacts to the Payola scandal by threatening fines for any disc jockeys who accepted money for playing particular records.
- 1961 - In Washington, DC John F. Kennedy delivers the first live presidential television news conference.
- 1971 - Charles Manson and three female "family members" are found guilty of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.
- 1971 - Idi Amin leads a coup deposing Milton Obote and becomes Uganda's president.
- 1971 - Himachal Pradesh becomes the 18th Indian state.
- 1981 - Super Bowl XV: The Oakland Raiders defeat the Philadelphia Eagles, 27-10.
- 1986 - The National Resistance Movement topple the government of Tito Okello in Uganda
- 1987 - Super Bowl XXI: The New York Giants beat the Denver Broncos, 39-20.
- 1990 - The Burns' Day storm hits Northwestern Europe.
- 1990 - Honduras becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1993 - Mir Amir Kansi kills two employees outside CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia.
- 1995 - The Norwegian Rocket Incident: Russia almost launches a nuclear attack after Black Brant XII, a Norwegian research rocket, is mistaken for a US Trident missile by the Olenegorsk early-warning radar station.
- 1998 - Super Bowl XXXII: The Denver Broncos beat the Green Bay Packers, 31-24.
- 1999 - A 6.0 Richter scale earthquake hits western Colombia killing at least 1,000.
- 2002 - Wikipedia switches to the new version of its software ("Phase II") aka Magnus Manske Day
- 2004 - Opportunity (MER-B) lands on surface of Mars.
- 2005 - A stampede during a pilgrimage in India kills at least 215.

Births

- 1477 - Anna, Duchess of Brittany, queen of Charles VIII of France (d. 1514)
- 1509 - Giovanni Morone, Italian cardinal (d. 1580)
- 1615 - Govert Flinck, Dutch painter (d. 1660)
- 1627 - Robert Boyle, Irish chemist (d. 1691)
- 1634 - Gaspar Fagel, Dutch statesman (d. 1688)
- 1640 - William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, English soldier and statesman (d. 1707)
- 1736 - Joseph Louis Lagrange, Italian-born mathematician (d. 1813)
- 1739 - Charles François Dumouriez, French general (d. 1823)
- 1759 - Robert Burns, Scottish poet (d. 1796)
- 1794 - François-Vincent Raspail, French chemist (d. 1878)
- 1796 - William MacGillivray, Scottish naturalist and ornithologist (d. 1852)
- 1825 - George Pickett, American Confederate General (d. 1875)
- 1841 - Jackie Fisher, British First Sea Lord (d. 1920)
- 1858 - Kokichi Mikimoto, Japanese pearl farm pioneer (d. 1954)
- 1860 - Charles Curtis, Vice President of the United States (d. 1936)
- 1874 - William Somerset Maugham, English writer (d. 1965)
- 1878 - Ernst Alexanderson, Swedish-born television pioneer (d. 1975)
- 1882 - Virginia Woolf, English writer (d. 1941)
- 1886 - Wilhelm Furtwängler, German conductor (d. 1954)
- 1900 - Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ukrainian-American geneticist and biologist (d. 1975)
- 1900 - Yojiro Ishizaka, Japanese writer (d. 1986)
- 1913 - Witold Lutosławski, Polish composer (d. 1994)
- 1917 - Ilya Prigogine, Russian-born physicist and chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 2003)
- 1917 - Jânio Quadros, Brazilian politician (d. 1992)
- 1918 - Ernie Harwell, baseball sportscaster
- 1919 - Edwin Newman, American journalist and writer
- 1923 - Arvid Carlsson, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1927 - Antonio Carlos Jobim, Brazilian musician (d. 1994)
- 1928 - Eduard Shevardnadze, President of Georgia
- 1931 - Dean Jones, American actor
- 1933 - Corazon Aquino, President of the Philippines
- 1936 - Diana Hyland, American actress (d. 1977)
- 1938 - Etta James, American singer
- 1938 - Vladimir Vysotsky, Russian poet, singer, and actor (d. 1980)
- 1941 - Buddy Baker, American race car driver
- 1941 - Gregory Sierra, American actor
- 1942 - Carl Eller, American football player
- 1942 - Eusébio, Portuguese footballer
- 1943 - Tobe Hooper, American film director
- 1944 - Leigh Taylor-Young, American actress
- 1947 - Tostão, Brazilian footballer
- 1949 - Paul Nurse, British biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1951 - Steve Prefontaine, American runner (d. 1975)
- 1952 - Timothy White, American journalist (d. 2002
- 1954 - Ricardo Bochini, Argentinian footballer
- 1958 - Dinah Manoff, American actress
- 1969 - Kina, American singer
- 1971 - Luca Badoer, Italian race car driver
- 1975 - Tim Montgomery, American athlete
- 1976 - Mia Kirshner, Canadian actress
- 1980 - Christian Olsson, Swedish athlete
- 1981 - Alicia Keys, American singer and musician
- 1984 - Robinho, Brazilian footballer

Deaths

- 477 - Geiseric, King of the Vandals and Alans
- 844 - Pope Gregory IV
- 1067 - Emperor Yingzong of China (b. 1032)
- 1366 - Henry Suso, German mystic
- 1431 - Charles I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1364)
- 1494 - King Ferdinand I of Naples (b. 1423)
- 1559 - King Christian II of Denmark, Sweden and Norway (b. 1481)
- 1586 - Lucas Cranach the Younger, German painter (b. 1515)
- 1640 - Robert Burton, English scholar (b. 1577)
- 1670 - Nicholas II, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1612)
- 1726 - Guillaume Delisle, French cartographer (b. 1726)
- 1733 - Gilbert Heathcote, Mayor of London
- 1751 - Paul Dudley, Attorney-General of Massachusetts (b. 1675)
- 1881 - Konstantin Thon, Russian architect (b. 1794)
- 1908 - Mikhail Chigorin, Russian chess player (b. 1850)
- 1908 - Ouida, English writer (b. 1839)
- 1925 - Ivan Vucetic, Croatian anthropologist (b. 1858)
- 1947 - Al Capone, American gangster (b. 1899)
- 1969 - Irene Castle, English dancer (b. 1887)
- 1970 - Jane Bathori, French mezzo-soprano (b. 1877)
- 1981 - Adele Astaire, American dancer (b. 1897)
- 1982 - Mikhail Suslov, Soviet politician (b. 1902)
- 1990 - Ava Gardner, American actress (b. 1922)
- 1994 - Stephen Cole Kleene, American mathematician (b. 1909)
- 1995 - Cal Jammer, American actor (b. 1960)
- 1996 - Jonathan Larson, American composer (b. 1960)
- 1999 - Robert Shaw, American conductor (b. 1916)
- 2004 - Fanny Blankers-Koen, Dutch athlete (b. 1918)
- 2004 - Miklós Fehér, Hungarian footballer (b. 1979)
- 2005 - Stanisław Albinowski, Polish economist and journalist (b. 1923)
- 2005 - William Augustus Bootle, American judge (b. 1902)
- 2005 - Philip Johnson, American architect (b. 1906)
- 2005 - Ray Peterson, American singer (b. 1935)
- 2005 - Nettie Witziers-Timmer, Dutch athlete (b. 1923)

Holidays and observances

- Catholicism and Anglicanism - Conversion of Saint Paul.
- Christian ecumenism — Week of Prayer for Christian Unity ends.
- Burns Night - Burns suppers are held in many parts of the world around this date.
- Tu Bishvat (Jewish holiday, 2005)
- Roman Empire - second day of the Sementivae in honour of Ceres and Terra
- Magnus_Manske_Day - The day in 2002 when Wikipedia switched to the new PHP software ("Phase II")
- Winter-een-mas - An annual celebration of games. Starts on January 25 and ends on January 31.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/25 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/1/25 Today in History: January 25] ---- January 24 - January 26 - December 25 - February 25 — listing of all days ko:1월 25일 ms:25 Januari ja:1月25日 simple:January 25 th:25 มกราคม

Cartography

Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making maps or globes. Maps have traditionally been made using pen and paper, but the advent and spread of computers has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making software that falls into one of three main types; CAD, GIS, and specialized map illustration software. Maps function as visualization tools for spatial data. Spatial data is acquired from measurement and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that there is an objective reality and that we can make reliable representations of that reality by adding levels of abstraction.

History

database Mapmaking involves advanced skills and attitudes, particularly the use of symbols to represent certain geographic phenomena, as well as the ability to visualize the world in an abstract and scaled down form. Maps have been an integral part of the human story for long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than a written words). From cave/wall partings, ancient maps of Babylon and Greek philosophers, through the Age of Exploration, and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as the essential tools to help them define, explain and navigate their way through the world (and beyond). According to some scholars, mapping represented a significant step forward in the intellectual development of human beings and it serves as a record of the advancing knowledge of the human race. The oldest extant picture that resembles a map was created in the late 7th millennium BCE in Anatolia, modern Turkey. This wall painting [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/100B.jpeg]represents a plan of an early-civilized city that prospered by trading obsidian. Whoever created this ‘mental map’ may have been encouraged by the fact that houses in Çatal Hűyűk were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird’s eye view. Having said this, I think that this painting influenced in some way all-later civilizations with their mapmaking endeavours. Today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead of from the more natural horizontal or oblique perspective. Nevertheless, one of the early-survived Hellenic ‘quasi-maps’ of the Minoan civilization on Crete, the so-called “House of the Admiral” c. 1600 BCE is a wall painting representing view of a seaside community in an oblique perspective. Predecessors of mapping could be also found in Babylonia around the 23rd century BCE. An engraved map of the holy city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries BCE) of Babylonian history, was found at Nippur [http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html]. The early attempts at maps were severely limited by lack of knowledge of anything other than very local features. Whereas early world maps reflected mostly religious beliefs of the form of the world. For example, the Babylonian World Map -- the earliest surviving map of the world (c. 600BCE) -- is very much Mesopotamia-centred, ignoring peoples such as the Persians and Egyptians, who were well known to the Babylonians. The area shown is depicted as a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the Babylonians believed. Maps were quite rare in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians seem to have preferred written words to plans. Still, what might have later influenced human mapmaking were the geometrical methods that were used for land measurements, which were stimulated by the need to re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. The most interesting artefact that has survived from this period is the Turin Papyrus, dated c. 1300 BCE. It shows the mountains east of the Nile where gold and silver were mined, along with the location of the miners’ shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map’s inscriptions, its precise orientation and the use of colour. Ancient Greeks were the first people to adopt a scientific approach to mapping. They were excellent observers of natural phenomena. Observations of the sun, the moon, and the curvature of the earth were fundamental to the theoretical thinking of early Greek philosophers, scientists, and geographers. The Greeks’ philosophical conception of the world and their growing knowledge in geography contributed to establishing the concept of mapmaking and to the development of cartographic techniques. This chapter presents one of the most momentous periods in the history of cartography by illustrating the works of early Greek philosophers who pioneered the concept of mapping. It traces the evolution of Greek ideas concerning the geography of the earth and cartographic techniques of representing natural phenomena in a map form. In addition to an examination of reconstructed maps of the world as conceived by Anaximander of Miletus, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Ptolemy, this paper also assesses the writings of early Greek poets who tried to give a written picture of the known world of the time. This section will hopefully allow the reader to comprehend the stages through which the Greeks developed their geographical ideas and cartographic knowledge; from blurry and obscure notions of Mediterranean mariners -- as related by Homer -- to more scientific and mathematical approach of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography. In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead to Homer , who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography. Regardless of the doubts about Homer’s existence, one thing is certain he never was a mapmaker. The enclosed map (soon), which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world was never created by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze Age and the illustrated plans of actual journeys. Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map. Additional written statements about ancient geography can be found in Hesiod poems, written probably during the 7th century BCE The first steps in the development of scientific thought in ancient Greece belonged to Ionians from their well-known city of Miletus in Asia Minor. Miletus was favourably placed to absorb aspects of Babylonian science and culture and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean. Thales of Miletus (c. 600 BCE) thought that the earth was a disk supported by water. Anaximander of Miletus (c. 611 – 546 BCE) was a pupil of Thales. It has been said that he believed that the earth was a cylindrical form [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/106A.GIF], like a stone pillar and suspended in space. The inhabited part of his world was a circular, disk-shaped, and presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder. Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker (Dilke). A scarcity of archaeological and written evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we can assume is that he portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he included in his map is lost. What is certain is that 50 years after Anaximander’s alleged map, Hecataeus of Miletus (550 – 475 BC) produced another map [http://sophistikatedkids.com/turkic/btn_GeographyMaps/World%20according%20to%20Hecataeus%20(6%20th%20century%20BC).gif] that he claimed was an improved version of the map of his illustrious predecessor. Another interesting figure in that era was Anaximenes of Miletus (6th century BCE), who studied under Anaximander. He rejected the views of his teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form supported by compressed air (Picture soon). What is interesting here is that his incorrect idea about the shape of the world somehow persisted in the form of how the contemporary maps are presented today. Extend of the current maps are always kind of limited to this rectangular shape (i.e. border of the map [neatline], computer screen, or any document page). Although, only a very limited portion of the Earth was known to these ancient Greeks, the shape of the Earth was always going to be of fundamental importance in world maps. For example, Pythagoras of Samos (c. 560 – 480 BCE) first speculated about the notion of a spherical earth with a central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical earth into five zones. One hot, two temperate, and two cold -- northern and southern. It seems likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived to the present. Whereas a number of previous philosophers assumed the earth to be spherical, Aristotle (384 – 322BCE) is the one to be credited with proving the earth’s sphericity. Those arguments can be summarized as follows: Aristotle
- The lunar eclipse is always circular.
- Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon.
- Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the earth. It is unclear if he ever produced a map of the world according to his specifications, but if he did we have yet to find it. In 288 BCE, Aristarchus of Samos was the first to say that the sun was the center of universe (see heliocentric theory). Also Hipparchus (astronomer) A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement was Eratosthenes (275-195 BCE). He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends upon the establishment of an accurate linear measurements. His great achievement in the field of cartography was the use of new techniques called (A) meridian -- his imaginary north/south line -- and (B) parallel -- his imaginary west/east line [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/112B.jpg]. These axis lines were placed over the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes and divided the world into sectors. Then, Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map. He provided the logical framework of reference for all future maps, which ensures that every city, area, and ocean is drawn in its proper place on the map -- one accurately located in relation to the other. Although not as precise as the latter, his earth partitions were the forerunners of parallels and meridians. Eratosthenes’ map of the world was a very striking achievement and may be considered as the first scientific map. A map that laid the basis to produce accurate maps, which were implemented in the work of all later cartographers and geographers. The accumulated cartographic achievements of the early Greeks and their predecessors that have been presented up to this point culminate with the contribution of the famous Greek scholar named Claudius Ptolemy (AD 90-168). This pivotal figure in geography concluded that with the aid of astronomy and mathematics the earth could be mapped very accurately. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on the map by using projection, and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic features on its surface using coordinate system -- parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.[http://geology.cwru.edu/~huwig/catalog/slides/769.G.2.jpg] His great work Geographia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy] comprises of eight books and by today’s standards, it would be called a geographic atlas. The form of his atlas and the maps themselves are the prototypes of modern mapmaking. And the listing of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, is not so different from the system employed by today’s user. Additional standard features on modern maps that are Ptolemaic in origin are: a scale that is used for precise interpretation of phenomena, conventional signs with legends, a table that contains supplemental information about the specific places on the map, and the practice of orienting maps so that North is at the top and East to the right of the map -- a universal custom today. But for all his important innovations Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that Eurasia covered 180° of the globe, which convinced Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and faster way to travel to India. Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater, it is conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage. It is undeniable that Ptolemy made a fundamental contribution to the development of cartography and proved to be a decisive influence on accurate mapmaking in the future. His work determined world exploration and dominated mapping of the world for almost 1400 years -- until the scientific achievements of another great mapmaker Gerhardus Mercator (1512-1594). He was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the word “look right” on the maps developed new projection (called Mercator projection) using mathematical formulas. From then on, the image of the world that he produced on his map in 1569 becomes a conventional view of the world that we are accustomed European scientific cartography slept through the Middle Ages, when philosophical thought turned toward religion. Though the field advanced in some ways, such as Roger Bacon's investigations of map projections and the appearance of portolano and then portolan charts for plying the European trade routes, there was little impetus for systematic study or application of cartography. Most world 'maps' of the period were Christian cosmological diagrams not intended as rigorous geographical representations. Typically rectangular or circular, they followed the style of the so-called "T and O map," which represents the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by ocean. Large-scale mapping tended toward diagrammatic as well, since cadastral needs generally were met by descriptions of landmarks rather than by measurements. In contrast, the Chinese during this time were using a rectangular coordinate system suitable for real, if rough, surveying. The Chinese did not produce world maps because their cosmology supplied no dogma describing distant lands outside their experience. Writings suggest that Chinese philosophers believed the earth to be flat. With the exception of a few theologians of minority opinion, notably Lactantius, Christian and Islamic philosophers adhered to the Greek conception of a spherical earth. Lactantius The discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands necessitated the invention of scientific mapping methods. The trend of globalism that was started with the Age of Exploration would continue during the Renaissance. This would, in turn, eventually lead to the Enlightenment a concern for scientific accuracy and a desire to classify the world would further develop scientific mapmaking. Those early mapmakers were the first to show to us the potential values of maps for putting things in perspective, both factually and symbolically. Through their maps, they opened the door for future generations, by allowing people to make informative decisions based on their work. For example, one of the differences between the West and the other parts of the world, and one of the reasons for the global spread of western power, is that Europeans recorded their knowledge on maps while others did not. Or, as Peter Whitfield, the author of several books on the history of maps, points out "Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America, Brazil, or India, while the native peoples knew only their own immediate environment" (Whitfield).

Technological changes

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon. Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps. In the mid to late 20th century advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. See also digital raster graphic.

Map types

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of contour lines showing elevation. A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data. Two of the most influential American cartographers, especially in thematic cartography have been Arthur H. Robinson at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and George F. Jenks at the University of Kansas.

Naming conventions

There are several ways to name the places on a map. Early explorers named them in several ways — after themselves, people in their homeland, and the ruler(s) of their countries. Features were also named by appearance, local climate, incidents that happened in the vicinity, and location. Many places along the coast of Brazil were named by Portuguese explorers in the early 1500s after the saint of the day of discovery in the Catholic calendar of saints (so that the detailed timetable of their expeditions can often be recovered from the list of assigned names). Cartographers also borrowed native names, sometimes by transliterating the written form into the Latin alphabet, but most often by transcribing the sound, or attempting to do so. Often the explorer would address the nearest native, pointing at the landmark in question and speaking in a loud voice; whatever the native said was then written down as its name. The Yucatan Peninsula was named in this way as was Nome, Alaska, according to legend.

External links

- [http://www.populationdata.net/cartes/cartes.html List of maps of all countries]
- [http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm Online Map Catalogs in North America and Europe] Lists some good places to search for online maps
- [http://oddens.geog.uu.nl The fascinating world of maps and mapping] Lists all kinds of maps
- [http://www.maphistory.info/collections.html Map collections] Introductory page to help navigate the online map resources
- [http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html A listing of over 5000 websites] describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
- [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
- [http://www.links4maps.com Links for maps] Directory for maps and cartography links
- [http://www.rare-maps.com/links.cfm Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International] - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.
- [http://www.openstreetmap.org OpenStreetMap] - A free project mapping the worlds roads using GPS
- [http://www.freemaps.de/ FreeMaps.de] Free Maps Germany & Europe
- [http://www.nacis.org/ nacis.org] North American Cartographic Information Society

References

-
- Category:Architecture and engineering occupations ja:地図学 simple:Cartography

Astronomer

An astronomer or astrophysicist is a scientist whose area of research is astronomy or astrophysics. astrophysicss, and being the first to study the surface of the moon]] Astronomy is generally thought to have begun in ancient Babylon by the Persian Zoroastrian priests (the magi). Recent studies of Babylonian records have shown them to be extremely accurate for the ancient night sky. Following the Babylonians, the egyptians also had an emphasis on observations of the sky. Mixtures of religious interpretations of the sky, as mythic tales of the gods, led to a duality that we now identify as astrology. It is important to recognize that before about 1750, there was no distinction between astronomy and astrology. Unlike most scientists, astronomers cannot directly interact with the celestial bodies, and so instead must resort to detailed observation in order to make discoveries. Generally, astronomers use telescopes or other imaging equipment to make such observations.

Famous astronomers

Topography

Topography, a term in geography, has come to refer to the "lay of the land", or the physiogeographic characteristics of land in terms of elevation, slope, and orientation. "Terrain" is a similar concept, used more to describe the land itself than the study of it. "Relief" is often used to refer to the third dimension of a map whether in actuality (as in a "raised relief" map, or drawn, as with contours, hachures or shading) or the territory it describes. shading Topography is similar to topology, popularly thought of as the mathematical study of surfaces. This may help explain its adoption in the world of geographers. Its actual original meaning, from Greek "topos" (place) and "graphein" (to draw), relates to the description of places rather than broad regions, in topographic surveys. Most 18th and early 19th century national surveys did not record relief across the entire area of coverage, calculating only spot elevations at survey points. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographical survey maps included contour representation of relief, and so maps that show relief, especially with exact representation of elevation, came to be called topographic maps (or "topo" maps) in the United States, and the usage has spread internationally. The understanding of topography is critical for a number of reasons. In terms of environmental quality, agriculture, and hydrology, understanding the topography of an area enables the understanding of watershed boundaries, drainage characteristics, water movement, and impacts on water quality. Understanding topography also impinges on soil conservation, especially in agriculture. Contour plowing is an established practice of enabling sustainable agriculture on sloping land, and is the practice of plowing along topographic lines. Topography is critical militarily because it determines the ability of armed forces to take and hold areas, and to move troops and material into and through areas. Topography is important in determining weather patterns. Two areas in fairly close proximity geographically may differ radically in characteristics such as precipitation because of elevation differences or because of a "rain shadow" effect. Tectonic processes and erosional processes are the determiners of topography. Tectonic processes such as orogenies cause land to be elevated, and erosional (and weathering) processes cause land to be worn away to lower elevations.

Orthography

The orthography of a language is the set of rules of how to write correctly in the writing system of a language. The term is derived from Greek ορθο ortho- ("correct") and γραφος graphos ("that writes") and, in today's sense, includes spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. Orthography is distinct from typography. An example of an orthographic rule for English is: i before e except after c.
- Writing systems:
- Logogram
- Syllabary
- Alphabet
- Abjad
- Abugida
- Writing rules and components:
- Spelling
- Punctuation
- Collation
- Letter case and capitalization
- Majuscule
- Minuscule
- Diacritic
- Stroke order
- Eight Principles of Yong
- Radical (Chinese character)

Reference

- Smalley, W.A. (ed.) 1964. Orthography studies: articles on new writing systems, United Bible Society, London. Category:Writing zh-min-nan:Chiàⁿ-jī-hoat als:Orthographie ja:正書法 simple:Orthography

Category:French cartographers

French Cartographers

Category:1726 deaths

Ophrys abeille

L'Ophrys abeille (Ophrys apifera) est une orchidée terrestre européenne.

Étymologie

- Ophrus signifie sourcil.
- Apifera : du latin apis (abeille) et fero (je porte)

Floraison

En France d'avril à juillet.

Habitat

Cette espèce se rencontre en pleine lumière ou à mi-ombre, sur sols surtout calcaires, dans les pelouses, les garrigues, les broussailles, les bois clairs, les prés ras, rocailles, broussailles, talus, dunes au bord des routes également. Elle ne se retrouve pas au-dessus de 1000 mètres d'altitude.

Morphologie

- Grands sépales roses ou blancs avec nervure verte pour la plupart des variantes.
- Petit pétales jaune verdâtre, velus, triangulaires.
- Labelle caractéristique 1 semi-globuleux, velouté, avec dessins jaunes, 2 lobes latéraux en forme de bosse.
- Fait penser à un abdomen d'insecte (Abeille)
- Parmi les ophrys, c'est la seule espèce ayant recours à l'autofécondation. On peut observer un basculement précoce des pollinies sur le stigmate. Cette particularité provoque des variations locales nombreuses dont on a parfois voulu faire des espèces nouvelles. (O. jurana, bicolor, aurita, fulvofusca, trollii, botteroni, friburgensis, saraepontana, flavescens...). Les illustrations suivantes montrent les lusus jurana, bicolor et aurita. Le lusus jurana est caractérisé par de grands pétales roses presque identiques aux trois sépales et un labelle bicolore déformé, tandis que aurita présente deux pétales allongés (au moins du double de ceux de l'espèce type). Le lusus bicolor est quant à lui caractérisé par un labelle bicolore, la zone basale étant plus claire que la zone apicale. lusus lusus lusus lusus

Aire de répartition

Plante euroméditerranéenne des régions tempérées de l'Atlantique jusqu'au Caucase, parfois abondante.

Protection

Espèce protégée en France dans certaines régions (Franche-Comté, Limousin, Nord-Pas-de-Calais).

Autres espèces proches

- Ophrys schulzei
- Ophrys isaura
- Ophrys phrygia
- Ophrys minutula Catégorie:Flore (noms vernaculaires)

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