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Hugh L. Dryden

Hugh L. Dryden

Dr. Hugh Latimer Dryden (July 2, 1898–December 2, 1965) was an aeronautical scientist and civil servant. He served as NASA Deputy Administrator from August 19, 1958 until his death. He was born in Pocomoke City, Maryland, the son of Samuel Isaac and Nova Hill Culver Dryden, and was named after a popular local Methodist clergyman. During the financial panic of 1907, his father lost his job and the family moved to Baltimore, Maryland. As a student he excelled in mathematics. He graduated from Baltimore City College, a High School, at the age of 14, and was the youngest student ever to graduate from that school. He was awarded the Peabody Prize for excellence in mathematics. With a scholarship, he was admitted to Johns Hopkins University and graduated with honors, after only three years, with a bachelor of arts degree. He earned a M.S. in physics in 1916. His thesis was titled, "Airplanes: An Introduction to the Physical Principles Embodied in their Use." In 1918 he joined the National Bureau of Standards, becoming an inspector of guages. With the help and influence of Dr. Joseph S. Ames, he obtained a transfer to the bureau's Wind Tunnel division, and began taking graduate courses in fluid dynamics to complete his Ph.D. In 1919 at the age of 20, he was awarded his degree in physics and mathematics from Johns Hopkins University, the youngest person ever to have received a doctorate from that institution. His thesis was on the "Air Forces on Circular Cylinders". In 1920 he became the director of the Aerodynamics Division of the National Bureau of Standards, a newly-created section. Collaborating with Dr. Lyman J. Briggs, he performed studies of airfoils near the speed of sound. He also performed pioneering aerodynamics research on the problems of airflow, turbulence, and especially the boundary layer phenomenon. His work contributed to the design of the wings for the P-51 Mustang, as well as other aircraft designed during World War II. By 1934 he had become the bureau's Chief of the Mechanics and Sound Division. In 1939 he became a member of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). With the start of World War II, Dr. Dryden served in an advisory capacity to the Air Force. He led the development of the "Bat", a radar-homing guided missile program. This was successfully employed in combat in April, 1945 to sink a Japanese destroyer. After the war Dr. Dryden became the Director of Aeronautical Research for NACA in 1946. While at the NACA he supervised the development of the X-15, a rocket-powered test plane. He also established programs for VSTOL aircraft, and studied the problem of atmospheric reentry. He held the position of Director of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), NASA's predecessor, from 1947 until October 1958. In addition he served on numerous government advisory committees, including the Scientific Advisory Committee to the President. From 1941 until 1956 he was editor of the Journal of the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences. After NACA became NASA, he became the Deputy Director of that organization, serving until his death. He passed away from cancer on December 2, 1965. Michael Gorn described him as a quiet, reserved man who was self-effacing and diligent. He was patient, a good teacher, and effective when collaborating with others. He was also a devout Methodist, who, as a result, had a dislike of self-promotion. He served as a lay minister for his entire adult life. He was married to Mary Libbie Travers, and the couple had three children.

Bibliography

Dr. Dryden published over a hundred papers and articles.
- "Turbulence and the Boundary Layer", Wright Brothers Lecture, 1938.
- "The Role of Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow in Fluid Mechanics", 1941, procedings University of Pennsylvania Bicentennial Conference on Fluid Mechanics and Statistical Methods in Engineering.
- "Recent advances in the mechanics of boundary layer flow", Academic Press Inc., New York, 1948.
- Dryden, Hugh L., and Abbott, Ira H., "The design of low-turbulence wind tunnels", NACA, Technical Note 1755, Nov 1949.
- "General Survey of Experimental Aerodynamics", 1956, Dover.
- "The International Geophysical Year: Man’s most ambitious study of his environment," National Geographic, February 1956, pp. 285-285.
- "Footprints on the Moon", National Geographic, March 1964, pp. 356-401.

Awards and Honors


- Presidential Certificate of Merit.
- Daniel Guggenheim Medal, 1950.
- Wright brothers memorial trophy, 1956.
- Baltimore City College Hall of Fame, 1958.
- Career Service Award from the National Civil Service League, 1958.
- National Medal of Science award in Engineering, 1965.
- Sixteen honorary doctorates.
- Member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
- Member of the National Academy of Sciences.
- The NASA Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Hugh L. Dryden Flight Research Center on March 26, 1976.
- Dryden crater on the Moon is named for him.

References


- Michael Gorn, "A Powerful Friendship: Theodore von Kármán and Hugh L. Dryden", NASA TM-2003-212031.
- Michael H. Gorn, "Hugh L. Dryden's Careeer in Aviation and Space", 1996, Washington, D.C., Monographs in Aerospace History.

External links


- [http://www.astronautix.com/astros/dryden.htm Official NASA biography]
- [http://www.spacefame.org/dryden.html New Mexico Museum of Space History]
- [http://www.engr.umd.edu/~jpereira/414/dryden.html Biography] Dryden, Hugh Latimer Dryden, Hugh Latimer Dryden, Hugh Latimer

July 2

July 2 is the 183rd day of the year (184th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 182 days remaining. It is the middle day of a non-leap year, because there are 182 days before and 182 days after. It falls on the same day of the week as New Year's Day (of non-leap years) and New Year's Eve.

Events


- 1298 - The Battle of Göllheim is fought between Albert I of Habsburg and Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg.
- 1578 - Martin Frobisher sights Baffin Island.
- 1613 - First English expedition from Massachusetts against Acadia - led by Samuel Argall.
- 1644 - Battle of Marston Moor in the English Civil War.
- 1679 - Europeans first visit Minnesota and see headwaters of Mississippi - led by Daniel Greysolon de Du Luth.
- 1776 - The Continental Congress adopts a resolution severing ties with Great Britain, though a formal Declaration of Independence is not adopted until July 4.
- 1777 - Vermont becomes the first American state to abolish slavery.
- 1808 - Simon Fraser reaches Pacific near New Westminster.
- 1819 - The Factory Act is passed in Britain, creating restrictions on child labor.
- 1839 - Twenty miles off the coast of Cuba, 53 rebelling African slaves led by Joseph Cinque take over the slave ship Amistad.
- 1850 - The self-contained gas mask is patented by Benjamin J. Lane.
- 1853 - The Russian Army invades Turkey, beginning the Crimean War.
- 1863 - Second day of the Battle of Gettysburg.
- 1878 - What will become the BMT Brighton Line opens in the City of Brooklyn (which merged with Manhattan and other counties to become the City of Greater New York in 1898)
- 1881 - Charles J. Guiteau shoots and fatally wounds U.S. President James Garfield, who eventually dies from infection on September 19.
- 1890 - The U.S. Congress passes the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.
- 1900 - First zeppelin flight on Lake Constance near Friedrichshafen, Germany.
- 1917 - 48 die in rioting in East St. Louis, Illinois, as lower-paid black laborers clash with whites.
- 1937 - Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan disappear over the Pacific Ocean while attempting to make the first round-the-world flight at the equator.
- 1947 - An object speculated to be a UFO crashes near Roswell, New Mexico, though the United States Air Force claims it is a weather balloon.
- 1950 - Henri Queuille becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1964 - U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act into law.
- 1973 - James R. Schlesinger is sworn in as the 12th United States Secretary of Defense.
- 1976 - North and South Vietnam, divided since 1954, reunite to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
- 1978 - The New York Times publishes its last edition composed using hot metal typesetting.
- 1979 - The first U.S. coin to honor a woman, the Susan B. Anthony dollar, is introduced.
- 1982 - Larry Walters uses 45 helium balloons and a lawnchair to propel himself to 16,000 feet.
- 1985 - Andrei Gromyko is appointed the chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union.
- 1990 - A stampede inside a pedestrian tunnel led to the deaths of 1,426 pilgrims in Mecca during hajj.
- 2000 - Vicente Fox Quesada is elected the first President of México from an opposition party, the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) after more than 70 years of continuous rule from the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI).
- 2002 - Steve Fossett becomes the first person to fly solo around the world nonstop in a balloon.
- 2003 - International Olympic Committee session in Prague. Vancouver is declared the Host City for the XXI Olympic Winter Games in 2010.
- 2005 - Ten Live 8 concerts are held around the world in an attempt to force G8 countries to address poverty.
- 2005 - Oklahoma Governor Brad Henry and the Oklahoma House of Representatives proclaimed July 2, 2005 as “Chet Baker Day”.

Births


- 419 - Valentinian III, Roman Emperor (d. 455)
- 1029 - Caliph Al-Mustansir of Cairo (d. 1094)
- 1262 - Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (d. 1312)
- 1489 - Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1556)
- 1647 - Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham, English privy councilor (d. 1730)
- 1665 - Samuel Penhallow, English-born American colonist and historian (d. 1726)
- 1714 - Christoph Willibald Gluck, German composer (d. 1787)
- 1724 - Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, German poet (d. 1803)
- 1821 - Sir Charles Tupper, sixth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1915)
- 1856 - Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Indian nationalist leader (d. 1920)
- 1862 - William Henry Bragg, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1942)
- 1865 - Lily Braun, German writer (d. 1916)
- 1877 - Hermann Hesse, German-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1962)
- 1884 - Alfons Maria Jakob, German neurologist (d. 1931)
- 1900 - Tyrone Guthrie, English actor (d. 1971)
- 1903 - Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1995)
- 1903 - King Olav V of Norway (d. 1991)
- 1906 - Hans Bethe, German-born nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2005)
- 1908 - Thurgood Marshall, U. S. Supreme Court Justice (d. 1993)
- 1914 - Frederick Fennell, American conductor (d. 2004)
- 1916 - Ken Curtis, American actor and singer (d. 1991)
- 1916 - Hans-Ulrich Rudel, German pilot (d. 1982).
- 1918 - Wibo, Dutch cartoonist (d. 2005)
- 1923 - Wisława Szymborska, Polish writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1925 - Medgar Evers, American civil rights activist (d. 1963)
- 1925 - Patrice Lumumba, Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (d. 1961)
- 1927 - Brock Peters, American actor
- 1929 - Imelda Marcos, First Lady of the Philippines
- 1930 - Carlos Menem, President of Argentina
- 1932 - Dave Thomas, American fast food entrepreneur (d. 2002)
- 1937 - Polly Holliday, American actress
- 1937 - Richard Petty, American race car driver
- 1939 - John H. Sununu, U.S. Secretary of State
- 1940 - Kenneth Harry Clarke, British politician
- 1942 - Vicente Fox, President of Mexico
- 1946 - Richard Axel, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1946 - Ron Silver, American actor
- 1947 - Larry David, American television producer
- 1955 - Andrew Divoff, Venezuelan actor
- 1956 - Jerry Hall, American actress and model
- 1957 - Bret "Hitman" Hart, Canadian professional wrestler
- 1958 - Thomas Bickerton, American Methodist bishop
- 1959 - Mike Hallett, English snooker player
- 1964 - Jose Canseco, baseball player
- 1970 - Yancy Butler, American actress
- 1971 - Evelyn Lau, Canadian author
- 1974 - Matthew Reilly, Australian author
- 1975 - Erik Ohlsson, Swedish guitarist (Millencolin)
- 1976 - Tomas Vokoun, Czech hockey player
- 1983 - Michelle Branch, American musician
- 1986 - Lindsay Lohan, American actress

Deaths


- 862 - St. Swithun, Bishop of Winchester
- 1298 - Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg, King of the Romans
- 1504 - Ştefan cel Mare, Prince of Moldova (b. 1434)
- 1582 - Akechi Mitsuhide, Japanese samurai (b. 1528)
- 1591 - Vincenzo Galilei, Italian composer (b. 1520)
- 1621 - Thomas Harriot, English astronomer and mathematician
- 1656 - François-Marie, comte de Broglie, Italian-born French commander (b. 1611)
- 1674 - Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1614)
- 1684 - John Rogers, American President of Harvard University (b. 1630)
- 1743 - Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington, English statesman
- 1746 - Thomas Baker, English antiquarian (b. 1656)
- 1778 - Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Swiss philosopher (b. 1712)
- 1778 - Bathsheba Ruggles, American murderer
- 1833 - Gervasio Antonio de Posadas, Argentine leader (b. 1757)
- 1843 - Samuel Hahnemann, German physician
- 1912 - Tom Richardson, English cricket player (b. 1870)
- 1926 - Émile Coué, French psychologist (b. 1857)
- 1932 - King Manuel II of Portugal (b. 1889)
- 1937 - Amelia Earhart, American aviator (disappeared) (b. 1897)
- 1961 - Ernest Hemingway, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1899)
- 1964 - Glenn "Fireball" Roberts, American race car driver (b. 1929)
- 1966 - Jan Brzechwa, Polish poet (b. 1900)
- 1972 - Joseph Fielding Smith, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1876)
- 1973 - Betty Grable, American actress (b. 1916)
- 1977 - Vladimir Nabokov, Russian-born writer (b. 1899)
- 1989 - Andrei Gromyko, Soviet foreign minister (b. 1909)
- 1991 - Lee Remick, American actress (b. 1935)
- 1994 - Andrés Escobar, Colombian footballer (murdered)
- 1997 - James Stewart, American actor (b. 1908)
- 1999 - Mario Puzo, American author (b. 1920)
- 2004 - Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, Portuguese writer and poet (b. 1919)
- 2004 - John Cullen Murphy, American comic strip artist (b. 1919)
- 2005 - Ernest Lehman, American screenwriter (b. 1915)

Holidays and observances


- Originally, in the Roman Catholic Church, the Feast of the Visitation was celebrated on this day, although it has since been transferred to May 31
- Palio di Provenzano in Siena

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/2 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/7/2 Today in History: July 2] ---- July 1 - July 3 - June 2 - August 2 -- listing of all days ko:7월 2일 ms:2 Julai ja:7月2日 simple:July 2 th:2 กรกฎาคม

1898

1898 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

January


- January 1 - New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York. The city is geographically divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, and Staten Island.
- January 13 - Emile Zola's J'accuse exposes the Dreyfus affair.

February


- February 7 - Emile Zola is brought to trial for libel for publishing J'Accuse
- February 12 - Henry Lindfield, dies in England. Lindfield was the first fatality from an automobile accident.
- February 15 - Spanish-American War: The USS Maine explodes and sinks in Havana Harbor, Cuba for then unknown reasons killing more than 260. This event helped lead the United States to declare war on Spain.
- February 23 - Emile Zola is imprisoned in France after writing "J'accuse" which was a letter accusing the French government of anti-Semitism and wrongfully placing Alfred Dreyfus in jail.

March


- March 24 - Robert Allison of Port Carbon, Pennsylvania becomes the first person to buy an American-built automobile when he buys a Winton automobile that was advertised in Scientific American.
- March 26 - The Sabi Game Reserve in South Africa, the first officially designated game reserve

April


- April 22 - Spanish-American War: The United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports and the USS Nashville captures a Spanish merchant ship.
- April 25 - Spanish-American War: The United States declares war on Spain; the U.S. Congress announces that a state of war has existed since April 21 (later backdating one more day to April 20).

May


- May 7 - General Bava-Beccaris killed 80 demonstrants in Milan, Italy shooting on a rally; King of Italy Umberto I will be killed two years after to avenge this shooting.

June

Umberto I
- June 1 - The Trans-Mississippi Exposition world's fair opens in Omaha, Nebraska.
- June 12 - Philippine Declaration of Independence: General Emilio Aguinaldo declares the Philippines' independence from Spain.
- June 13 - Yukon Territory is formed, with Dawson chosen as its capital.
- June 17 - The Navy Hospital Corps is established.

July


- July 3 - Joshua Slocum completes a 3-year solo circumnavigation
- July 7 - The United States annexes the Hawaiian Islands.
- July 17 - Spanish-American War: Battle of Santiago Bay - Troops under United States General William R. Shafter take the city of Santiago de Cuba from the Spanish.
- July 25 - Spanish-American War: The United States invasion of Puerto Rico begins with a landing at Guánica Bay.

August


- August 28- Caleb Bradham starts to use for his soft drink the name Pepsi-Cola.

September


- September 2 - Battle of Omdurman - British and Egyptian troops led by Horatio Kitchener defeat Sudanese tribesmen led by Khalifa Abdullah al-Taashi, thus establishing British dominance in the Sudan.
- September 10 - Luigi Lucheni assassinates Empress Elizabeth of Austria-Hungary
- September 21 - Empress Dowager Cixi of China engineered a coup d'etat and it marks the end of Hundred Days' Reform. Guangxu Emperor was arrested.

October


- October 1 - The Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration is founded under the name k.u.k. Exportakademie.

December


- December 10 - The Treaty of Peace ending the Spanish-American War is signed in Paris.
- December 26 ? Marie and Pierre Curie discover radium
- Fashoda incident -- diplomatic dispute between France and the United Kingdom.
- John Henry Patterson kills the man-eating lions of Tsavo which were delaying the building of the Uganda Railway as described in the book "The Man-Eaters of Tsavo"
- Exploits of Louis de Rougemont begin to appear in the Wide World Magazine
- North Petherton becomes the first town in England to install Acetylene lighting.
- John Jacob Abel isolates epinephrine (adrenaline).
- William Ramsay and Morris Travers discover neon

Births

January to March


- January 16 - Margaret Booth, American film editor (d. 2002)
- January 21 - Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shah of Persia (d. 1930)
- January 23 - Sergei Eisenstein, Russian film director (d. 1948)
- January 23 - Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian politician (d. 1948)
- February 3 - Alvar Aalto, Finnish architect (d. 1976)
- February 10 - Bertolt Brecht, German writer (d. 1956)
- February 14 - Fritz Zwicky, Swiss physicist and astronomer (d. 1974)
- February 15 - Allen Woodring, American runner (d. 1982)
- February 17 - Thomas Coleman Lowry, New Zealand cricket captains (d. 1976)
- February 18 - Enzo Ferrari, Italian race car driver and automobile manufacturer (d. 1988)
- February 18 - Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician (d. 1980)
- February 24 - Kurt Tank, German aeronautical engineer (d. 1983)
- February 28 - Hugh O'Flaherty, Irish Catholic priest (d. 1963)
- March 11 - Dorothy Gish, American actress (d. 1968)

April to June


- April 1 - William James Sidis, American mathematician (d. 1944)
- April 3 - George Jessel, American comedian (d. 1981)
- April 4 - Agnes Ayres, American actress (d. 1940)
- April 6 - Jeanne Hébuterne, French painter (d. 1920)
- April 26 - Vicente Aleixandre, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)
- April 26 - John Grierson, Scottish documentary filmmaker (d. 1972)
- May 3 - Golda Meir, Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1978)
- May 15 - Arletty, French model and actress (d. 1992)
- May 17 - Alfred Joseph Casson, Canadian painter (d. 1992)
- May 21 - Armand Hammer, American entrepreneur and art collector (d. 1990)
- May 23 - Scott O'Dell, American author (d. 1989)
- May 31 - Dr. Norman Vincent Peale, American clergyman (d. 1993)
- June 4 - Harry Crosby, American publisher and poet (d. 1929)
- June 5 - Federico García Lorca, Spanish poet (d. 1936)
- June 17 - M. C. Escher, Dutch artist (d. 1972)
- June 22 - Erich Maria Remarque, German writer (d. 1970)

July to September


- July 2 - Gen Paul, French artist (d. 1975)
- July 3 - Donald Healey, English motor engineer and race car driver (d. 1988)
- July 6 - Hanns Eisler, German composer (d. 1962)
- July 17 - Berenice Abbott, American photographer (d. 1991)
- July 22 - Stephen Vincent Benet, American writer (d. 1943)
- July 22 - Alexander Calder, American artist (d. 1976)
- July 29 - Isidor Isaac Rabi, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968)
- July 30 - Henry Moore, English sculptor (d. 1986)
- August 26 - Peggy Guggenheim, American art collector (d. 1979)
- August 29 - Preston Sturges, American director and writer (d. 1959)
- September 13 - Roger Désormière, French conductor (d. 1963)
- September 22 - Katherine Alexander, American actress (d. 1981)
- September 24 - Howard Walter Florey, Australian-born pharmacologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1968)
- September 25 - Robert Brackman American artist (d. 1980)
- September 26 - George Gershwin, American composer (d. 1937)
- September 30 - Renée Adorée, French actress (d. 1933)
- September 30 - Princess Charlotte of Monaco (d. 1977)

October to December


- October 10 - Lilly Daché, French milliner (d. 1989)
- October 10 - Marie Pierre Koenig, French general and politician (d. 1970)
- October 15 - Boughera El Ouafi, Algerian athlete (d. 1959)
- October 25 - Klaus Baudelaire, brother to Violet Baudelaire (d. 1914)
- November 8 - Marie Prevost, Canadian actress (d. 1937)
- November 12 - Leon Štukelj, Slovene gymnast, Olympic gold medalist and athlete (d. 1999)
- November 18 - Joris Ivens, Dutch director (d. 1989)
- November 19 - Arthur R. von Hippel, German-born physicist (d. 2003)
- November 21 - René Magritte, Belgian artist (d. 1967)
- November 26 - Karl Ziegler, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- November 29 - C. S. Lewis, British author (d. 1963)
- November 30 - Firpo Marberry, baseball pitcher (d. 1976)
- December 19 - Zheng Zhenduo, Chinese author,translator (d. 1958)
- December 20 - Irene Dunne, American actress (d. 1990)
- December 24 - Baby Dodds, American jazz musician (d. 1959)

Unknown dates


- Hisamuddin Alam Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah, King of Malaysia (d. 1960)

Deaths


- January 14 - Lewis Carroll, British writer, mathematician (b. 1832)
- January 18 - Henry George Lidell, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford (b. 1811)
- March 1 - George Bruce Malleson, Indian officer and author (b. 1825)
- March 15 - Henry Bessemer, British engineer and inventor (b. 1813)
- March 16 - Aubrey Beardsley, British artist (b. 1872)
- March 18 - Matilda Joslyn Gage, American feminist (b. 1826)
- April 15 - Kepa Te Rangihiwinui, Maori military leader
- April 18 - Gustave Moreau, French painter (b. 1826)
- May 19 - William Ewart Gladstone, British prime minister

December 2

December 2 is the 336th day (337th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 29 days remaining.

Events


- 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens.
- 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire.
- 1804 - At Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte is crowned as the first Emperor of France in a thousand years.
- 1805 - Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Austerlitz - French troops under Napoleon defeat a joint Russo-Austrian force.
- 1823 - Monroe Doctrine: US President James Monroe delivers a speech establishing American neutrality in future European conflicts.
- 1845 - Manifest Destiny: US President James K. Polk announces to Congress that the United States should aggressively expand into the West.
- 1848 - Franz Josef I becomes Emperor of Austria.
- 1851 - Newly-elected French President Charles Louis Bonaparte overthrows the Second Republic.
- 1852 - Napoleon III becomes Emperor of France.
- 1859 - Militant abolitionist leader John Brown is hanged for his October 16th raid on Harper's Ferry.
- 1867 - In a New York City theater, British author Charles Dickens gives his first public reading in the United States.
- 1899 - Philippine-American War: The Battle of Tirad Pass, termed "The Filipino Thermopylae", is fought.
- 1927 - Following 19 years of Ford Model T production, the Ford Motor Company unveils the Ford Model A as its new automobile.
- 1930 - Great Depression: US President Herbert Hoover goes before Congress and asks for a US$150 million public works program to help generate jobs and stimulate the economy.
- 1939 - New York City's La Guardia Airport opens.
- 1942 - Manhattan Project: A team led by Enrico Fermi initiate the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
- 1946 - British Government invited four Indian leaders, Nehru, Baldev Singh, Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan to obtain the participation of all parties in the Constituent Assembly.
- 1947 - Jerusalem Riots of 1947: Riots break out in Jerusalem in response to the approval of the 1947 UN Partition Plan.
- 1954 - Red Scare: The United States Senate votes 65 to 22 to condemn Joseph McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute."
- 1961 - In a nationally-broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist-Leninist and that Cuba is going to adopt Communism.
- 1962 - Vietnam War: After a trip to Vietnam at the request of US President John F. Kennedy, US Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield becomes the first American official to not make an optimistic public comment on the war's progress.
- 1970 - The United States Environmental Protection Agency begins operations.
- 1971 - Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, and Umm Al Quwain form the United Arab Emirates.
- 1972 - Gough Whitlam becomes the first Australian Labor Party Prime Minister of Australia for 23 years.
- 1975 - Pathet Lao seizes power in Laos, and establishes the Lao People's Democratic Republic.
- 1980 - Four U.S. nuns and churchwomen, Ita Ford, Maura Clarke, Jean Donovan, and Dorothy Kazel, are murdered by a death squad in El Salvador.
- 1982 - At the University of Utah, Barney Clark, becomes the first person to receive a permanent artificial heart.
- 1988 - Benazir Bhutto is sworn in as Prime Minister of Pakistan, becoming the first woman to head the government of an Islam-dominated state.
- 1990 - A coalition led by Chancellor Helmut Kohl wins the first free all-German elections since 1932.
- 1991 - Apple release the first version of QuickTime.
- 1993 - Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar is shot and killed in Medellín.
- 1993 - Space Shuttle program: STS-61 - NASA launches the Space Shuttle Endeavour on a mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope.
- 1999 - The United Kingdom devolves political power in Northern Ireland to the Northern Ireland Executive.
- 2000 - The Smashing Pumpkins perform for the last time at The Metro in Chicago.
- 2001 - Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
- 2004 - Brian Williams succeeds Tom Brokaw as host of NBC Nightly News.
- 2005 - Microsoft's Xbox 360 is launched in Europe.
- 2005 - Van Tuong Nguyen is executed in Singapore for drug trafficking.
- 2005 - Kenneth Boyd becomes the 1,000th person to be executed in the United States since capital punishment was reinstated in 1976.

Births


- 1578 - Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and music theorist (d. 1640)
- 1694 - William Shirley, Colonial Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1771)
- 1703 - Ferdinand Konscak, Croatian explorer (d. 1759)
- 1710 - Bertinazzi, Italian actor and writer (d. 1783)
- 1738 - Richard Montgomery, Irish-born American soldier (d. 1775)
- 1760 - John Breckinridge, American politician (d. 1806)
- 1817 - Heinrich von Sybel, German historian (d. 1895)
- 1825 - Emperor Pedro II of Brazil (d. 1891)
- 1846 - Pierre Marie René Ernest Waldeck-Rousseau, French statesman (d. 1904)
- 1859 - Georges Seurat, French painter and founder of Neoimpressionism (d. 1891)
- 1863 - Charles Ringling, American circus owner (d. 1926)
- 1885 - George Richards Minot, American physician and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)
- 1886 - Harry Burleigh, American composer (d. 1949)
- 1891 - Otto Dix, German painter and graphic artist (d. 1969)
- 1892 - Leo Ornstein, Russian-born American composer and pianist (d. 2002)
- 1895 - Harriet Cohen, British pianist (d. 1967)
- 1898 - Indra Lal Roy, Indian pilot (d. 1918)
- 1899 - John Barbirolli, British conductor (d. 1970)
- 1901 - Raimundo Orsi, Argentinian/Italian international footballer and World Cup winner (d. 1986)
- 1906 - Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-born American Columbia Records engineer (d. 1977)
- 1914 - Adolph Green, American composer (d. 2002)
- 1914 - Ray Walston, American actor (d. 2001)
- 1923 - Maria Callas, American soprano (d. 1977)
- 1924 - Alexander M. Haig, Jr., American politician
- 1925 - Julie Harris, American actress
- 1930 - Gary Becker, American economist and Nobel Prize laureate
- 1931 - Edwin Meese, American politician
- 1933 - Michael Larrabee, American athlete and Olympic gold medalist (d. 2003)
- 1933 - K.Veeramani, Indian leader of Dravidar Kazhagam
- 1934 - Andre Rodgers, American baseball player (d. 2004)
- 1935 - David Hackett Fischer, American historian
- 1939 - Yael Dayan, Palestinian-born Israeli writer and politician
- 1939 - Harry Reid, American politician
- 1943 - Wayne Allard, American politician
- 1944 - Botho Strauß, German author
- 1945 - Penelope Spheeris, American film director
- 1946 - Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer (d. 1997)
- 1946 - John Banks, New Zealand politician
- 1950 - Bob Kevoian, Co-Host, Bob %26 Tom Show
- 1952 - Michael McDonald, American musician
- 1954 - Dan Butler, American actor
- 1954 - Stone Phillips, American television journalist
- 1957 - Dagfinn Høybråten, Norwegian politician
- 1960 - Rick Savage, British bassist (Def Leppard)
- 1966 - Jinsei Shinzaki, Japanese professional wrestler
- 1968 - Lucy Liu, American actress
- 1968 - Nate Mendel, American bassist (Foo Fighters)
- 1968 - Chris Wedge, American animator
- 1970 - Sarah Silverman, American comedian
- 1973 - Monica Seles, Yugoslav-born American tennis player
- 1973 - Jan Ullrich, German cyclist
- 1978 - Nelly Furtado, Canadian singer and songwriter
- 1979 - Yvonne Catterfeld, German singer and actress
- 1981 - Britney Spears, American singer
- 1982 - Matt Ware, American football player

Deaths


- 1348 - Emperor Hanazono of Japan (b. 1297)
- 1381 - John of Ruysbroeck, Flemish mystic
- 1463 - Archduke Albert VI of Austria (b. 1418)
- 1469 - Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, ruler of Florence (b. 1416)
- 1515 - Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general and statesman (b. 1453)
- 1547 - Hernán Cortés, Spanish explorer and conqueror (b. 1485)
- 1552 - Francis Xavier, Spanish Catholic missionary (b. 1506)
- 1594 - Gerardus Mercator, Flemish cartographer (b. 1512)
- 1665 - Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, French socialite (b. 1588)
- 1694 - Pierre Paul Puget, French artist (b. 1622)
- 1719 - Pasquier Quesnel, French Jansenist theologian (b. 1634)
- 1723 - Philip II, Duke of Orléans, regent of France (b. 1674)
- 1726 - Samuel Penhallow, English-born American colonist and historian (b. 1665)
- 1747 - Vincent Bourne, English classical scholar (b. 1695)
- 1748 - Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician (b. 1662)
- 1774 - Johann Friedrich Agricola, German composer and organist (b. 1720)
- 1814 - Marquis de Sade, French writer (b. 1740)
- 1849 - Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, Queen of William IV of the United Kingdom (b. 1792)
- 1859 - John Brown, American abolitionist (hanged) (b. 1800)
- 1860 - Alfred Bunn, British theatrical manager (b. 1796)
- 1892 - Jay Gould, American entrepreneur (b. 1836)
- 1918 - Edmond Rostand, French poet and dramatist (b. 1868)
- 1931 - Vincent d'Indy, French composer (b. 1851)
- 1943 - Nordahl Grieg - Norwegian author and journalist (b. 1902)
- 1944 - Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist (b. 1874)
- 1944 - Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Italian founder of Futurism (b. 1876)
- 1950 - Dinu Lipatti, Romanian pianist (b. 1917)
- 1957 - Harrison Ford, American actor (b. 1884)
- 1957 - Manfred Sakel, Polish psychiatrist (b. 1902)
- 1963 - Thomas J. Hicks, British-born American marathon runner and Olympic gold medalist (b. 1875)
- 1963 - Sabu Dastagir, Indian-born American actor (b. 1924)
- 1966 - Giles Cooper, Irish-born playwright (b.1918)
- 1969 - Kliment Yefremovich Voroshilov, Russian politician (b. 1881)
- 1974 - Max Weber, Swiss Federal Councilor (b. 1897)
- 1976 - Danny Murtaugh, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917)
- 1980 - Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1905)
- 1980 - Romain Gary, Russian-born French writer (b. 1914)
- 1982 - Marty Feldman, British comedian, writer and actor (b. 1933)
- 1983 - Fifi d'Orsay, Canadian actress (b. 1904)
- 1985 - Aniello Dellacroce, American gangster (b. 1914)
- 1985 - Philip Larkin, English poet, novelist and jazz critic (b. 1922)
- 1986 - Desi Arnaz, Cuban-born actor, musician, band leader, and composer (b. 1917)
- 1987 - Luis Federico Leloir, French-born chemist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
- 1987 - Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, Russian physicist (b. 1914)
- 1988 - Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer and lyricist (Quartetto Cetra)
- 1990 - Aaron Copland, American composer (b. 1900)
- 1993 - Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug dealer (b. 1949)
- 1995 - Robertson Davies, Canadian novelist (b. 1913)
- 1997 - Shirley Crabtree (Big Daddy), British professional wrestler (b. 1930)
- 2002 - Ivan Illich, Austrian priest and philosopher (b. 1926)
- 2002 - Arno Peters, German historian (b. 1916)
- 2003 - Alan Davidson, British food writer (b. 1924)
- 2004 - Mona Van Duyn, American poet (b. 1921)
- 2004 - Alicia Markova, British ballerina (b. 1910)
- 2005 - Van Tuong Nguyen, Australian drug smuggler (hanged) (b. 1980)
- 2005 - Kenneth Lee Boyd, American convicted murderer, 1,000th person to be executed in the U.S. since the re-introduction of capital punishment (b. 1948)

Holidays and observances


- R.C. Saints - St Bibiana
- Laos - National Day
- United Arab Emirates - National Day (independence from Britain, 1971)

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/2 BBC: On This Day] ---- December 1 - December 3 - November 2 - January 2 — listing of all days ko:12월 2일 ms:2 Disember ja:12月2日 simple:December 2 th:2 ธันวาคม

Aeronautics

Aeronautics is the science and practice of aircraft navigation. It is also used to refer to the engineering discipline related to the design, construction, and operation of aircraft. In relation to astronautics, aeronautics refers specifically to vehicles designed for travel within the atmosphere, while astronautics refers specifically to vehicles designed for travel outside of the atmosphere. Aeronautics is sometimes divided into various disciplines. Aerostation is the design, construction, and operation of lighter-than-air vehicles such as balloons. Aviation is the design, construction, and operation of heavier-than-air vehicles such as airplanes and helicopters. In common usage however, the term aviation is also used as a synonym for aeronautics, or sometimes even to refer to aeronautics and astronautics as a whole.

Early Aeronautics

One of the earliest scientists to study aeronautics was Leonardo DaVinci. DaVinci studied the flight of birds in developing engineering schematics for some of the earliest flying machines in the late fifteenth century AD.

Modern Aeronautics

Modern aeronautics is primarily conducted by independent corporations and universities. There are also a number of government agencies that study aeronautics, including NASA in the United States and the European Space Agency in Europe.

See also


- Aerostation
- Aviation
- Aircraft
- Aerospace Engineering
- Aerostat
- Astronautics
- Spacecraft
- Mechanics of fluids
- Aerodynamics
- Hydrodynamics
- Hydrostatics
- Aeronautical abbreviations Category:Transportation Category:Aeronautics

Civil servant

A civil servant or public servant is a civilian career public sector employee working for a government department or agency. Further workers in non-departmental public bodies may also be classed as civil servants for the purpose of producing statistics. Examples in this category include some employees of so-called QUANGOs. Collectively they form a nation's Civil Service or Public Service. In the British system of Civil Service, civil servants are career employees recruited and promoted on the basis of their administrative skill and technical expertise, and as such do not include, nor are appointed by, elected officials or their political advisors. Civil servants are expected to be politically neutral, and may be prohibited from taking part in political campaigns. However, the extent of this political neutrality in practice has sometimes been questioned. In the United States, the Civil Service is defined as "all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services." (United States Code Title 5 § 2101). In the early 19th century it was based on the so-called spoils system, in which all bureaucrats were dependent on elected politicians. This was changed by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 and today U.S. civil servants are appointed and recruited based on merit, although certain civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies may also be filled by political appointees. The U.S. Civil Service includes the Competitive service, and the Excepted service. The majority of civil service appointments in the U.S. are made under the Competitive Service, but certain categories in the Diplomatic Service, the FBI, and other National Security positions are made under the Excepted Service. (U.S. Code Title V) Other countries tend to use systems which vary between these two extremes. For example, in France all civil servants are career officials as in Britain, although ministers have a greater ability to select the occupants of senior posts on grounds of political sympathy (and consequently senior officers have the opportunity for lengthy secondments to the private sector when they are seen as unsuitable to work with the party in office); while Germany makes a clear distinction, as in the USA, between political and official posts (though the threshold is placed rather higher). Certain public sector workers may not be classified as civil servants. In most countries, members of the armed forces, for example, are not considered civil servants. In the U.K., employees of the National Health Service and of Local Government Authorities are not civil servants. The British civil service was at its largest in 1976 with approximately three-quarters of a million servants employed. By April 1999 this number had fallen to a record low of 459,600 due to privatization, outsourcing and cutbacks. The number has again risen somewhat since then. The archetypal British civil servant was famously caricatured in the 1970s and 80s BBC comedy Yes, Minister.

History

No state of any extent can be ruled without a bureaucracy, but organisations of any size have been few until the modern era. Administrative institutions usually grow out of the personal servants of high officials, as in the Roman Empire. This developed a complex administrative structure, which is outlined in the Notitia Dignitatum and the work of John Lydus, but as far as we know appointments to it were made entirely by inheritance or patronage and not on merit, and it was also possible for officers to employ other people to carry out their official tasks but continue to draw their salary themselves. There are obvious parallels here with the early bureaucratic structures in modern states, such as the Office of Works or the Navy in 18th-century England, where again appointments depended on patronage and were often bought and sold. One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service is the Chinese bureaucracy which during the Tang dynasty relied decreasingly on aristocratic recommendations and more and more upon promotion based on written examinations. The Chinese civil service became known to Europe in the mid-18th century and it is believed to have influenced the creation of civil services in Europe. Ironically, the first European civil service was not set up in Europe, but rather in India by the East India Company. In order to prevent corruption and favouritism, promotions within the company were based on examinations. The system then spread to the United Kingdom in 1854, and to the United States with the Pendleton Civil Service Act.

See also


- American civil service
- Bangladesh Civil Service
- British Civil Service
- French Civil Service
- Hong Kong Civil Service
- Indian Civil Service
- Civil service of the Republic of Ireland
- New Zealand public service
  - New Zealand public service departments
- Singapore Civil Service
- German civil servant ("Beamter")
- Civil service of the People's Republic of China Note: in some countries such as Australia, New Zealand and Niue, the name used in practice is the public service. ! ja:公務員

NASA

] The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which was established in 1958, is the agency responsible for the public space program of the United States of America. It is also responsible for long-term civilian and military aerospace research.

Vision and mission

NASA's vision is "to improve life here, extend life to there, and to find life beyond." Its mission is "to understand and protect our home planet; to explore the Universe and search for life; and to inspire the next generation of explorers."

History

Space Race

:For additional background, please see the Space Race article Space Race launch of Redstone rocket and NASA's Mercury 3 capsule Freedom 7 with Alan Shepard Jr. on the United States' first human flight into sub-orbital space. (Atlas rockets were used to launch Mercury's orbital missions.)]] Following the Soviet space program's launch of the world's first man-made satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to U.S. security and technological leadership, urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. Several months of debate produced agreement that a new federal agency was needed to conduct all nonmilitary activity in space. On July 29, 1958, President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA consisted mainly of the four laboratories and some 8,000 employees of the government's 46-year-old research agency for aeronautics, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), though the probably most important contribution actually had its roots in the German rocket program led by Wernher von Braun, who is today regarded as the father of the United States space program. NASA's early programs were research into human spaceflight, and were conducted under the pressure of the competition between the USA and the USSR (the Space Race) that existed during the Cold War. The Mercury program, initiated in 1958, started NASA down the path of human space exploration with missions designed to discover simply if man could survive in space. Representatives from the U.S. Army (M.L. Raines, LTC, USA), Navy (P.L. Havenstein, CDR, USN) and Air Force (K.G. Lindell, COL, USAF) were selected/requested to provide assistance to the NASA Space Task Group through coordination with the existing U.S. military research and defense contracting infrastructure, and technical assistance resulting from experimental aircraft (and the associated military test pilot pool) development in the 1950s. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan B. Shepard Jr. became the first American in space when he piloted Freedom 7 on a 15-minute suborbital flight. John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on February 20, 1962 during the 5-hour flight of Friendship 7. Once the Mercury project proved that human spaceflight was possible, project Gemini was launched to conduct experiments and work out issues relating to a moon mission. The first Gemini flight with astronauts on board, Gemini III, was flown by Virgil "Gus" Grissom and John W. Young on March 23, 1965. Nine other missions followed, showing that long-duration human space flight was possible, proving that rendezvous and docking with another vehicle in space was possible, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans.

Apollo program

Following the success of the Mercury and Gemini programs, the Apollo program was launched to try to do interesting work in space and possibly put men around (but not on) the Moon. The direction of the Apollo program was radically altered following President John F. Kennedy's announcement on May 25, 1961 that the United States should commit itself to "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" by 1970. Thus Apollo became a program to land men on the Moon. The Gemini program was started shortly thereafter to provide an interim spacecraft to prove techniques needed for the now much more complicated Apollo missions. Gemini program.]] After eight years of preliminary missions, including NASA's first loss of astronauts with the Apollo 1 launch pad fire, and the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon (Apollo 8) at the end of 1968, the Apollo program achieved its goals with Apollo 11 which landed Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the moon's surface on July 20, 1969 and returned them to Earth safely on July 24. Armstrong's first words upon stepping out of the Eagle lander captured the momentousness of the occasion: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Twelve men would set foot on the Moon by the end of the Apollo program in December 1972. NASA had won the moon race, and in some senses this left it without direction, or at the very least without the public attention and interest that was necessary to guarantee large budgets from Congress. After President Lyndon Johnson left office, NASA lost its main political supporter, and rocket scientist Wernher von Braun was moved to a position lobbying in Washington. Plans for ambitious follow-on projects to construct a space station, establish a lunar base and launch a human mission to Mars by 1990 were proposed but with the end to procurement of Saturn and Apollo hardware, there was no capability to support these. The near-disaster of Apollo 13, where an oxygen tank explosion nearly doomed all three astronauts, helped to recapture national attention and concern. Although missions up to Apollo 20 were planned, Apollo 17 was the last mission to fly under the Apollo banner. The program ended because of budget cuts (in part due to the Vietnam War) and the desire to develop a reusable space vehicle.

Other early missions

Although the vast majority of NASA's budget has been spent on human spaceflight, there have been many robotic missions instigated by the space agency. In 1962 the Mariner 2 mission was launched and became the first spacecraft to make a flyby of another planet – in this case Venus. The Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter missions were essential to assessing lunar conditions before attempting Apollo landings with humans on board. Later, the two Viking probes landed on the surface of Mars and sent color images back to Earth, but perhaps more impressive were the Pioneer and particularly Voyager missions that visited Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune sending back scientific information and color images. Having lost the moon race, the Soviet Union had, along with the USA, changed its approach. On July 17, 1975 an Apollo craft (finding a new use after the cancelling of planned lunar flights) was docked to the Soviet Soyuz 19 spacecraft, in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Although the Cold War would last many more years, this was a critical point in NASA's history and much of the international co-operation in space exploration that exists today has its genesis with this mission. America's first space station, Skylab, occupied NASA from the end of Apollo until the late 1970s.

Shuttle era

Skylab 1981 ]] The space shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned to be a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttles were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia did so on April 12, 1981. The shuttle was not all good news for NASA – flights were much more expensive than initially projected, and even after the 1986