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Huron

Huron

:This article is about the First Nations people, the Wyandot, also known as the Huron. For other uses, see Huron (disambiguation). The Wyandot or Wendat (also called the Huron) are a First Nations people originally from modern day Southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada. The early French explorers called the members of a four-tribe confederacy the Huron. This name may have been applied to the Wyandot people either from the French huron (peasant), because the Huron were an agricultural people, growing corn and sunflowers; or, according to Jesuit Father Gabriel Lalemant, the name referred to a hure, the rough-haired head of wild boars. The Wendat homelands, near Georgian Bay, were known as Wendake. The French explorer Jacques Cartier first encountered the Wendat village of Stadacona, and their chief Donnacona (who died in France), at the present-day site of Quebec City in 1535. Later, the French, in particular members of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits), learned their language and examined their social organization. The Huron were divided into various "nations," comprising the Huron Confederacy. These nations were four to six in number, and included the Arendarhonon, the Tahontaenrat, the Attigneenongnahac, the Attignawantan, of whom the Ataronchronon seem to have been a subdivision. (The Hurons were not the only Iroquoian people in the area to be organized into confederacies. The Petun nation, the tribes who lived around Georgian Bay in southern-central Ontario, were further divided into Bear, Cord, Deer, and Rock tribes. To the south, on southern Lake Huron and northern Lake Erie, were the Attiwandaronk or Neutral Indian, who were less well known to the French. And of course, the Iroquois themselves were a league of five (later six) nations.) Before the French arrived, the Hurons were already in conflict with the Iroquois to the south. Once the European powers became involved, this conflict intensified significantly. The French allied with the Huron, because they were the most advanced trading nation at the time. The Iroquois tended to be allies of the English, who took advantage of their hatred of the Hurons and their new French allies. The introduction of European weapons increased the severity of the war, and by about 1650 the Iroquois had almost completely destroyed the Huron tribes. The Jesuit mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, near modern Midland, Ontario, was one focus of Iroquois attacks; it was destroyed in 1648 and many of the Jesuit missionaries were killed (see Canadian Martyrs). After a bitter winter on Christian Island, Ontario, some Huron-Wendat relocated near Quebec City and settled at Wendake, Quebec. The western Hurons eventually re-established themselves in the area of Ohio and southern Michigan. It is this group that became commonly known to English speakers as "Wyandots" (notably in James Fenimore Cooper's novel Wyandotte, published in 1843). In the late 18th century, the Wyandots obtained a position of symbolic importance as the "uncles", or senior members, of the Wabash Confederacy, who waged war against the United States in the 1790s. Some Wyandot of the Wyandot Nation of Anderdon still live in southern Ontario and Michigan. However, most of the surviving people were displaced through Indian Removal in the early 19th century, and today a large population of Wyandot (over 4,000) can be found in Kansas and Oklahoma. The approximately 3,000 Huron-Wendat in Quebec are primarily Catholic and have French as their first language, although there are currently efforts afoot to promote the use and study of the Wendat language. For many decades, a leading source of income for the Huron-Wendat of Quebec has been selling pottery and other locally produced crafts. In 1999, representatives the far-flung Wendat bands of Quebec, Kansas, Oklahoma and Michigan gathered at their historic homeland in Midland, Ontario, and formally re-established the Wendat Confederacy. The historian Georges Sioui is a Wendat from a family active in the local politics of Wendake; Bruce Trigger is a noted scholar in Huron-Wendat studies and has been adopted as an honorary Wendat.

Huron society in the 17th century

The Huron lived in villages spanning from one to ten acres (40,000 m²), some of which were fortified in defense against Iroquois attack. They practised agriculture and lived in long houses similar to the Iroqouis. Villages were abandoned every few decades as the nearby forest grew thin and the soil became less fertile. The Wyandot were able to maintain stores and provisions, and were comparatively wealthy. They engaged in extensive trade with neighboring tribes, and even with tribes from as far south as the lower Mississippi. They traded for tobacco with their southern neighbors, the Attiwandaron, or the Neutral Indian, so-called because they remained neutral in the conflict between Huron and Iroquois. This tobacco they then traded to the French. They forcibly prevented the Neutrals from establishing direct trade with the French, and as such were able to command huge profits as middlemen. Hurons practiced monogamous marriage, but it was a loose form of matrimony that could be ended by divorce by either party at any time. Marriage also did not confer any degree of sexual exclusivity. Indeed, sexual restraints were few and far between. Attractive young Huron women could accumulate considerable wealth bartering sexual favors. The Wyandots were animists who believed spirits were present in just about everything, animate or inanimate. They had a number of rituals, including the torture of captives, relating to the worship of a sun deity. They were reported as holding an annual marriage ceremony, in which two young girls of the tribe would wed the tribe's fishing nets, in the hopes that this would encourage the nets to perform their tasks more effectively.

Wendat communities

Each modern Wendat community is a self-governing band:
- Huron-Wendat Nation just outside Quebec City, with some 3,000 members
- Wyandot Nation of Anderdon in southern Ontario and Michigan, with headquarters in Trenton, Michigan and perhaps 800 members
- Wyandot Nation of Kansas, with headquarters in Kansas City, Kansas, with perhaps 400 members
- Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma in Wyandotte, Oklahoma, with between 3,000 and 4,000 members

Sources

- [http://www.wyandot.org/wendat.htm Wendat Dialects and the Development of the Huron Alliance]
- Bruce G. Trigger. 1969. The Huron: Farmers of the North. Holt, Rinehart and Winston , USA. ISBN 03-079550-8
- Bruce G. Trigger. 1987. The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660. Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0773506276 Category:Native American tribes Category:First Nations in Ontario Category:First Nations in Quebec

Huron (disambiguation)

Places

Huron is the name of several places in the United States of America:

Other Uses

- The name Huron is used for the Wyandot tribe of American Indians
- The Wyandot speak the Huron language
- A band of Potawatomi American Indians, the Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi (based in Calhoun County, Michigan), are also known as the Huron Potawatomi
- The USS Huron (CA-9) is a US Navy armored cruiser
- The C-12 Huron aircraft
- The Hurón (Galictis vittata) is a South American species of mustelid

First Nations

] First Nations is a term for ethnicity used in Canada that is meant to replace the use of the word "Indian". It refers to the Indigenous peoples of North America located in what is now Canada, and their descendants, who are not Inuit or Métis. The proper terms to refer to the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis collectively is Aboriginal peoples in Canada or First peoples or Indigenous peoples, tribes, or nations. A national representative body of the "First Nations" people in Canada is the Assembly of First Nations. First Nations people have been referred to as Indians, Native Americans, Native Canadians, Aboriginal Americans, Amerindians, and Aboriginals. They are known officially by the Government of Canada as registered Indians if they are entitled to benefits under the Indian Act. Under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the document many people refer to as the "Indian Magna Carta", the Crown refers to the Indigenous people in British territory as "Tribes or Nations". A more common term is status Indian (from treaty status), with non-status Indian designating a member of a First Nation who is not entitled to benefits. The use of the word "Indian" in day-to-day language is erratic in Canada, with some seeing the term as offensive while others prefer it to alternate terminology such as "Aboriginal". All members of First Nations who are entitled to benefits are entered in the Indian Register, which serves as the official record of members of First Nations. Administration of the Indian Act and Indian Register is carried out by the federal government's Department of Indian and Northern Affairs.

"Band" , "First Nation" and "Indigenous peoples, tribes, or nations"

A First Nation is a legally undefined term that came into common usage in the 1970s to replace the term "Indian band". A band is defined as "a body of Indians for whose collective use and benefit lands have been set apart or money is held by the Crown, or declared to be a band for the purposes of the Indian Act ^{[http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/pub/wf/trmrslt_e.asp?term=10]}." There are currently over 600 First Nations or bands in Canada. Roughly half of these are located in the provinces of Ontario or British Columbia. See also: List of First Nations. First Nations are headquartered on Indian reserves that have been created by treaties, such as Treaty 7. Some reserves are located within a city, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, as some First Nations were ceded by treaty more than one reserve. Not all of a First Nations ethnic group such as the Cree or Mi'kmaq live on a single reserve. For example, the Moravian of the Thames First Nation is a band of the Munsee (Lenape) ethnic group for whom the Moravian No. 47 reserve has been designated. However, they do not constitute all those of Munsee ethnicity in Canada — other Munsee groups live on the Munsee-Delaware Nation and Six Nations of the Grand River reserves. There is some controversy over the use of the term "First Nations" to either self-describe Indigenous peoples within Canada, or for non-indigenous peoples to refer to Indigenous peoples in this fashion. The reason for this controversy is that under international law covenants, "First Nations" per se, have no standing in international law. Indigenous peoples or nations, however, do. The Canadian government, and many Indigenous peoples within Canada, and many non-indigenous people use this term, because they are attempting to be respectful of the right of Indigenous people to use whichever word that they want to describe themselves. However, a careful distinction is often made about the use of the term "First Nations". In general, those Indigenous peoples within Canada who describe themselves as "First Nations" do not believe or hold with the concept of sovereignty of their Indigenous peoples nations, while those who do use the term, or insist upon the term "Indigenous peoples" are sovereignists. There are also Indigenous people in Canada who use the term "First Nation" for any tribal and or nomadic ethnic group deprived of self-determination as a political recognition of colonialization. These groups work internationally on minority rights and self-determination.

Geographic distribution

Each of these main groups contain many tribes, each of whom have adapted to their environments which are all slightly different. The four main groups can be subdivided by the following geographic areas:
- Pacific Coast and Mountains
- Plains
- Northeast Woodlands
- Atlantic Coastal Region
- St. Lawrence River Valley
- Canadian Arctic

Pacific coast and mountains

These people traditionally ate fish, primarily salmon and silvery eulachon from the ocean, as well as fish from lakes and rivers, and roots and berries. Recently discovered clam gardens suggest that they were not limited only to hunting and gathering.'They made use of the forests of the Pacific to build dug-out canoes, and houses made of evenly-split planks of wood. They used tools made of stone and wood. The native peoples of the Pacific coast also made totem poles, a trait attributed to other tribes as well. In 2000 an land claim was settled between the Nisga'a people of British Columbia and the provincial government, resulting in the transfer of over 2,000 square kilometres of land to the Nisga'a. Major ethnicities include the:
- Coast Salish
- Cowichan
- Somena
- Musqueam
- Nanaimo
- Nuxálk (Bella Coola)
- Shishalh (Sechelt)
- Sliammon (Mainland Comox)
- Snuneymuxw (Nanaimo)
- Songhees (Songish)
- Squamish
- Stó:lō
- Katzie
- Kwantlen
- Tsawwassen
- T'Souke (Sooke)
- Interior Salish
- Nlaka'pamux First Nation (Thompson Nation)
- Okanagan
- Secwepemc (Shuswap)
- St'at'imc people (Lillooet) people
- Tsimshian
- Gitksan
- Nisga'a
- Athapaskan
- Dakelh (Carrier)
- Dene-thah (Slavey)
- Tsilhoqot'in (Chilcotin)
- Wet'suwet'en
- Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka)
- Tla-o-qui-aht (Clayoquot)
- Hesquiat
- Mowachaht-Muchalaht
- Ktunaxa (Kootenay)
- Haida
- Kwakwala (Kwakiutl) - Oweekyala speaking groups
- (Koskimo
- Kwakwaka'wakw
- Haisla
- Heiltsuk
- Laich-kwil-taich (Euclataws/Yuculta aka Southern Kwakiutl)
- Weewaikai (Cape Mudge)
- Wewaykum (Campbell River)
- Tlingit

Plains

These people traditionally used tipis covered with skins as their homes. Their main sustenance was the buffalo, which they used as food, as well as for all their garments. The leaders of some Plains tribes wore large headdresses made of feathers, something which is wrongfully attributed by some to all First Nations peoples. The Tsuu T'ina Nation are a notable First Nation in Alberta as their territory now borders the city of Calgary. Major ethnicies include the:
- Anishinaabe
- Plains-Ojibwa
- Blackfoot
- Kainai (Blood)
- North Peigan
- Siksika
- Dene
- Chipewyan
- Nakoda
- Assiniboine
- Stoney
- Okanagan
- Plains-Cree
- Tasttine (Beaver)
- Tsuu T'ina (Sarcee)

Northeast woodlands

Major ethnicies include the:
- Anishinaabe
- Ojibwa
- Mississaugas
- Ottawa (Odawa)
- Saulteaux
- Cree
- Innu (Montagnais and Naskapi)

Atlantic coastal region

- Beothuk (extinct)
- Innu (Labrador)
- Maliseet
- Mi'kmaq (Micmac)
- Passamaquoddy

St. Lawrence River Valley

The largest First Nations group near the St. Lawrence waterway are the Iroquois. This area also includes the Wyandot (formerly referred to as the Huron) peoples of central Ontario, and the League of Five Nations who had lived in the United States, south of Lake Ontario. Major ethnicities include the:
- Anishinaabe
- Algonquin
- Haudenosaunee (Iroquois)
- Cayuga (Guyohkohnyo)
- Mohawk

Quebec

:This article describes the Canadian province. For other usages, see Quebec (disambiguation). Quebec (pronounced or ) (French: Québec, pronounced ) is the largest province in Canada and the second most populous, after Ontario, with a population of 7,598,100 (Statistics Canada, July 2005). This represents about 24% of the Canadian population. Quebec's official language is French. Quebec is the only Canadian province where English is a minority language (at the provincial level), and it is one of only two provinces – in addition to the federal government – where French is an official language (the other, per the Constitution Act, 1982, is New Brunswick; Manitoba enjoys limited official bilingualism). The capital is Quebec City (simply referred to as "Québec" in French) and the largest city is Montréal. A resident of Quebec is called a Quebecer (also spelled "Quebecker"), and in French, un(e) Québécois(e), the latter being used in English as well sometimes.

Geography

The most populated region is the St. Lawrence River Valley in the south, where the capital, Quebec City, and the largest city, Montreal, are situated. North of Montréal are the Laurentians, a range of ancient mountains, and to the east are the Appalachian Mountains which extends into the Eastern Townships and Gaspésie regions. The Gaspé Peninsula juts into the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the east. The extreme north of the province, now called Nunavik, is subarctic or arctic and is home to part of the Inuit nation. The main hydro-electric projects are found on the La Grande Rivière, in the James Bay region. 10 Largest Municipalities by population

History

Discovery and exploration

The name Quebec, which comes from an Algonquin word meaning "strait" or "narrowing", originally meant the narrowing of the St. Lawrence River off what is currently Quebec City. hydro-electric The first European explorer of what is now Quebec was Jacques Cartier, who planted a cross either in the Gaspé in 1534 or at Old Fort Bay on the Lower North Shore and sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1535.

New France

Quebec City was founded near the site of Stadacona, a village populated by Iroquoians when Jacques Cartier explored Canada. However, the village had disappeared by the time Samuel de Champlain established the Habitation de Quebec in 1608. After 1627, King Louis XIII of France introduced the seigneurial system and forbade settlement in New France by anyone other than Roman Catholics. New France became a royal province in 1663 under King Louis XIV of France and the intendant Jean Talon. The fur trade lasted about 200 years before other trades took over. The Natives traded their furs for many French goods such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing.

Change of colonial powers

Great Britain acquired Canada by the Treaty of Paris (1763) when King Louis XV of France and his advisers chose to keep the territory of Guadeloupe for its valuable sugar crops instead of New France, which was viewed as a vast, frozen wasteland of little importance to the French colonial empire. By the British Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada (part of New France) was renamed the Province of Quebec. Fearful that the French-speaking population of Quebec would side with the rebels of the 13 other colonies to the south, in 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act that paved the way to official recognition of the French language and French culture. The Act allowed Quebecers, or Canadiens as they were then known, to maintain the French civil law and sanctioned the freedom of religious choice, allowing the Roman Catholic Church to remain. Quebec retained its seigneurial system and civil law code after France's giving of the territory to England. Owing to an influx of Loyalist refugees from the Amercian Revolutionary War, the Constitutional Act of 1791 saw the colony divided in two at the Ottawa River; the western part became Upper Canada and changed to the British legal system. The eastern part became Lower Canada.

The Patriotes Rebellion in Lower Canada

Like their counterparts in Upper Canada, in 1837, English and French speaking residents of Lower Canada, led by Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson, formed an armed resistance group to seek an end to British colonial rule. Their actions resulted in the Lower Canada Rebellion. An unprepared British Army had to raise a local militia force and the rebel forces were soon defeated after having scored a victory in Saint-Denis, Quebec, south of Montreal.

Act of Union

After the rebellions, Lord Durham was asked to undertake a study and prepare a report on the matter and to offer a solution for the British Parliament to assess. Following Durham's Report, the British government merged the two colonial provinces into one Province of Canada in 1841. However, the union proved contentious.

Canadian Confederation

In the 1860s, the delegates from the colonies of British North America (Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland) met in a series of conferences in Charlottetown, Quebec City and London to discuss a broader union. As a result of those deliberations, in 1867 the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the British North America Act, providing for the Confederation of most of these provinces. The former Province of Canada was again divided into its two previous parts as the provinces of Ontario (Upper Canada) and Quebec (Lower Canada). New Brunswick and Nova Scotia joined Ontario and Quebec in the new Dominion of Canada (Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland entered Confederation later, in 1873 and 1949, respectively).

The "Quiet Revolution"

Main article: Quiet Revolution The conservative government of Maurice Duplessis and his Union Nationale dominated Quebec politics from 1944 to 1960 with the support of the Catholic church. Pierre Trudeau and other intellectuals and liberals formed an intellectual opposition to Duplessis' repressive regime setting the groundwork for the Quiet Revolution under Jean Lesage's Liberals. The Quiet Revolution was a period of dramatic social and political change that saw the decline of the Roman Catholic Church's influence, the nationalization of Hydro-Québec and the emergence of a separatist movement under former Liberal minister René Lévesque. René Lévesque, is "Je me souviens", French for "I remember".]] Beginning in 1963, a terrorist group that became known as the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) launched a decade of bombings, robberies and attacks on government offices and at least two murders by FLQ gunfire and three violent deaths by bombings. Their activities culminated in events referred to as the October Crisis [http://www.mcgill.ca/maritimelaw/history/crisis/] when James Cross, the British trade commissioner to Canada, was kidnapped along with Pierre Laporte, a provincial minister and Vice-Premier, who was murdered a few days later. In their published Manifesto, the terrorists stated: "In the coming year Bourassa (Quebec Premier) will have to face reality; 100,000 revolutionary workers, armed and organized." At the request of premier Robert Bourassa, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act. Once the War Measures Act was in place, arrangements were made for all detainees to see legal counsel. In addition, the Quebec Ombudsman [http://www.protecteurducitoyen.qc.ca/en/index.asp], Louis Marceau, was instructed to hear complaints of detainees and the Quebec government agreed to pay damages to any person unjustly arrested. On February 3, 1971, John Turner, the Minister of Justice of Canada, reported that 497 persons had been arrested under the War Measures Act, of whom 435 had been released. The other 62 were charged, of which 32 were crimes of such seriousness that a Quebec Superior Court judge refused them bail. A federal government inquiry later revealed that some Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) agents infiltrated the group to gain evidence of the group's willingness to commit terrorist acts. In 1977, the newly elected Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language. Often known as Bill 101, it defined French as the only official language of Quebec.

Quebec and the Canadian Constitution

Lévesque and his party had run in the 1970 and 1973 Quebec elections under a platform of separating Quebec from the rest of Canada. His party was defeated both times, with 23% and 30% of the vote respectively, and Lévesque himself was defeated in his own riding (electoral district). In the 1976 election, he softened his message by promising a referendum (plebiscite) on sovereignty-association rather than outright separation, by which Quebec would have independence in most government functions but share some other ones, such as a common currency, with Canada. Though many Quebecers, especially English-speaking Quebecers, viewed sovereignty-association as thinly-veiled separation, Lévesque and the Parti Québécois were swept into power with 41% of the popular vote on November 15, 1976. The question of sovereignty-association was placed before the voters in the 1980 Quebec referendum. During the campaign, Pierre Trudeau promised that a vote for the NO side was a vote for reforming Canada. Trudeau advocated the patriation of Canada's Constitution from the United Kingdom, as the existing constitutional document, the British North America Act, could only be amended by the United Kingdom Parliament. Sixty percent of the Quebec electorate voted against the proposition. Polls showed that the ovewhelming majority of English Quebecers voted against, and that French Quebecers were almost equally divided, with older voters less in favor, and younger voters more in favor. After his loss in the referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to start negotiating a new constitution with Trudeau, his minister of Justice Jean Chrétien and the nine other provincial premiers. The negotiations quickly reached a stand-still. Then on the night on November 4 to November 5 1981, called in Quebec the 'Night of the Long Knives' (La Nuit des Longs Couteaux'), Jean Chrétien met all the provincial premiers except René Lévesque to sign the document that would eventually become the new Canadian constitution. The next morning, they put Lévesque in front of the "fait accompli." Lévesque refused to sign the document, and returned to Quebec. In 1982, Trudeau had the new constitution approved by the British Parliament, with Quebec's signature still missing (a situation that persists to this day). In subsequent years, two attempts were made to gain Quebec's approval of the constitution. The first was the Meech Lake Accord of 1987, which was finally abandoned in 1990 when the provinces of Manitoba and Newfoundland refused to support it. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois party in Ottawa under the leadership of Lucien Bouchard, who had resigned from the federal cabinet. The second attempt, the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, was rejected by 56.7% of all Canadians and 57% of Quebecers. This result caused a split in the Quebec Liberal Party that led to the formation of the new Action Démocratique (Democratic Action) party led by Mario Dumont and Jean Allaire. On October 30, 1995, with the Parti Québécois back in power since 1994, a second referendum on sovereignty took place. This time, it was rejected by a slim majority (50.6% NO to 49.4% YES); a clear majority of French-speaking Quebecers voted in favour of sovereignty. The referendum was tainted by several controversies. Federalists complained that an unusually high number of ballots had been rejected in pro-federalist ridings, notably in the riding of Chomedey, although Quebec's chief electoral officer found no evidence of fraud. The pro-federalist side was accused of not respecting the Quebec laws with regards to spending limits during referendums (spending three times as much as the separtist side), and to have accelerated the naturalization of immigrant people living in the province of Québec (43,850 immigrants were naturalized during 1995, whereas the average number between 1988 and 1998 was 21,733). The same night of the referendum, Jacques Parizeau, then premier, declared that the loss was due to money and the ethnic vote. A media frenzy around these comments forced Parizeau to resign. Lucien Bouchard became Quebec's new premier in 1996. After winning the next election, Bouchard retired from politics in 2001. Bernard Landry was then appointed leader of the Parti Québécois and premier of Quebec. In 2003, Landry lost the election to the Quebec Liberal Party and Jean Charest. Jean Charest

Politics

The Lieutenant Governor represents Queen Elizabeth II as head of state. The head of government is the Premier (called premier ministre in French) who leads the largest party in the unicameral National Assembly or Assemblée Nationale, from which the Council of Ministers is appointed. Until 1968, the Quebec legislature was bicameral, consisting of the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. In that year the Legislative Council was abolished, and the Legislative Assembly was renamed the National Assembly. Quebec was the last province to abolish its legislative council. The government of Quebec awards an order of merit called the National Order of Quebec. It is inspired in part by the French Legion of Honour. It is conferred upon men and women born or living in Quebec (but non-Quebecers can be inducted as well) for outstanding achievements.

Economy

The St. Lawrence River Valley is a fertile agricultural region, producing dairy products, fruit, vegetables, maple syrup (Quebec is the world's largest producer), and livestock. North of the St. Lawrence River Valley, the territory of Quebec is extremely rich in resources in its coniferous forests, lakes, and rivers—pulp and paper, lumber, and hydroelectricity are still some of the province's most important industries. High-tech industries are very important around Montreal. It includes the aerospace companies like jet manufacturer Bombardier, the jet engine company Pratt & Whitney, the flight simulator builder CAE and defense contractor Lockheed Martin, Canada. Those companies and other major subcontractors make Quebec the fourth biggest player worldwide in the aviation industry. Lockheed Martin, Canada

Culture

The Québécois people, a people also found in small minorities of Canada and of the United States, consider Quebec their homeland. The Québécois are the largest population of French speakers in the Americas. Most French Canadians live in Quebec, though there are other concentrations of francophones throughout Canada with varying degrees of ties to Quebec. Montreal is the vibrant cosmopolitan metropolis of Quebec. History made Quebec a place where cultures meet, where people from all over the world experience America, but from a little distance and through a different eye. Often described as a crossroads between Europe and America, Quebec is home to a people that has the privilege of being connected to the strong cultural currents of the United States, France, and the British Isles all at the same time. Quebec is also home to 11 aboriginal nations and to a large Anglo-Quebecer minority of approximately 600,000 people.

Demographics

Quebec's fertility rate is now among the lowest in Canada. At 1.48, it is well below the replacement fertility rate of 2.1. This contrasts with the fertility rate before 1960 which was among the highest of the industrialized countries. Although Quebec represents only 24% of the population of Canada, the number of international adoptions in Quebec is the highest of all provinces of Canada. In 2001, 42% of international adoptions in Canada were carried out in Quebec.

Ethnicity

The majority of the population are of French descent, approximately 80% of the population. There are also significant numbers of Irish, English, Italians, and Portuguese. Racial Groups
- 91.9% White
- 2.1% Black
- 1.2% Aboriginal
- 1.0% Arab
- 0.8% Asian Religious Groups
- 83.3% Roman Catholic
- 4.7% Protestant
- 2.2% other Christian
- 1.5% Muslim
- 1.2% Jewish
- 7.1% other, non-professing

Language

Quebec is the only Canadian province where French is the only official language. In 2001 the population was:
- French speakers: 81.2%
- English speakers: 8.0%
- French and English: 0.8%
- Allophones: 10.0% (Italian 6.3%, Spanish 2.9%, Arabic 2.5%, and others)

Symbols and emblems

The motto of Quebec is Je me souviens (I remember), which is carved into the Parliament Building façade in Quebec City (Ville de Québec) and is seen on the coat of arms and licence plates. Jewish The graphic emblem of Quebec is the fleur-de-lis, usually white on a blue background, as on the flag of Quebec (above), the Fleurdelisé. As indicated on the government of Quebec's Web site, the flag recalls the French Royal banner said to have accompanied the army of General Montcalm, Marquis de Saint-Véran during the victorious battle of Carillon in 1758. The fleur-de-lis as a symbol of the now deposed House of Bourbon is regarded as "counter revolutionary" in France. The floral emblem of Quebec is the (Iris versicolor). It was formerly the Madonna lily, to recall the fleur-de-lis, but has been changed to the iris which is native to Quebec. The avian emblem of Quebec is the snowy owl. The patron saints of French Canada are Saint Anne and John the Baptist. La Saint-Jean, June 24, is Quebec's national day, and is officially called the Fête nationale du Québec since 1977. The song "Gens du pays" by Gilles Vigneault is often regarded as Quebec's unofficial anthem.

External links

- [http://www.gouv.qc.ca/wps/portal/pgs/commun?lang=en Government of Quebec]
- [http://www.premier.gouv.qc.ca/secteur/bienvenue_quebec/symboles_emblemes_en.htm Symbols and emblems of Quebec]
- [http://www.bonjourquebec.com/ Bonjour Québec], Quebec government official tourist site
- [http://www.trailcanada.com/canada-guides/quebec.asp Travel guide to Quebec]
- [http://www.trailcanada.com/photos/quebec.asp Photos of Quebec]
- [http://www.agora.qc.ca/ Agora], online encyclopaedia from Quebec
- [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/collections/theme/12 Contemporary Quebec in Cartoons], Images from the McCord Museum's collections
- [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/collections/theme/2 The 1837-1838 Rebellion in Lower Canada], Images from the McCord Museum's collections
- [http://www2.marianopolis.edu/quebechistory/ Quebec History], online encyclopaedia made by Marianapolis College
-
- [http://www.quebecblogue.com/ Le Blogue du Québec]
- zh-min-nan:Québec ko:퀘벡 주 ja:ケベック州 simple:Quebec

Georgian Bay

Georgian Bay is a large bay of Lake Huron, located in Ontario, Canada. The main body of the bay lies east and northeast of the Bruce Peninsula, south of Greater Sudbury and north of Collingwood. The North Channel of Georgian Bay extends further west, to St. Joseph Island near Sault Ste. Marie, dividing Manitoulin Island from the mainland of Northern Ontario. The Main Channel divides Manitoulin Island from the Bruce Peninsula, and connects Georgian Bay to the rest of Lake Huron. Bruce Peninsula Georgian Bay is about 320 kilometres long by 80 kilometres wide. It covers over 15,000 square kilometres, making it almost as large as Lake Ontario. Georgian Bay is part of the southern edge of the Canadian Shield, a geological formation carved out by the retreating glaciers at the end of the last ice age, about 11,000 years ago. The granite rock formations and windswept Eastern White Pine are characteristic of the islands and much of the shoreline of the bay. The beauty of the area has inspired landscapes by artists of the Group of Seven (an example, of which is the painting by Frederick Varley shown here). Archeological records reveal an Aboriginal presence in the southern regions of the Canadian Shield dating from 11,000 years ago. Evidence of later paleo-Aboriginal settlements have been found on Manitoulin Island and near Killarney, Ontario. At the time of contact the Ojibwe and Ottawa First Nations, both of whom call themselves Anishinabe (plural: Anishinabek), lived along the north and eastern shores of Georgian Bay. The Huron (or Wendat) and Iroquois (or Haudenosaunee) inhabited the lands to the south. Names of islands such as "Manitoulin” (from Gitchi Manitou, the Great Spirit) and “Giant’s Tomb” are indicative of the richness of the cultural history of the area. Aboriginal communities continue to live on their territories and practice their cultural traditions. Their claim to the land is based on thousands of years of oral tradition that connects history to contemporary life. The first Europeans to visit this area, the French explorers Samuel de Champlain and Étienne Brûlé, arrived in the 17th century. French Jesuits established the mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, Ontario's first European settlement, in 1649 at what is now the community of Midland. Georgian Bay was first charted in 1815 by Captain William Fitzwilliam Owen who called it Lake Manitoulin. In 1822, it was named after King George IV by Captain Henry Bayfield. There are tens of thousands of islands in Georgian Bay, collectively known as the "Thirty Thousand Islands," including the larger Parry Island and Christian Island. Manitoulin Island, in the north end of the bay is the largest freshwater lake island in the world. Manitoulin is separated from the Bruce Peninsula in southern Ontario by the Main Channel, which connects Georgian Bay with the rest of Lake Huron; Manitoulin is separated from the rest of Northern Ontario by the North Channel. The Trent-Severn Waterway connects Georgian Bay to Lake Ontario, running from Port Severn in the south eastern corner of Georgian Bay through Lake Simcoe into Lake Ontario near Trenton. Further north, Lake Nipissing drains into it through the French River. The town of Midland, at the southern end of the bay, is a popular site for summer cottages. The reconstructed Jesuit mission, Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, is now an historic site near Midland. Also nearby is the Martyrs' Shrine, a church dedicated to the Canadian Martyrs, Jesuits who were killed around Georgian Bay in the 17th century. Penetanguishene, also located at the southern tip of the bay near Midland, was created as a naval base in 1793 by John Graves Simcoe. At the southern end of the bay, smaller water bodies such as Nottawasaga Bay are found. Collingwood, Meaford and Wasaga Beach are located on Nottawasaga Bay. Owen Sound and Wiarton are located on the Bruce Peninsula along the southern and southwestern shore of the bay, while Tobermory is located at the northern tip of the Bruce Peninsula on the Main Channel. A ferry travels from Tobermory, across the Main Channel to South Baymouth. Parry Sound, the world's deepest freshwater port, is located on the eastern shore of the bay. In October 2004, the Georgian Bay Littoral was declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO.

References

- Historical Atlas of Canada, Volume I: From the Beginning to 1800. Edited by R. Cole Harris. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8020-2495-5
- [http://www.native-languages.org/chippewa.htm Native Languages of the Americas]

External links

- [http://www.exploregeorgianbay.com/ Eastern Georgian Bay Tourism Including Resorts, Cottages & Attractions] Category:Great Lakes Category:Bays of Canada Category:Geography of Ontario ja:ジョージア湾

Jacques Cartier

Jacques Cartier (December 31, 1491 – September 1 1557), baptised Jakez Karter, was an explorer popularly thought of as one of the major discoverers of Canada, or more specifically, the interior eastern region along the St. Lawrence River that would become the first European-inhabited area of that country since the Vikings. Born in Saint-Malo, France in 1491, Cartier was part of a respectable family of mariners, and improved his social status in 1520 by marrying Catherine des Granches, member of a leading ship-owning family. His good name in Saint-Malo is recognized by its frequent appearance on baptismal registers as godfather or witness. Very little information is available on Cartier's character and personality, but his professional abilities can be easily ascertained. Considering that Cartier made three voyages of discovery in dangerous and hitherto unknown waters without losing a ship, that he entered and departed some fifty undiscovered harbours without serious mishap, and that the only sailors he lost were victims of an epidemic ashore, he may be considered one of the most conscientious explorers of the period. When Jacques Cartier first sailed to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Iroquoian Wendat (aka "Huron" or "Wyandot") chief Donnacona initially thought he was from underwater, and said that he was coming from wooden "houses".

First Voyage, 1534

The King of France, François I, chose Cartier to find "certaines îles et pays où l'on dit qu'il se doit trouver grande quantité d'or et autres riches choses" ("certain islands and lands where it is said there are great quantities of gold and other riches"). In 1534, he set sail, hoping to discover some western passage to the wealthy markets of Asia. He explored parts of what are now Newfoundland starting on May 10 of that year, and what are now the other Canadian Maritimes. He bartered for furs with the Micmac Indians, and learned of a river further west (the St. Lawrence), that he hoped might be the long-sought passage to Asia. He landed for the first time at present day Gaspé, Quebec, where he planted a 30-foot cross and claimed the territory for France. Cartier lied to Chief Donnacona and said the cross was an insignificant landmark. During this trip he captured and took Domagaya and Taignoagny, the sons of Chief Donnacona, back to France. He also began to build diplomatic relations with the natives.

Second Voyage, 1535-1536

Cartier set sail for a second voyage on May 19 of the following year with 3 ships, 110 men, and the two native boys. Reaching the St. Lawrence, he sailed up-river for the first time, and reached the Huron village of Stadacona (site of present-day Québec City), where Chief Donnacona was reunited with his two sons. Cartier left his main ships in a harbour close to Stadacona, and used his smallest ship to continue up-river and visit Hochelaga (now Montreal) where he arrived October 2, 1535. Hochelaga was far more impressive than the small and squalid village of Stadacona, and more than a thousand Hurons came to the river edge to greet the Frenchmen. The site of their arrival has been confidently identified as the beginning of the Sainte-Marie Sault -- where the Jacques Cartier Bridge now stands. After spending two days among the Hurons of Hochelaga, Cartier returned to Stadacona on October 11. It is not known exactly when Cartier decided to spend the winter of 1535-1536 in Canada, but the decision must have before reaching Stadacona, as it was by then too late to return to France. Cartier and his men prepared for the winter by strengthening their fort, stacking firewood, and salting down game and fish. During this winter, Cartier compiled a sort of gazetteer that included several pages on the manners of the natives -- in particular, their habit of wearing only leggings and moccasins even in the dead of winter. From mid-November 1535 to mid-April 1536, the French fleet lay frozen solid at the mouth of the St. Charles river, under the Rock of Quebec. Ice was over a fathom (1.8 m) thick in the river, and snow four feet (1.2 m) deep ashore. To add to the discomfort, scurvy broke out -- first among the Hurons, and then among the French. In his journal, Cartier states that by mid-February, "out of 110 that we were, not ten were well enough to help the others, a thing pitiful to see". Cartier estimated the number of Hurons dead at 50. One of the natives who survived was Domagaya, the chief's son who had been taken to France the previous year. Upon his visiting the French fort for a friendly call, Cartier enquired and learned of him that a concoction made from a certain tree called "annedda", a white cedar tree, would cure scurvy. This remedy likely saved the expedition from destruction, and by the end of the winter, 85 Frenchmen were still alive. Ready to return to France in early May 1536, Cartier decided to kidnap Chief Donnacona himself, so that he might personally tell the tale of a country further north, called the "Kingdom of Saguenay", claimed to be full of gold, rubies and other treasures. After an arduous trip down the St. Lawrence and a three-week Atlantic crossing, Cartier and his men arrived in Saint-Malo July 15, 1536. So ended the second and most profitable of Cartier's voyages, lasting fourteen months. Having already located the entrance to the St. Lawrence on his first voyage, he now opened up the greatest waterway for the European penetration of North America. He had made an intelligent estimate of the resources of Canada, both natural and human, aside from considerable exaggeration of its mineral wealth. Whilst some of his actions toward the Wendats were dishonorable, he did try at times to establish friendship with the them and other native peoples living along the great St. Lawrence river -- an indispensable preliminary to French settlement in their lands.

Third Voyage 1541-1542

On May 23, 1541 Cartier departed Saint-Malo on his third voyage with five ships. This time, any thought of finding a passage to the Orient was forgotten. The goals were now to find the "Kingdom of Saguenay" and its riches, and to establish a permanent settlement along the St. Lawrence. Anchoring at Stadacona on August 23, Cartier again met the Hurons, but found their "show of joy" and their numbers worrisome, and decided not to build his settlement there. Sailing nine miles up-river to a spot he had previously observed, he decided to settle on the site of present-day Cap-Rouge. The convicts and other colonists were landed, the cattle that had survived three months aboard ship were turned loose, earth was broken for a kitchen garden, and seeds of cabbage, turnip and lettuce were planted. A fortified settlement was thus created and was named Charlesbourg-Royal. Another fort was also built on the falaise overlooking the settlement, for added protection. The men also began collecting quartz crystal ("diamonds") and iron pyrites ("gold"). Two of the ships were dispatched home with some of these worthless minerals on September 2. Having set tasks for everyone, Cartier left with the longboats for a reconnaissance in search of "Saguenay" on September 7. Having reached Hochelaga, he was prevented by bad weather and the numerous rapids from continuing up to the Ottawa river. Returning to Charlesbourg-Royal, Cartier found the situation ominous. The Hurons no longer made friendly visits or peddled fish and game, but prowled about in a sinister manner. No records exists about the winter of 1541-1542 and the information must be gleaned from the few details provided by returning sailors. It seems the Indians attacked and ate about 35 settlers before the Frenchmen could retreat behind their fortifications. Even though scurvy was cured through the native remedy, the impression left is of a general misery, and of Cartier's growing conviction that he had insufficient manpower either to protect his base or to go in search of Saguenay. Everyone boarded the three remaining ships in early June 1542, and arrived back in Europe in October 1542. This was his last voyage. Cartier spent the rest of his life in Saint-Malo and his nearby estate, and died aged 66 on September 1, 1557 from an epidemic. He died before any permanent European settlements were made in Canada; that had to wait for Samuel de Champlain in 1608.

Monuments

- Place Jacques-Cartier, a major street in the Vieux Port of Montréal
- Jacques-Cartier River
- Jacques-Cartier Bridge

External links

- [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34229 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]
- [http://catalogue.bnquebec.ca:4400/cgi-bin/bestn?id=&act=8&auto=0&nov=1&bsid=34226249&t0=seqb%28@00220326%29&i0=0&s0=5&v1=0&v2=0&v3=0&v4=0&sy=&ey=&scr=1&x=39&y=14 Bref récit et succincte narration de la navigation faite en MDXXXV et MDXXXVI 1863 facimile edition French]
-
- [http://www.cartier.f2s.com Les voyages de Jacques Cartier (in french)]

Popular references

Cartier is refered to in the song Looking for a Place to Happen by the Canadian band The Tragically Hip, on the album Fully Completely. Cartier, Jacques Cartier, Jacques Cartier, Jacques Cartier, Jacques ja:ジャック・カルティエ simple:Jacques Cartier th:ชาก การ์ติเยร์

Donnacona

Chief Donnacona (died c. 1539 in France) was the Iroquoian Wendat (aka "Huron" or "Wyandotte") chief of Stadacona, a village located at the present site of Quebec City, Canada. Donnacona and his people were fishing off the Gaspé peninsula when French explorer Jacques Cartier first arrived there in 1534. Cartier seized Donnacona's sons, Domagaya and Taignoagny, and took them to France. They returned to Canada with Cartier the following year, showed him the entrance to the St. Lawrence River, and piloted him up the river to Stadacona, where this time, the French wintered. Relations between the Wendats and French deteriorated over the winter. In spring, Cartier invited Donnacona to a feast, then seized him and nine others, including his two sons, eventually transporting them to France. Donnacona was well treated in France, being looked after at the king's expense. He whetted the French appetite for New World exploration with tales of a golden kingdom called "Saquenay", however he soon took sick and died. So did all but one of the natives -- a little girl whose fate is unknown. When Cartier returned to Stadacona five years later, he told the Wendats that Donnacona was living like a king in France, and had no wish to come home. The Wendats did not believe him.

External links

- [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34299 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online] Donnacona Donnacona Donnacona

1535

Events

- January 18 - Lima, Peru founded by Francisco Pizarro
- April - Jacques Cartier discovers the Iroquois city of Stadacona, Canada (now Quebec) and in May, the even greater Huron city of Hochelaga (now Montreal)
- June 24 - The Anabaptist state of Münster (see Münster Rebellion) is conquered and disbanded.
- May 19 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail for his second voyage to North America with 3 ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's 2 sons (who Cartier kidnapped during his first voyage).
- October 2 - Jacques Cartier discovers Montreal, Quebec.
- October 4 - The first complete English-language Bible is printed, with translations by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale.
- Combined Swedish and Danish fleets defeat the Hanseatic navy.
- Manco II appointed puppet Inca Emperor by Spanish Conquistadors
- Second unsuccessful attempt by Spanish forces to conquer Yucatan
- Carlos Quinto conquers Tunis
- anabaptist rebellion in some cities in the Netherlands, including a famous incident of seven men and five woman walking nude in the streets of Amsterdam.
- The Charterhouse London is closed, as part of Henry VIIIs dissolution of the monasteries.

Births

- February 11 - Pope Gregory XIV (died 1591)
- May 31 - Alessandro Allori, Italian painter (died 1607)
- June 2 - Pope Leo XI (died 1605)
- June 21 - Leonhard Rauwolf, German physician and botanist (d. 1596)
- July 22 - Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (died 1621)
- August 21 - Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1619)
- September 6 - Emanuel van Meteren, Flemish historian (died 1612)
- October 16 - Niwa Nagahide, Japanese warlord (died 1585)
- James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, consort of Mary I of Scotland (died 1578)
- Roger Dudley, British soldier (died 1590)
- James Melville, English historian (died 1617)
- Thomas North, English translator (died 1601)
- Giaches de Wert, Flemish composer (died 1596)

Deaths

- February 18 - Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German alchemist and occult writer (born 1486)
- June 22 - John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (executed)
- July 6 - Sir Thomas More, English lawyer, writer, and politician (executed) (born 1478)
- July 11 - Elector Joachim I of Brandenburg (born 1484)
- August 10 - Ippolito de' Medici, ruler of Florence (poisoned) (born 1509)
- September 23 - Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (born 1513)
- December 31 - William Skeffington, Lord Deputy of Ireland (born 1465)
- Jodocus Badius, pioneer of printing (born 1462)
- Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll, Scottish nobleman and soldier (born 1486)
- Cangali khan, khan of Qasim and Kazan
- Saint John Houghton, Prior of the London Charterhouse (executed)
- George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny (born 1469)
- Wolter von Plettenberg, Master of Livonian Order
- Bartolomeo Tromboncino, Italian composer (born 1470)
- Feliks Zamoyski, Polish nobleman Category:1535 ko:1535년 th:พ.ศ. 2078

Iroquoian

The Iroquoian languages are a Native American language family. The family includes the languages of the Iroquois Confederacy (including the extinct Mingo language), as well as Cherokee. Every language in this family has at least one nasal vowel phoneme. Cherokee's is a nasal schwa, written in transliteration as 'v' (e.g. "Hv?" sounds like "Huh?" nasalized, and means the same thing).

Family division

The Iroquoian family is composed of eleven languages. I. Northern Iroquoian : A. Tuscarora-Nottoway :: 1. Tuscarora :: 2. Nottoway : B. Proto-Lake Iroquoian :: 3. Huron-Wyandot ::: dialects: :::
- Huron :::
- Wyandot :: 4. Laurentian (languages or dialects) (?) :: i. Iroquois Proper (a.k.a. Five Nations Iroquois) ::: 5. Onondaga ::: 6. Susquehannock (a.k.a. Andaste, Conestoga, Andastoerrhonon, Minqua) ::: a. Seneca-Cayuga :::: 7. Seneca :::: 8. Cayuga ::: b. Mohawk-Oneida :::: 9. Mohawk :::: 10. Oneida II. Southern Iroquoian : 11. Cherokee What has been called the Laurentian language appears to be actually more than one dialect or language. Many different groups making up the Wyandot and the Neutral have very little linguistic documentation. Among these are the Tionontati (a.k.a. Khionontateronon, Petun, Tobacco Nation), the Wenro, and the Erie (a.k.a. Nation du Chat). These groups were called Atiwandaronk meaning "they who understand the language" by the Huron, and thus are grouped as a dialect related to Huron. The Meherrin peoples may have spoken an Iroquoian language, but there is not enough data to determine this with certainty. Nottoway, Huron-Wyandot, Susquehannock, and the Laurentian languages/dialects are now all extinct. The last speakers of Susquehannock were all murdered by the Paxton Boys lynch mob.

Genetic relations

Some linguists group the Iroquoian languages with the Siouan languages as the Macro-Siouan family, but this larger family is not recognized by a consensus of linguists. For information regarding Proto-Iroquoian see Floyd Lounsbury's article on pages 334-343 in Volume 15 of the Handbook of North American Indians and Marianne Mithun's article on pages 259-282 of the Extending the Rafters: An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Iroquois collection edited by Jack Campisi, Michael Foster, and Mithun. An article that is a bit more technical but also good is Blair Rudes' treatment of Proto-Iroquoian vowels in the Spring 1996 edition of Anthropological Linguistics.

Culture

The Iroquois were made up of a group or league of tribes that settled much of the land which presently spans from western New York to western Ohio. They were not nomadic but preferred to live in villages of many multi-roomed longhouses, built with saplings and bark or thatch. These longhouses could be up to 300 feet long. Villages were occupied for about 25-50 years. The Iroquois relied greatly on domestication of plant foods, but also supplemented their diet with hunting and gathering. Food such as corn, squash, beans, and other crops were cultivated, often on large fields where forest had been cut and burned for planting. It can be stated that they practiced a system of shifting horticulture. They spent much time on cultivation, harvesting, the preparatration of maize, and storing food. They stored their crops in various types of pottery jars. Pots were specialized by being much sturdier, constructed to withstand thermal stress, but were sensitive to mechanical stress. Iroquian pottery could also be used for a variety of reasons or uses. They were great for preparing maize. Excavated grains, pottery and other evidence suggests that a typical Indian meal consisted of soup made from different plants and animals, with corn as a staple in their diets.

Bibliography

- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Chilton, Elizabeth. “Farming and Social Complexity in the Northeast.” North American Archaeology. Ed. Timothy R. Pauketat and Diana Dipaolo Loren. Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2005. 138-160.
-

Georgian Bay

References

External links

Lake Erie

] Lake Erie (ee ree) is is one of the five large freshwater Great Lakes in North America, among the world's largest such lakes. Lake Erie itself is the world's 13th largest natural lake, if the Caspian and Aral Seas are counted. It is named after the Erie tribe of Native Americans who lived along its southern shore before European contact. It has a surface area of 24,000 km² (10,000 sq. miles), an average depth of 19 meters (62 feet), and a retention time of 2.6 years. It contains 483 cubic kilometers of water. For comparison, Lake Superior has an average depth of 147 m (483 feet), a volume of 12,232 cubic km and a retention time of 191 years. Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River (from Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair) and drains via the Niagara River and Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario. Navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Other major tributaries of Lake Erie include the Grand River, the River Raisin, the Maumee River, the Sandusky River and the Cuyahoga River. The American states Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York are located to the south of Lake Erie; Michigan lies to the west, and the Canadian province of Ontario lies to the north. Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake. Several islands are found in the western end of the lake; these belong to Ohio except for Pelee Island, which is part of Ontario. The cities of Buffalo, New York; Erie, Pennsylvania; Toledo, Ohio; Monroe, Michigan and Cleveland, Ohio are located on the shores of Lake Erie. It was the last of the Great Lakes discovered by the French explorers, who had followed rivers out of Lake Ontario and portaged into Lake Huron. French] Like the other Great Lakes, Erie produces lake effect snow when the first cold winds of winter pass over the warm waters, leading to south Buffalo being one of the snowiest places in the United States. The effect ends, however, when the lake freezes over, which it frequently does. winter on Lake Erie shoreline
Leamington, Ontario]] The lake is also responsible for microclimates that are important to agriculture. Along its north shore is one of the richest areas of Canada's fruit and vegetable production, and along the southeastern shore in Pennsylvania and New York is an important grape growing region. Lake Erie is the shallowest of the Great Lakes and became famously polluted in the 1960s and 1970s (see Swill). Urban legend has described it as a dead lake, but both sport and commercial fishing have continued without interruption to the present day. Pollution in the lake did not get much attention until the great Cuyahoga River Fire in June of 1969. Pollution from Cleveland and other Ohio cities had so contaminated this tributary of Lake Erie with petrochemicals that it actually burned. The fire embarrassed state officials and impelled the U. S. federal government to impose cleanup efforts. Environmental regulation led to a great increase in water quality and the return of fresh water fish and other biological life; however, invasive zebra mussels currently threaten the entire Lake Erie ecosystem. Other invasive species, such as the gobi and the grass carp, have increased awareness of how fragile the lake is at the present time. During the 1970s, Lake Erie's future was jeopardized by the overabundance of phosphorus in the water, which resulted in rank smelling algal blooms fouling both cobbled and sandy beaches. A 1972 agreement between Canada and the United States has reduced the dumping and runoff of phosphorus into the lake significantly. Still, there is controversy over whether there should be a commercial fishery on the lake. Of the 140 fish species present in Erie, commercial fleets, berthed at 11 communities along the shoreline, are restricted to keeping 11 species for their catch through the use of gill nets, while anglers have the chance to fish for 18 species with rod and reel. Walleye and yellow perch are game fishes at the centre of the debate. Anglers -- both in the United States and Canada -- believe that the quotas set the commercial industry are over-generous, possibly leading to the crash of all fish species. Sports fishermen, who operate by the policy of catch-and-release, are concerned that the 80 per cent of the fish harvested from the lake by the commercial industry is too high. They believe the future of the Lake Erie's fish resources should be maintained through conservation, instead of outright exploitation. Lake Erie's shallowness also makes it particularly prone to seiches, especially during storms, when the lake water tends to pile up at one end of the lake. This can lead to huge storm surges, potentially causing damage onshore. During one storm in November 2003, the water level at Buffalo rose by 7 feet (2.1 m) with waves of 10-15 feet (3-4.5m) on top of that, for a culmulative rise of as much as 22 feet (6.7m).

Lake Erie Islands

- Big Chicken Island
- Chick Island
- East Sister Island
- Gibraltar Island
- Green Island
- Gull Island
- Hen Island
- Kelleys Island
- Little Chicken Island
- Lost Ballast Island
- Middle Island
- Middle Bass Island
- Middle Sister Island
- Mouse Island
- North Bass Island
- North Harbour Island
- Pelee Island
- Rattlesnake Island
- South Bass Island
- Starve Island
- Sugar Island
- Turtle Island
- West Sister Island

History

:1813: Battle of Lake Erie, Oliver Hazard Perry

Iroquois

The Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee, also known as the League of Peace and Power, Five Nations, or Six Nations) is a group of First Nations/

Huron

Huron society in the 17th century

Wendat communities

Sources

Huron (disambiguation)

Places

Towns

Townships

Counties

Bodies of Water

Parks, Forests, Mountains

Other Uses

First Nations

"Band" , "First Nation" and "Indigenous peoples, tribes, or nations"

Geographic distribution

Pacific coast and mountains

Plains

Northeast woodlands

Atlantic coastal region

St. Lawrence River Valley

Quebec

Geography

History

Discovery and exploration

New France

Change of colonial powers

The Patriotes Rebellion in Lower Canada

Act of Union

Canadian Confederation

The "Quiet Revolution"

Quebec and the Canadian Constitution

Politics

Economy

Culture

Demographics

Ethnicity

Language

Symbols and emblems

See also

External links

Georgian Bay

References

External links

Jacques Cartier

First Voyage, 1534

Second Voyage, 1535-1536

Third Voyage 1541-1542

Monuments

External links

Popular references

Donnacona

External links

1535

Events

Births

Deaths

Iroquoian

Family division

Genetic relations

Culture

Bibliography

Georgian Bay

References

External links

Lake Erie

Lake Erie Islands

History

See also

Iroquois