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Bishop Joseph Zen

Bishop Joseph Zen

Joseph Ze-kiun Zen (陳日君; born January 13, 1932) is the bishop of Hong Kong's Catholic church. He is famous for his outspoken disposition. When he was young, the abbey that he was living in was bombed by the Communists. After that, he fled to Hong Kong from Shanghai. He became a priest in 1961. Since 1973, he is teaching in the Holy Spirit Seminary College of Hong Kong. He became the Provincial Superior of Salesians (Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) in 1978 but he resigned in 1983. He was a lecturer in the Seminaries in China (underground, not recognized by the Chinese Government) between 1989 to 1996. He was appointed as the coadjutor Bishop of Hong Kong in 1996 by Pope John Paul II. After the pope canonized some priests who died during the Boxer Rebellion, Zen said that the priests were innocent and great and the boxers should be punished. This angered the Chinese Government and he was banned from visiting mainland China for six years. He has been especially critical of Beijing's response to the Falun Gong spiritualist movement, which China's leaders have outlawed for "trying to overthrow" the Communist Party. Every time the Government requested the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress to re-interpret the Basic Law, he criticized the Government and mainland China. Just a few days before the death of his predecessor, John Cardinal Wu, when a television station interviewed him, he criticized the Government for "breaking up so many families".

As Bishop of Hong Kong

television station After he succeeded as bishop of Hong Kong on September 23, 2002, he led the Diocese in voicing their reservations about the proposed anti-subversion laws, required under Article 23 of the Basic Law. It was worried that these laws, if enacted without a thorough consultation process including a "white bill", could easily lead to violations of basic civil rights in future. The Diocese also expressed her concern over the Education (Amendment) Bill 2002, about to be passed by the Legislative Council. Once enacted, the new legislation would likely play down the role of the Church in running Catholic schools and in promoting Catholic education. On July 1, 2003, he took part in a prayer gathering at Victoria Park before the mass protest began. Many Catholics and Christians attended the demonstration. On May 3, 2004, he visited mainland China, the first time since 1998 and he was the first bishop of Hong Kong to visit China since the handover in 1997. On June 3, 2004, the diocese held a praying activity called "Democratize China" (民主中國), Zen said, Hong Kong was then suffer from a "bloodless June 4th massacre", without guns and tanks, but with the conservatives, they said some pro-democrats in Hong Kong asked for independence, the National People's Congress broke the Basic Law and stop Hong Kong people from discussing whether the chief executive should be elected under universal suffrage. On July 1, 2004, he attended a prayer gathering at Victoria Park before the second July 1 protest, but he himself didn't take part in the demonstration. Still, many Catholics joined thousands of other citizens in the anti-government march. 2004 He was supposed to be the secret cardinal appointed by Pope John Paul II, but since it was not announced after the death of the pope, the answer remains a secret and no one knew who was the secret cardinal, and Zen himself said he was not the secret cardinal. On June 5, 2005, Zen announced that if the Legislative Council pass the donation to support the schools to create incorporated management committees on July 8, 2005, he would appeal against the decision to the court. However after the Government gave up some argued points in the motion, the Diocese decided to support the motion, but the Diocese later announced to prosecute the Government on September 28, 2005. On November 3, 2005, after returning from Vatican, he said that the people of Hong Kong should be allowed to decide whether or not they want proposed constitutional reforms, he also said that the Government should conduct a “territory-wide public opinion survey” to allow the people to decide whether or not they want the constitutional reform package it is proposing. He was then known as the "Viagra" of Hong Kong because he successfully made six pan-democrats that tried to support the motion of the Government to announce opposition to the motion.

Retirement?

On September 18, 2005, he told the Apple Daily reporters that he was willing to retire on January 2006. He also said that he wanted to be a teacher in either mainland China or in Africa, he added, there were not enough teachers in Africa, he knew English and French so he would be suitable to teach in Africa. Democratic Party (Hong Kong) ex-chairman Martin Lee (also a Roman Catholic) thought that, Zen was still healthy, so the pope may request him to stay in his position. Legislative Council member Audrey Eu praised that Zen was different with other religious leaders in Hong Kong, he was comparatively brave to give out his political views, he also carried out his ideas of fairness, equitableness, philanthropy by actual efforts. Besides, some conservatives inside the church said that if Zen retires, the bad relationship between Beijing and Vatican will be relaxed. According to the recent reports, the possibility for him to resign is not high. One of the fact is that the pope nominated him into a committee during the bishop conference.

Quotes


- "Don't wish to be slaves of powerful people."(唔好甘心做強權者嘅奴隸)--Victoria Park, Hong Kong, July 1, 2003
- "I can't see sincerity from the government to give us universal suffrage. So what if the election committee (to choose the city's leader) is expanded to 1,600 people? What is the next step? There is no direction!"--Ming Pao, November 3, 2005

See also


- Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong

External links


- [http://archives.catholic.org.hk/administrators/zen.htm His Biography by the Catholic Church]
- [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/08/03/talkasia.zen.script/index.html Bishop Joseph Zen Talkasia Transcript] Zen, Joseph Zen, Joseph Zen, Joseph

January 13

January 13 is the 13th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is still celebrated as New Year's Eve by those on the Julian calendar. There are 352 days remaining (353 in a leap year).

Events


- 888 - Odo, Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks.
- 1099 - Crusaders set fire to Mara, Syria.
- 1328 - Edward III of England marries Philippa, daughter of the Count of Hainault.
- 1547 - Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey sentenced to death
- 1559 - Elizabeth I crowned queen of England in Westminster Abbey.
- 1602 - William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor is published.
- 1605 - The controversial play Eastward Hoe by Ben Jonson, George Chapman, and John Marston is performed, landing two of the authors in prison.
- 1607 - Bank of Genoa fails after announcement of national bankruptcy in Spain.
- 1610 - Galileo Galilei discovers Callisto, 4th satellite of Jupiter.
- 1622 - Work on the printing of the First Folio of William Shakespeare is suspended.
- 1625 - John Milton, 16, admitted to Christ's College, Cambridge.
- 1733 - James Oglethorpe and 130 colonists arrive in Charleston,South Carolina.
- 1785 - John Walter publishes first issue of the Daily Universal Register (later renamed The Times).
- 1830 - Great fire in New Orleans thought to be set by rebel slaves.
- 1832 - President Andrew Jackson wrote Vice President Martin Van Buren expressing his opposition to South Carolina's defiance of federal authority in the Nullification Crisis.
- 1834 - John Mason Cook, whom JMC Air is named after was born.
- 1840 - The steamship Lexington burns and sinks four miles off the coast of Long Island with the loss of 139 lives.
- 1847 - The Treaty of Cahuenga ends the Mexican-American War in California.
- 1854 - The accordion is patented by Anthony Faas.
- 1869 - National convention of black leaders meets in Washington D.C.
- 1893 - The Independent Labour Party of the UK has its first meeting.
  - US Marines land in Honolulu from the U.S.S. Boston to protect the king and stop the queen from abrogating the Bayonet Constitution.
- 1898 - Emile Zola's J'accuse exposes the Dreyfus affair.
- 1913 - Delta Sigma Theta, Sorority, Inc. founded. Currently the largest African-American women's organization
- 1915 - Earthquake in Avezzano, Italy kills 29,800
- 1930 - Mickey Mouse comic strip makes first appearance.
- 1935 - A plebiscite in Saarland shows that 90.3% of those voting wish to join Nazi Germany.
- 1942 - Henry Ford patents a plastic automobile, which is 30% lighter than a regular car.
  - The United States begins the iternment of Japanese-Americans living on the American west coast.
- 1953 - Marshal Josip Broz Tito chosen President of Yugoslavia.
- 1957 - Wham-O Company produces the first Frisbee.
- 1958 - Moroccan Liberation Army ambushes Spanish patrol in the Battle of Edchera
- 1966 - Robert C. Weaver becomes the first African American Cabinet member by being appointed United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development.
- 1972 - Prime Minister Kofi Busia and President Edward Akufo-Addo of Ghana were ousted in a bloodless military coup by Col. Ignatius Kutu Acheampong.
- 1982 - Shortly after takeoff, Air Florida Flight 90 737 jet crashes into Washington, DC's 14th Street Bridge and falls into the Potomac River, killing 78 including four motorists. Plane was not properly de-iced. There were five survivors.
- 1986 - A month-long violent struggle began in Aden, South Yemen between supporters of Ali Nasir Muhammad and Abdul Fattah Ismail, resulting in thousands of casualties.
- 1989 - The final episode of the American soap opera Ryan's Hope is aired, ending a 14-year run on the network.
- 1990 - L. Douglas Wilder becomes the first elected African American governor as he takes office in Richmond, Virginia.
- 1991 - Soviet military troops attacked Lithuanian independence supporters in Vilnius.
- 1992 - Japan apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II.
- 1998 - ABC and ESPN negotiate a $1.15 billion a season contract to keep Monday Night Football.
- 1999 - Michael Jordan of the Chicago Bulls basketball team announces his retirement (for the second time -- he has since rescinded his retirement).
- 2001 - An earthquake hits El Salvador. More than 800 deaths.
- 2002 - US President George W. Bush faints after choking on a pretzel.

Births

1334 to 1899


- 1334 - King Henry II of Castile (d. 1379)
- 1562 - Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish poet (d. 1601)
- 1596 - Jan van Goyen, Dutch painter (d. 1656)
- 1610 - Maria Anna of Austria (d. 1665)
- 1616 - Antoinette Bourignon, Flemish mystic (d. 1680)
- 1635 - Philipp Jakob Spener, German theologian (d. 1705)
- 1651 - Henry Booth, 1st Earl of Warrington, English politician (d. 1694)
- 1720 - Richard Hurd, English bishop and writer (d. 1808)
- 1749 - Friedrich Müller, painter, narrator, lyricist and dramatist (d. 1825)
- 1805 - Thomas Dyer, Mayor of Chicago (d. 1862)
- 1808 - Salmon Chase, Secretary of the Treasury and Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1873)
- 1812 - Victor de Laprade, French poet and critic (d. 1883)
- 1832 - Horatio Alger, Jr., American minister and author (d. 1899)
- 1861 - Max Nonne, German neurologist (d. 1959)
- 1864 - Wilhelm Wien, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928)
- 1866 - Vasily Kalinnikov, Russian composer (d. 1901)
- 1879 - Melvin Jones, American founder of Lions Clubs International (d. 1961)
- 1884 - Sophie Tucker, Russian-born singer, comedienne, and vaudeville performer (d. 1966)
- 1893 - Clark Ashton Smith, American writer (d. 1961)
- 1899 - Kay Francis, American actress (d. 1968)

1900 to 1999


- 1909 - Marinus van der Lubbe, Dutch communist accused of setting fire to the Reichstag (d. 1934)
- 1911 - Joh Bjelke-Petersen, Premier of Queensland (d. 2005)
- 1919 - Robert Stack, American actor (d. 2003)
- 1924 - Paul Feyerabend, Austrian-born philosopher (d. 1994)
- 1925 - Gwen Verdon, American actress and dancer (d. 2000)
- 1926 - Michael Bond, British writer
- 1926 - Carolyn Gold Heilbrun, American feminist author (d. 2003)
- 1927 - Brock Adams, American politician (d. 2004)
- 1927 - Sydney Brenner, British biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1930 - Liz Anderson, American singer
- 1930 - Frances Sternhagen, American actress
- 1931 - Charles Nelson Reilly, American actor
- 1934 - Rip Taylor, American actor
- 1938 - William B. Davis, Canadian actor
- 1938 - Tord Grip, Swedish football manager
- 1942 - Richard Moll, American actor
- 1943 - Carol Cleveland, English actress
- 1948 - Gaj Singh, Maharaja of Jodhpur
- 1949 - Brandon Tartikoff, American television executive (d. 1997)
- 1954 - Trevor Rabin, South African musician (Yes)
- 1955 - Jay McInerney, American writer
- 1958 - Andrew Stanton, American actor and director
- 1961 - Julia Louis-Dreyfus, American actress
- 1961 - Graham McPherson, English singer
- 1962 - Trace Adkins, American musician
- 1964 - Penelope Ann Miller, American actress
- 1966 - Patrick Dempsey, American actor
- 1969 - Stephen Hendry, Scottish snooker player
- 1970 - A. Onomen Asikele West African Born Writer, Poet & Filmmaker
- 1970 - Keith Coogan, American actor
- 1970 - Marco Pantani, Italian cyclist (d. 2004)
- 1972 - Nicole Eggert, American actress
- 1973 - Nikolai Khabibulin, Russian hockey player
- 1977 - Orlando Bloom, English actor
- 1980 - Krzysztof Czerwinski, Polish conductor and organist
- 1982 - Guillermo Coria, Argentine tennis player
- 1983 - William Hung, Hong Kong-born singer

Deaths

85 BC to 1899


- 85 BC - Gaius Marius, Roman general and politician
- 703 - Empress Jitō of Japan (b. 645)
- 858 - King Ethelwulf of Wessex
- 888 - Charles the Fat, Holy Roman Emperor
- 1138 - Simon I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1076)
- 1151 - Abbot Suger, French statesman and historian
- 1177 - Henry II of Austria (b. 1107)
- 1330 - Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. 1286)
- 1363 - Meinhard III, Count of Tyrol
- 1547 - Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English poet (b. 1517)
- 1599 - Edmund Spenser, English poet (b. 1552)
- 1658 - Edward Sexby, English Puritan soldier (b. 1616)
- 1691 - George Fox, English founder of the Quakers (b. 1624)
- 1762 - Leonhard Trautsch, German composer (b. 1694)
- 1766 - King Frederick V of Denmark (b. 1723)
- 1775 - Johann Georg Walch, German theologian (b. 1693)
- 1790 - Luc Urbain de Bouexic, comte de Guichen, French admiral (b. 1712)
- 1796 - John H. D. Anderson, Scottish scientist and inventor (b. 1726)
- 1797 - Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern, queen of Frederick II of Prussia (b. 1715)
- 1852 - Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, Russian explorer (b. 1778)
- 1864 - Stephen Foster, American composer (b. 1826)

1900 to 1999


- 1923 - Alexandre Ribot, French statesman (b. 1842)
- 1929 - Wyatt Earp, Western lawman (b. 1848)
- 1941 - James Joyce, Irish writer (b. 1882)
- 1962 - Ernie Kovacs, American actor and comedian (b. 1919)
- 1974 - Salvador Novo, Mexican writer and poet (b. 1904)
- 1978 - Hubert H. Humphrey, Vice President of the United States and Senator from Minnesota (b. 1911)
- 1978 - Joe McCarthy, baseball manager (b. 1908)
- 1979 - Donny Hathaway, American musician (b. 1945)
- 1988 - Chiang Ching-kuo, President of the Republic of China (b. 1910)

2000 onwards


- 2001 - Michael Cuccione, Canadian actor and singer (b. 1985)
- 2002 - Ted Demme, American film and television director (b. 1963)
- 2002 - Frank Shuster, Canadian comedian (b. 1916)
- 2003 - Norman Panama, American screenwriter and director (b. 1914)
- 2004 - Arne Næss Jr., Norwegian mountain climber and businessman (b. 1937)
- 2004 - Harold Shipman, British serial killer (b. 1946)
- 2005 - Earl Cameron, Canadian broadcaster (b. 1915)
- 2005 - Nell Rankin, American mezzo-soprano (b. 1924)

Holidays and observances


- National Vocation Awareness Week
- Liberation Day in Togo
- In Sweden, Christmas ends on the 20th day, St. Knut's Day. Children celebrate a party throwing out the Christmas tree (julgransplundring)

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/13 BBC: On This Day] ---- January 12 - January 14 - December 13 - February 13 — listing of all days ko:1월 13일 ms:13 Januari ja:1月13日 simple:January 13 th:13 มกราคม

Bishop

A bishop is an ordained member of the Christian clergy who, in certain Christian churches, holds a position of authority.

Meaning of bishop

The etymology of the word bishop comes from the Greek word episkopos (επισκοπος), which can be generally translated as bishop, overseer, superintendent, supervisor, or foreman. From the word episkopos are derived the English words episcopacy, episcopate and episcopal.

Bishops in the New Testament

The New Testament uses the word episkopos five times.
- Acts of the Apostles 20:28
- Epistle to the Philippians 1:1
- First Epistle to Timothy 3:2
- Epistle to Titus 1:7
- First Epistle of Peter 2:25 Words related to episkopos are used in two other verses. Some English Bibles translate this word as bishop (KJV, RSV, NRSV, etc.), while others, attempting to distance themselves from certain types of church hierarchy, use a more neutral alternative, such as "overseers" (NIV, ESV, etc.). The ministry of these New Testament episkopoi was not directly commissioned by Jesus, but appears to be a natural, practical development of the church during the first and second centuries AD. The portions of the New Testament that mention episkopoi do not appear to be ordering a new type of ministry, but giving instructions for an already existent position within the early church. In places (particularly in the verses from the Epistle to Titus) it appears that the position of episkopos is similar or the same as that of presbyter (πρεσβυτερος), or elder, and, later, priest. The Epistle to Timothy mentions deacons (διακονοι) in a manner that suggests that the office of deacon differs from the office of the bishop, and is subordinate to it, though it carries similar qualifications. In the Acts of the Apostles, episkopoi are mentioned as being shepherds of the flock, imagery that is still in use today. The other passages from the New Testament describe them as stewards or administrators, and teachers. In 1 Timothy episkopoi are required to be 'the husband of but one wife'. It is unclear whether this forbids men who have married a second time in series, or polygamists. However, it is clear that the New Testament has no prohibition against bishops marrying and having children. It is interesting to note that in the second chapter of the 1 Peter, Jesus is described as 'the Shepherd and Episkopos of your souls' (τον ποιμενα και επισκοπον των ψυχων υμων).

Bishops in the Apostolic Fathers

At the turn of the first century AD, the church started to acquire a clear organisation. In the works of the Apostolic Fathers, and Ignatius of Antioch in particular, the role of the episkopos, or bishop, became more important.
"Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6:1.
"your godly bishop" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2:1.
"the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6:1.
"Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7:1.
"Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13:2.
"In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3:1.
"follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8:1.
"He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9:1.
— Lightfoot translation.
It is clear that, by this period, a single bishop was expected to lead the church in each centre of Christian mission, supported by a council of presbyters (now a distinct and subordinate position) with a pool of deacons. As the church continued to expand, new churches in important cities gained their own bishop, but churches in the regions around an important city were served by presbyters and deacons from the bishop's city church. Thus, in time, the bishop changed from being the leader of a single church to being the leader of the churches of a given geographical area.

Bishops and civil government

The efficient infrastructure of the Roman Empire became the template for the organization of the church in the fourth century, particularly after the Edict of Milan. As the church moved from the shadows of privacy into the public forum it acquired land for churches, burials and clergy. In 391, Theodosius I decreed that any land that had been confiscated from the church by Roman authorities be returned. The most usual term for the geographical area of a bishop's authority and ministry, the diocese, began as part of the structure of the Roman Empire under Diocletian. As Roman authority began to fail in the western portion of the empire, the church took over much of the civil administration. This can be clearly seen in the ministry of two popes: Pope Leo I in the fifth century, and Pope Gregory I in the sixth century. Both of these men were statesmen and public administrators in addition to their role as Christian pastors, teachers and leaders. In the Eastern churches, latifundia entailed to a bishop's see were much less common, the state power did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the tendency of bishops acquiring secular power was much weaker than in the West. However, the role of Western bishops as civil authorities, often called prince bishops, continued throughout much of the Middle Ages.

Sovereign bishops

prince bishop The most important of these prince bishops was the Pope, who ruled as monarch of the Papal States by virtue of his title as Bishop of Rome. His claim to this fief rested on the forged Donation of Constantine, but in fact his authority over this kingdom in central Italy grew slowly after the collapse of Roman and Byzantine authority in the area. The Papal States were abolished when King Victor Emmanuel II took possession of Rome in 1870 and completed the reunification of Italy. This became a perennial source of tension between the Papacy and the government of Italy. In 1929, Pope Pius XI made a deal with the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini and became the independent sovereign of the Vatican, while giving up any rights to the rest of the former Papal States. He was recognised as an independent monarch by the Lateran Treaties, an authority the current Pope continues to hold. The only other bishop who is a head of state is the Bishop of Urgell, a Co-Prince of Andorra. Three senior bishops served as Electors in the Holy Roman Empire. By the terms of the Golden Bull of 1356, the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne were made permanent electors, who chose the next Holy Roman Emperor upon the death of his predecessor. The Archbishop of Mainz was President of the Electors and Archchancellor of Germany. Likewise, the Archbishop of Cologne was Archchancellor of Italy, and the Archbishop of Trier was Archchancellor of Burgundy. A number of other bishops within the Holy Roman Empire, although not being Electors, were sovereign prince-bishops in their own lands.

Bishops holding political office

As well as the Archchancellors of the Holy Roman Empire, bishops generally served as chancellors to mediaeval monarchs, serving as head of the justiciary and chief chaplain. The Lord Chancellor of England was almost always a bishop up until the dismissal of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey by Henry VIII. Likewise, the position of Kanclerz in the Polish kingdom was always a bishop until the sixteenth century. In France before the French Revolution, representatives of the clergy — in practice, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries — comprised the First Estate of the Estates-General, until their role was abolished during the French Revolution. The more senior bishops of the Church of England continue to sit in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, as representatives of the established church, and are known as Lords Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man, whose diocese lies outside of the United Kingdom, is ex officio a member of the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man. In the past, the Bishop of Durham, known as a prince bishop, had extensive viceregal powers within his northern diocese — the power to mint money, collect taxes and raise an army to defend against the Scots.

Episcopacy during the English Civil War

During the period of the English Civil War (or rather, Civil Wars), the role of bishops as wielders of political power and as upholders of the established church became a matter of heated political controversy. John Calvin formulated a doctrine of Presbyterianism, which held that in the New Testament the offices of presbyter and episkopos were identical; he rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession. Calvin's follower John Knox brought Presbyterianism to Scotland when the Scottish church was reformed in 1560. In practice, presbyterianism meant that committees of lay elders had a substantial voice in church government, as opposed to merely being subjects to a ruling hierarchy. This vision of at least partial democracy in ecclesiology paralleled the struggles between Parliament and the King. A body within the Puritan movement in the Church of England sought to abolish the office of bishop and remake the Church of England along Presbyterian lines. The Martin Marprelate tracts, applying the pejorative name of prelacy to the church hierarchy, attacked the office of bishop with satire that deeply offended Elizabeth I and her Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift. The vestments controversy also related to this movement, seeking further reductions in church ceremony, and labelling the use of elaborate vestments as "unedifying" and even idolatrous. King James I, reacting against the perceived contumacy of his Presbyterian Scottish subjects, adopted "No Bishop, no King" as a slogan; he tied the hierarchical authority of the bishop to the absolute authority he sought as king, and viewed attacks on the authority of the bishops as attacks on his own authority. Matters came to a head when King Charles I appointed William Laud as the Archbishop of Canterbury; Laud aggressively attacked the Presbyterian movement and sought to impose the full Anglican liturgy on each church. The controversy eventually lead to Laud's impeachment for treason by a bill of attainder in 1645, and subsequent execution. Charles also attempted to impose episcopacy on Scotland; the Scots' violent rejection of bishops and liturgical worship sparked the Bishops' Wars in 1639-1640. During the height of Puritan power in the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, episcopacy was abolished in the Church of England in 1649. The Church of England remained Presbyterian until the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.

Bishops in Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches

Although many Protestant churches have rejected the place of bishops in church leadership, churches rooted in tradition continue to ordain bishops to lead the church. Bishops form the leadership in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Anglican Communion, and the Independent Catholic Churches. The traditional role of a bishop is as pastor of a diocese (also called a bishopric, eparchy or see). Dioceses vary considerably in their size of area and population. Some dioceses around the Mediterranean Sea which were Christianized early are rather compact; whereas dioceses in areas of rapid modern growth in Christian commitment, as in some parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, South America and the Far East, are much larger and more populous. Far East As well as traditional diocesan bishops, many churches have a well-developed structure of church leadership that involves a number of layers of authority and responsibility. ;Archbishop:An archbishop is the bishop of an archdiocese. This is usually a prestigious diocese with an important place in local church history. The title is purely honorific and carries no extra jurisdiction, though most archbishops are also metropolitan bishops. ;Metropolitan bishop:A metropolitan bishop is an archbishop in charge of an ecclesiastical province, or group of dioceses, and exercises some oversight over the other dioceses. Sometimes a metropolitan may also be the head of an autocephalous, sui juris, or autonomous church. ;Suffragan bishop:A suffragan bishop is a bishop subordinate to another. In the Roman Catholic Church this term is applied to all non-metropolitan bishops (diocesan and auxiliary bishops). In the Anglican Communion, the term applies to a bishop who is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop: the Bishop of Warwick is suffragan to the Bishop of Coventry (the diocesan), though both live in Coventry. Some Anglican suffragans are given the responsibility for a geographical area within the diocese (for example, the Bishop of Stepney is an area bishop within the Diocese of London). Diocese of London, Puerto Rico, is a Metropolitan Bishop. ]] ;Titular bishop:A titular bishop is a bishop without a diocese. Rather, the bishop is head of a titular see, which is usually an ancient city that used to have a bishop, but, for some reason or other, does not have one now. Titular bishops often serve as coadjutors or auxiliary bishops. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, bishops of modern diocese are often given a titular see alongside their modern one (for example, the Archbishop of Thyateira and Great Britain). ;Auxiliary bishop:An auxiliary bishop is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop (the Roman Catholic equivalent of an Anglican suffragan bishop). Auxiliaries are almost always titular bishops, and are often appointed as the vicar general of the diocese in which they serve. ;Coadjutor bishop:A coadjutor bishop is a bishop who is given automatic right to succeed the incumbent diocesan bishop. The appointment of coadjutors is often seen as a means of providing for continuity of church leadership. ;Honorary assistant bishop:This title is usually applied to retired bishops who are given a general license to minister as episcopal pastors under a diocesan's oversight. ;Primate:A primate is the bishop of the oldest church of a nation. Sometimes this carries jurisdiction over metropolitan bishops, but usually it is another honorific. An exarch is like a primate in the Eastern churches. The title Presiding or President Bishop is often used for the head of a national Anglican church, but this title is not usually associated with a particular episcopal see like a primate. The primate of the Scottish Episcopal Church is chosen from among the diocesan bishops, and, while retaining diocesan responsibility, is called Primus. ;Cardinal:A cardinal, although not until recently necessarily a bishop (e.g., Jesuit theologian Henri de Lubac), is usually a primate, patriarch or titular bishop within the Roman Catholic Church. Their primary duty is to elect the pope. ;Major archbishop:Major archbishops are the heads of some of the Eastern Rite churches in the Roman Catholic Church. Their authority within their sui juris church is equal to that of a patriarch, but they receive fewer ceremonial honors. ;Catholicos:Catholicoi are the heads of some of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, roughly similar to a Catholic major archbishop. ;Patriarch:Patriarchs are the heads of certain ancient autocephalous or sui juris churches. Some of these churches call their leaders Catholicos; the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Egypt, is called Pope. While most patriarchs in the Roman Catholic Church have jurisdiction, all Latin Rite patriarchs, except for the Pope, are honorary. Pope]]Bishops in all of these communions are ordained by other bishops. Depending on the church, there need to be two or three bishops for validity or legality. Apart from the ordination, which is always done by other bishops, there are different methods in different churches as to the actual choosing of a candidate for ordination as bishop. In the Roman Catholic Church today, the Congregation for Bishops oversees the selection of new bishops with the approval of the Pope. Most Eastern Orthodox churches allow varying amounts of more or less formalized laity and/or lower clergy influence on the choice of bishops. More information on this topic is needed. Only a bishop can ordain a bishop, priest, or deacon. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and in the Eastern Rite liturgical tradition, a priest may celebrate the Divine Liturgy only with the blessing of a bishop. An antimension signed by the bishop is kept on the altar partly as a reminder of whose altar it is and under whose omophorion the priest at a local parish is serving. The Pope of Rome, in addition to being the Bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church, is the Patriarch of the Latin Catholic Church. Each bishop within the Latin Catholic Church is only answerable directly to the Pope and not any other bishop except to metropolitans in certain oversight instances. In the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion, the cathedral of a diocese will have a special chair set aside for the exclusive use of the bishop. This is the bishop's cathedra, which is often called the bishop's throne. In some other Christian denominations, other churches besides the cathedral will maintain a chair for the use of a Bishop when he visits their parish. Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox Christian bishops claim to be part of a continuous sequence of ordained bishops since the days of the apostles, the apostolic succession. However, since a bull of Pope Leo XIII issued in 1896, the Roman Catholic church has insisted that Anglican orders are invalid, because of that church's changes in the ordination rites. The Roman Catholic church does however recognize as valid (though illegal) ordinations done by breakaway Roman Catholic bishops, and groups descended from them, so long as the people receiving the ordination conform to other canonical requirements; this gives rise to the phenomenon of episcopi vagantes. Roman Catholics also recognize the validity of ordinations of bishops, priests, and deacons in the Orthodox churches. Some provinces of the Anglican Communion have begun ordaining women as bishops in recent decades. The first was Barbara Clementine Harris, who was ordained to the epsicopate in 1989.

Bishops in other churches

Some other churches, such as Lutherans, Methodists and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("LDS Church"; see also Mormon), also have bishops, but their roles differ significantly from the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican ones.

Evangelical Lutheran Church in America

In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States, and based largely on the Church of Sweden and United Danish Church, bishops are elected by synod councils, consisting of both lay members and clergy, for a term of 6 years, which can be renewed, depending upon the local synod's "constitution" (which usually mirrors that of the national ELCA constitution). Currently, they are responsible for, since going into ecumenical communion with the Episcopal Church of the United States, with the ordaining of all pastors, consecrating all diaconal ministers, giving approvals to "roster" all current pastors (pastors are called by local congregations, like that of the Episcopal Church), and upholding the teachings of Luther, the ELCA and synod constitutions. The Presiding Bishop of the ELCA, the national bishop, is elected for a single 6-year term, and handles all episcopal consecrations, as well as presiding at the General Assembly, which is held every 2 years. A similar structure exists with the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada (ELCC).

United Methodist Bishops

Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada In the United Methodist Church, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected for life from among the clergy by vote of the delegates in regional (called Jurisdictional) conferences and, among their duties, are responsible for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. The Juridictional Conferences, meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, United Methodist bishops serve for four year terms, and may serve up to three terms before either retirement or appointment to a new Conference. United Methodist bishops may be male or female. John Wesley made Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury superintendents for the United States of America in 1784, where Methodism first became a separate denomination apart from the Church of England. Coke soon returned to England, but Asbury was the primary builder of the new church. He did not call himself bishop, but eventually submitted to the usage by the people. Notable bishops in United Methodist history include Coke, Asbury, Richard Whatcoat, Philip William Otterbein, Martin Boehm, Jacob Albright, John Seybert, Matthew Simpson, John Stamm, Marjorie Matthews, Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda, William Willimon, and Thomas Bickerton. Methodists in Great Britain acquired their own bishops early in the nineteenth century, after the Methodist movement in Britain formally parted company with the Church of England. The position no longer exists, however, in British Methodism.

Christian Methodist Episcopal Church

nineteenth century In the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected by "delegate" votes for as many years deemed until the age of 74, then he/she must retire. Among their duties, are responsibility for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. The General Conference, a meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, CME bishops serve for four year terms. CME Church bishops may be male or female.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Bishop is the leader of a local congregation, called a ward. As such, it is his duty to preside at sacrament meetings, assign local leaders, and participate in one-on-one interviews with his ward members for things such as temple recommends and confession. Bishop is an office of the Aaronic Priesthood; in addition to his ward responsibilities, it is a bishop's duty to preside over the priest's quorum. Responsible for the physical welfare of the ward, he collects tithing and fast offerings and distributes financial assistance where needed. A bishop is chosen from members of the local congregation by the stake presidency. After being called, he chooses his two counselors, and the three men together form a bishopric. Like almost all positions in the Church, bishops are not paid or reimbursed financially for their services and therefore have normal full-time jobs to provide for their families. A ward typically releases its bishop and calls a new one every five years or so; after being released, a bishop is usually still referred to by the title "Bishop" by the people he served.

New Apostolic Church

The New Apostolic Church (NAC) knows 3 classes of ministries: Diacons, Priests and Apostles. The Apostles, all conclused in the apostolate with the Chief Apostle as head, are the highest ministries. Of the several kinds of priest-ministries, the bishop is the highest one. Nearly all bishops are set in directly from the chief apostle. They support and help their superior apostle.

Others

In some smaller Protestant denominations and independent churches the term bishop is used in the same way as pastor, to refer to the leader of the local congregation who may be male or female. This usage is especially common in African American churches in the USA. In the Church of Scotland, which has a Presbyterian church structure, the word "bishop" refers to an ordained person, usually a normal parish minister, who has temporary oversight of a trainee minister.

See also


- [http://www.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=5881 List of United Methodist Bishops]
- Episcopalian church governance
- List of Bishops and Archbishops
- Presbyterian church governance
- Bishops in the Church of Scotland
- Mitre

References & Resources

Print


- Ignatius of Antioch, Epistles of to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallesians, and Smyrnans, Lightfoot, trans., Harmer, ed. (Kessinger, 1891/2003). ISBN 0766164985
- Mathews, James, Set Apart To Serve: The Role of the Episcopacy in the Wesleyan Tradition (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985).
- Moede, Gerald, The Office of Bishop in Methodism: Its History and Development (Nashville: Abingdon, 1965).

Online


- [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=1+Timothy+3%3A1-7§ion=0&version=nrs&new=1&oq=&NavBook=1ti&NavGo=3&NavCurrentChapter=3 1 Timothy 3:1-7] (NRSV)
- [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=Titus+1%3A7-9§ion=0&version=nrs&new=1&oq=&NavBook=tit&NavGo=1&NavCurrentChapter=1 Titus 1:7-9] (NRSV)
- [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/apostoli.htm Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession] by Gregory Neal
- [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/methepisc.htm Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders] by Gregory Neal
- Category:Christian group structuring Category:Roman Catholic Church offices Category:Methodism Category:Religious workers Category:Ecclesiastical titles ko:주교 ja:司教

Catholic

Catholic (literally meaning: according to (kata-) the whole (holos) or more generally "universal" in Greek) is a Christian religious term with a number of meanings:
- The term can refer to the notion that all Christians are part of one Church, regardless of denominational divisions. This "universal" interpretation is often used to understand the phrase "one holy catholic and apostolic Church" in the Nicene Creed, the phrase "the catholic faith" in the Athanasian Creed, and the phrase "holy catholic church" in the Apostles' Creed.
- It can refer to the members, beliefs, and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Though many identify Roman Catholicism exclusively with the Latin Rite, its variety is seen in its more than twenty particular Churches or Rites, all in full communion with the Pope, and also in its liturgical rites, of which the Roman Rite is only one.
- It can be used to refer to those Christian Churches which maintain that their Episcopate can be traced directly back to the Apostles, and that they are therefore part of a broad catholic (or universal) body of believers. Among those who regard themselves as Catholic but not Roman Catholic are members of the various Eastern Orthodox Churches (such as the Greek Orthodox and Russian Orthodox), the Oriental Orthodox, Anglo-Catholics (also known as High Anglicans), the Old, Ancient and Liberal Catholic Churches, and the Lutherans (though the latter prefer the lower-case "c"). The various Churches that regard themselves as part of a broad Catholic Church are distinguished by their use of the Nicene Creed, in which believers acknowledge the "one holy catholic and apostolic Church." The Nicene Creed is of course also used by the Roman Catholic Church.
- It can mean the one Church founded by Christ through Peter the Apostle, according to Matthew 16:18-19: "And I tell you, you are Cephas (which means rock), and on this rock I will build my Church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.’" Early Christians, such as Saint Ignatius of Antioch (who was martyred in about 110, used the term to describe the whole Church - the word's literal meaning is universal or whole - as opposed to the local Church, and excluding adherents of sects or heretical groups. Methodists and Presbyterians believe their denominations owe their origins to the Apostles and the early Church, but do not claim descent from ancient Church structures such as the episcopate. Neither of these Churches, however, denies that they are a part of the catholic (meaning universal) Church.

Present-day usage

While the term is usually associated with the Roman Catholic Church, whose over one billion adherents are about half of the estimated 2.1 billion Christians, other Christian denominations also lay claim to the term "catholic", including the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Protestant Churches possessing an episcopate (bishops). In countries that have been traditionally Protestant, Catholic will often be included in the official name of a particular parish church, school, hospice or other institution belonging to the Roman Catholic Church, to distinguish it from those of other denominations. For example, the name "St. Mark's Catholic Church" makes it clear that it is not an Episcopal or Lutheran church. This usage of the term "Catholic" has a long history. A millennium before the Protestant Reformation, Saint Augustine wrote: :"In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. :"And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house. :"Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church." : — St. Augustine (AD 354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=] Earlier still, St Cyril of Jerusalem (circa 315-386) urged those he was instructing in the Christian faith: "If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God" (Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310118.htm] Those who apply the term "Catholic Church" to all Christians indiscriminately find it objectionable that a term that they see as designating the whole Church as an invisible entity should be used to refer to one communion only. However, the Roman Catholic Church, which normally refers to itself simply as the Catholic Church, publishing in 1992 a "Catechism of the Catholic Church", can basically be traced historically to the original Catholic or universal Church, from which various groups broke away over the centuries. It holds that there can be no such thing as the Church as an "invisible entity" only. Since the Reformation in the sixteenth century, Protestants (those who protest) have sought to restore a more primitive expression of the Church, with goals and beliefs that they believe to be more consonant with the early Church, based primarily on Scriptural texts. However, there was a more than a millennium between the "early Church" and the "Reformation", during which both Scripture and Christian teaching were maintained. As well as the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Oriental Orthodox Churches all see themselves as the "one holy catholic and apostolic Church" of the Nicene Creed. Others too who do not recognize the primacy of the Bishop of Rome and rank him only as an equal among Patriarchs, such as the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch, use the term Catholic to distinguish their own position from a Calvinist or Puritan form of Protestantism. They include "High Church" Anglicans, known also as "Anglo-Catholics". Although the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Churches in general do not view the Anglican Churches as truly "Catholic", Anglicans themselves claim to have all the qualifications needed to be Catholic.

Catholic Epistles

"Catholic Epistles" is another term for the General Epistles of the Christian New Testament in the Bible, which were addressed not to a particular city but to all in general. It is thus, strictly speaking, not an ecclesiastical term, being employed in the original broad sense of the Greek word from which "catholic" is derived. The epistles in question are [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#james James]; [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#1peter First] and [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#2peter Second Peter]; [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#1john First], [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/2john/2john.htm Second], and [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/3john/3john.htm Third John]and [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/jude/jude.htm Jude].

Capitalization

Capitalization is no sure guide to denominational affiliation. It may indicate formal affiliation with the Roman Catholic Church or it may not. Capitalization may merely indicate a wish to stress the holy and solemn nature of the spiritual body of believers and a desire for all Christians to be one. It would be anachronistic to attribute significance to capitalization or lack of capitalization in printings of texts dating from before the last few centuries or in translations of those texts, since the originals were written in unmixed majuscule or minuscule letters. Translations even of modern texts into English often follow the usage of the original language. For instance, since French normally capitalizes only the first word of the title of an entity, the adjective "catholique", following the noun "Église", has a lower-case initial. Texts in Latin generally follow this usage, not the English practice.

Avoidance of usage

Some Protestant Christian Churches avoid using the term completely. The Orthodox Churches share some of the concerns about Roman Catholic claims, but disagree with Protestants about the nature of the Church as one body. For some, to use the word "Catholic" at all is to appear to give credence to papal claims.

See also


- Catholicism
- Roman Catholic Church
- Anglo-Catholicism
- Eastern Orthodox Churches
- Nicene Creed
- Famous catholics

External links


- [http://www.vatican.va The Holy See] the official Vatican web site
- [http://www.catholicfiles.com/ Catholic Files] free Catholic downloads
- [http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers] Catholics Answers
- [http://www.thecatholicguide.com TheCatholic Guide] The Catholic Guide
- [http://www.catholicity.com CatholiCity] free catholic CDs and books
- [http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America]
- [http://www.catholicexchange.com/ Catholic Exchange] non-profit charity
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/ Summa Theologica]
- [http://www.fisheaters.com Fish Eaters: The Whys and Hows of Traditional Catholicism]
- [http://www.malach.org Polish Catholic service Malach - service of Głogów city]
- [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/ Scripture Catholic; Defending Roman Catholicism with its Sacred Scriptures]
- [http://www.mycatholic.com myCatholic.com] — A customizable Catholic web portal.
- [http://www.americancatholic.org/UpdateYourFaith/default.asp Catholic Church FAQs from American Catholic]
- [http://www.stblogsparish.com/bloglist.html Catholic Blogs & Resources] Category:Roman Catholic Church Category:Christianity Category:Anglicanism ko:카톨릭 ja:カトリック教会

Hong Kong

The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (Traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區; Simplified Chinese: 中华人民共和国香港特别行政区 pronunciation), is a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (PRC). It is located on the southeastern coast of China. Hong Kong (also known as Hongkong, which was common in older texts) has one of the world's most liberal economies and is a major international centre of finance and trade. A former British colony now administered by the PRC under the "one country, two systems" policy, Hong Kong is constitutionally entitled to a relatively high degree of autonomy; for example, it retains its own legal system, currency, customs, treaty negotiating rights, such as air traffic and aircraft landing rights, and immigration laws. Hong Kong even maintains its own road rules, with traffic continuing to drive on the left. Only national defence and diplomatic relations are responsibilities of the central government in Beijing. Despite Hong Kong's reversion from British to Chinese rule, the region's English name remains "Hong Kong" (the pronunciation in the local Cantonese language), and not, as some sources suggest, Xianggang (the Mandarin Chinese equivalent).

History

Even though Hong Kong has been occupied since the Neolithic Age, the area now known as Hong Kong only began to attract the attention of China and the rest of the world in the 19th century when it was ceded to Britain after the Opium Wars. Hong Kong was first visited by a European in 1513, the Portuguese mariner Jorge Álvares. Álvares began trading with the Chinese, and the Portuguese continued to make periodic trade stops at various locations up and down the coast. Kowloon Peninsula south of Boundary Street and Stonecutter's Island were ceded to the British in 1860 under the Convention of Peking after the Second Opium War. Various adjacent lands, known as the New Territories (including New Kowloon and Lantau Island), were then leased by Britain for 99 years, beginning on 1 July 1898 and ending on 30 June 1997. Hong Kong became a crown colony in 1843. For the first twenty years there was little contact between the European and Chinese communities. The first specially recruited Hong Kong civil servants to be taught Cantonese were recruited in 1862, markedly improving relations. Cantonese with the raising of the Union Flag and the Flag of the Republic of China.]] Tea, silk, and other Asian luxury goods were introduced in Europe by the Portuguese, and by the mid-18th century, these items were in high demand, particularly tea. The British, challenging China's near monopoly on the tea industry, invaded China, winning the First Opium War in 1841. During the war, Hong Kong Island was first occupied by the British, and was formally ceded by the Qing Dynasty of China in 1842 under the Treaty of Nanking. Hong Kong entered a dark age during the Japanese Occupation of World War II, which lasted for three years and eight months. Many Hong Kong people were executed by the Japanese army during the war. The Japanese subsequently surrendered on 15 August 1945. The port was quickly re-opened and welcomed a mass migration of Chinese refugees in 1949 from the civil war and the new Communist government in China. Hong Kong had been a trade port ever since the British occupation, but its position as an entrepot declined greatly after the United Nations ordered a trade embargo against the People's Republic of China as a result of the Korean War. In response, a textile industry was established, taking advantage of the new pool of workers from China who were willing to work for almost any wage. During this period, the economy grew extremely rapidly. Towards the 1970s, Hong Kong began to move away from the textile industry and develop its financial and banking economy. This led to even greater growth, and Hong Kong quickly became one of the wealthiest territories in the world. Its position as an entrepot was restrengthened since the Open Door Policy was adopted in the PRC in the late 1970s under Deng Xiaoping. In the 1980s, with the lease on the New Territories running out, the British government of Margaret Thatcher decided to negotiate the question of the sovereignty of Hong Kong. Although the British would have been legally required to transfer only the New Territories to the PRC, Whitehall decided that maintaining a rump colony would not be worthwhile - the majority of Hong Kong's land was in the New Territories, and failure to return the entire colony would doubtless have generated political friction between the UK and PRC. Pursuant to an agreement known as the Sino-British Joint Declaration, signed by the People's Republic of China and the United Kingdom on 19 December 1984, the whole territory of Hong Kong under British colonial rule became the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the PRC on 1 July 1997. In the Joint Declaration, the PRC promised that under the "One Country, Two Systems" policy proposed by Deng Xiaoping, the socialist economic system in mainland China would not be practised in Hong Kong, and Hong Kong's previous capitalist system and life-style would remain unchanged for 50 years, or until 2047. Hong Kong would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except diplomatic affairs and national defence. Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC at the stroke of midnight on 1 July 1997, with the last governor, Chris Patten leaving on the royal yacht. The handover coincided with the large scale collapse of land values in Hong Kong, greatly damaging the bubble economy, as part of the Asian financial crisis. The land values fell in some areas by over half, and the Hang Seng Index fell by over 1,500 points on 28 October, losing 22.8 % of its value in a week. Exacerbating the region's economic problems, Hong Kong was hit badly by the SARS virus in the summer of 2003, especially in the effect that it had on travel to and from Hong Kong. On 1 July the same year, half a million people marched in the largest protest rally ever aimed at the government of Hong Kong, voicing concerns about a proposed anti-subversion bill that would have eroded freedom of the press, of religion and of association arising from Article 23 of the Hong Kong Basic Law, as well as dissatisfaction with the poor state of the economy. Regina Ip, then Secretary for Security, and Anthony Leung, then Financial Secretary, were forced to leave office in 2003 under public pressure. On 10 March 2005, Tung Chee Hwa submitted his resignation as chief executive of Hong Kong. Donald Tsang, the Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong, served as Acting Chief Executive until 25 May, when he, too, resigned from his post to take part in the campaign for the new Chief Executive election. Following an interim government headed by Henry Tang, Tsang was eventually elected as Chief Executive.

Politics and government

Henry Tang.]] Henry Tang, and other protesters demand release of Aung San Suu Kyi. The Public Order Ordinance requires police permission to hold a demonstration of more than 30 participants.]] The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is headed by its Chief Executive, the head of government. This office is currently held by Donald Tsang, who was elected on 16 June 2005. Tsang had held the post of Chief Secretary for Administration prior. Donald Tsang assumed his post on 24 June 2005 in Beijing, China; he will finish the remaining portion of Tung Chee Hwa's last term which ends on 30 June 2007, according to the interpretation of Annex I and Article 46 by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. The election of a new Chief Executive by the 800-member Election Committee was expected to be held on 10 July 2005. On 16 June 2005, Donald Tsang was acclaimed the winner, as the only candidate securing the required 100 nominations from members of the election committee. Tung Chee Hwa, the first Chief Executive, assumed office on 1 July 1997, following his election by a 400-member electoral college. For the second five-year term of the Chief Executive which began in July 2002, Tung was the only nominated candidate and therefore acclaimed. The PRC set up a Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) just before the handover, and moved to Hong Kong to have its meetings after the handover. It reverted some laws passed by the original Legislative Council, which was formed by means of universal suffrage. The PLC passed some of its own laws, such as the Public Order Ordinance , which required permission from police to hold a demonstration where the number of people who participates exceeds 30. Legislative Council elections were held on 24 May 1998, 10 September 2000, and again on 12 September 2004, with the next election scheduled for 2008. According to the Basic Law, Hong Kong's "mini-constitution", the present third term of the Legislative Council has 30 seats directly elected from geographical constituencies, and 30 seats elected from functional constituencies. The 1998, 2000 and 2004 Legislative Council elections were seen as free, open, and widely contested, despite discontent among mainly 'pro-democratic' politicians, who contended that the functional constituency elections and the Election Committee elections (for 1998 and 2000) were undemocratic, as they consider that the electorate for these seats is too narrow. The civil service of Hong Kong maintains its quality and neutrality, operating without discernible direction from Beijing. Many government and administrative operations are located in Central on Hong Kong Island near the historical location of Victoria City, the site of the original British settlements. The Right of abode issue sparked debates in 1999, while the controversy over Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 was the focus of politics in Hong Kong between 2002 and 2003, culminating in a peaceful mass demonstration (over 500,000 demonstrators) on 1 July 2003, after which the government still tried to pass the law to the Legislative Council. But one of the major pro-government parties refused to vote for passing the bill. Thus the government found that the bill could not be passed. So it shelved the drafted law brought forth by Article 23. The focus of controversies shifted to the issue of universal suffrage towards the end of 2003 and in 2004, which was the slogan of another peaceful mass demonstration on 1 July 2004. On 24 September 2005, twenty-five Hong Kong pro-democracy Legco members, some of whom were previously labelled as traitors by Beijing after the 1989 Tiananmen Square crackdown and barred from entering the mainland, crossed the border into the southern province of Guangdong, following an unprecedented invitation by the PRC . The invitation was generally regarded as one of the greatest goodwill gestures from the PRC to the Hong Kong democrats since the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989. On 4 December 2005, a demonstration was organised by the Civil Human Rights Front and pro-democracy lawmakers to express concerns about the lack of a working timetable that will allow for universal suffrage in the 2007 and 2008 elections for the Chief Executive and the Legistlative Council respectively. The turnout was reported to be 63,000 by the police, and at least 250,000 by the organisers.

Legal system and judiciary

pro-democracy.]] In contrast to mainland China's civil law system, Hong Kong continues to follow the common law tradition established by British colonial rule. Article 84 of the Basic Law of Hong Kong allows Hong Kong's courts to refer to decisions (precedents) rendered by courts of foreign jurisdictions and to invite foreign judges to participate in proceedings of Hong Kong's Court of Final Appeal. Structurally, Hong Kong's court system consists of the Court of Final Appeal which replaced the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, the High Court, which is made up of the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance, and the District Court, which includes the Family Court. Other adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Court, the Coroner's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal, and the Obscene Articles Tribunal, which is responsible for classifying non-video pornography to be circulated in Hong Kong. Justices of the Court of Final Appeal are appointed by Hong Kong's Chief Executive. The Basic Law of Hong Kong is subject to interpretation by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and this power has been invoked three times: the right of abode issue, an interpretation regarding post-2008 election procedures, and an interpretation regarding the length of the term of the Chief Executive. As in England, lawyers in Hong Kong are classified as barristers and solicitors, where one can choose to practice as either one but not both (but it is possible to switch from one to the other). The vast majority of lawyers are solicitors who are licensed and regulated by the Law Society of Hong Kong. Barristers, on the other hand, are licensed and regulated by the Hong Kong Bar Association. Only barristers are allowed to appear in the