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| Meherrin |
MeherrinThe Meherrin are an Iroquoian tribe formerly residing on the river of the same name on the Virginia-North Carolina border. According to official colonial documents they were a remnant of the Susquehannock of upper Maryland, dispersed by the Iroquois about 1675. In the 1669 census of Virginia, however, they are found noted under the name "Menheyricks." It is possible that the influx of refugee Susquehannock a few years later may have so overwhelmed the remnant of the original tribe as to give rise to the impression that they were all of Susquehannock blood. They were commonly regarded as under the jurisdiction of Virginia, although their territory was claimed also by Carolina. They were closely related with the Nottoway.
Iroquois
The Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee, also known as the League of Peace and Power, Five Nations, or Six Nations) is a group of First Nations/Native Americans. The Confederacy was based, at the time of the arrival of the Europeans, in what is now upstate New York, as well as parts of Pennsylvania, Ontario, and Quebec.
Quebec, 1914]]
History
Prehistoric and Protohistoric period
This union of nations was established prior to major European contact, replete with a constitution recorded with special beads called wampum that have inherent spiritual value (wampum has been innacurately compared to money in other cultures). Most Western anthropologists speculate that this Constitution was created between the middle 1400s and early 1600s, but other scholars who account for Iroquois oral tradition argue that the event took place as early as 1100, with many arguing for August 31, 1142 based on a coinciding solar eclipse (see Fields and Mann, American Indian Culture and Research Journal, vol. 21, #2). Some Westerners have also suggested that the Constitution was written with European help, although most dismiss this notion as racism.
The two prophets, Hiawatha and "The Great Peacemaker", brought a message of peace to squabbling tribes. The tribes who joined the League were the Seneca, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga and Mohawks. Once they ceased (most) infighting, they rapidly became one of the strongest forces in 17th and 18th century northeastern North America.
The League engaged in a series of wars against the French and their Iroquoian-speaking Wyandot ("Huron") allies. They also put great pressure on the Algonquian peoples of the Atlantic coast and what is now subarctic Canada and not infrequently fought the English colonies as well. During the 17th Century they are also credited with having destroyed the Neutral Indians and Erie Tribe as a way of controlling the fur trade, even though other reasons are often given for these wars. Some survivors of these tribes were absorbed into the Iroquois tribes.
fur trade
According to Francis Parkman, the Iroquois were at the height of their power in the 17th century with a population of around 12,000 people. League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through the "Mourning War", raids intended to seize captives and take vengeance on non-members. This tradition was common to native people of the northeast and was quite different from European settlers' notions of combat.
The 18th Century
In 1720 the Tuscarora fled north from the European colonization of North Carolina and petitioned to become the Sixth Nation. This is a non-voting position, but places them under the protection of the Confederacy.
During the American Revolution the Oneida and many Tuscarora and Onondaga sided with the Americans while the Mohawk, Seneca, and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain. This marked the first split among the Six Nations. After a series of successful operations against frontier settlements led by the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant and his British allies, the United States reacted with vengeance. In 1779, George Washington ordered Col. Daniel Brodhead and General John Sullivan to lead expeditions against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overun, but destroy," the British-Indian alliance. The campaign successfully ended the ability of the British and Iroquois to mount any further significant attacks on American settlements.
In 1794, the Confederacy entered into the Treaty of Canandaigua with the United States. After the American Revolutionary War, Captain Joseph Brant and the Six Nations Indians left New York to settle in Canada. As a reward for their loyalty to the Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River. The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present-day city at a location favourable for landing canoes. Brant's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant's ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle further up the river at a ford in the Grand River and named the village Brantford, Ontario.
Beliefs
These tribes, mostly members of the Iroquois nation, lived in the Northeastern territories of the U.S. and Canada, from the St. Lawrence River down to the Delaware Bay and inland to the Great Lakes. Their close contact with Europeans makes investigation of their original mythology and religion extremely difficult, but core beliefs included a conception of life as a struggle between the forces of good and evil. The "All-Father," and all embracing deity, had no form and little contact of the humans. Spirits animated all of nature and controlled the changing of the season. Key festivals coincided with the major events of the agricultural calendar.
Seventh Generation is a precept of the Great Law of the Haudenosaunee (Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy), which requires that chiefs consider the impact of their decisions on the seventh generation.
The Haudenosaunee
The combined leadership of the Nations is known as the Haudenosaunee. It should be noted that "Haudenosaunee" is the term that the people use to refer to themselves. The word "Iroquois" is reputed to come from a French version of a Huron (Wendat) name—considered an insult—meaning "Black Snakes." The Iroquois were enemies of the Huron and the Algonquin, who were allied with the French, due to their rivalry in the fur trade. Haudenosaunee means "People Building a Long House." The term is said to have been introduced by The Great Peacemaker at the time of the formation of the Confederacy. It implies that the Nations of the confederacy should live together as families in the same longhouse. Symbolically, the Seneca were the guardians of the western door of the "tribal long house," and the Mohawk were the guardians of the eastern door.
There exists another, perhaps more compelling, version explaining the origin of the word "Iroquois"; as the French combination of two distinct terms used in the language of the Haudenosaunee. Here is a link to published text discussing this point:
http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/index.html#fn1
The participants and writers developing the nascent US government addressed and compared the Haudenosaunee and their ways to a state of achievement in administrative self-governance which Rome itself never reached and which they hoped the US would aspire to and achieve.
Another useful reference in learning about the Haudenosaunee exists here:
http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/index.html
The Iroquois nations' political union and democratic government has been credited by some as one of the influences on the United States Constitution. Please see Figure 31 at this link:
http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/EoL/chp8.html#fig31
However, that theory has fallen into disfavor among many historians, and is regarded by some as mythology. Historian Jack Rakove writes: "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois." [http://hnn.us/articles/12974.html].
The Haudenosaunee issues passports to some of its citizens. Though legal travellers often find it inconvenient to have it recognized.
Member Nations
:::Note 1: Member of Original Five Nations (listed from west to east)
:::Note 2: Sixth Nation (Joined in 1720)
Iroquois Clans
Within each of the six nations, people are divided into a number of matrilineal clans. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to seven, with a total of nine different clan names.
Government
The Iroquois have a representative government known as the Grand Council. Each tribe sends chiefs to act as respresentatives and make decisions for the whole nation. The number of chiefs has never changed.
- Onondaga 14
- Cayuga 10
- Oneida 9
- Mohawk 9
- Seneca 8
References
- "The Ordeal of the Longhouse", by Daniel K. Richter
- For a detailed account of Iroquois actions during the American Revolution, see: Williams, Glenn F. Year of the Hangman: George Washington's Campaign Against the Iroquois Yardley: Westholme Publishing, 2005.
- [http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Culture/?article=who_we_are Who Are the Haudenosaunee?]
- [http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/ Oldest Living Participatory Democracy]
- [http://www.iroquoismuseum.org Iroquois Indian Museum, Howes Cave, NY]
Related topics
- Joseph Brant
- Red Jacket
- Sir William Johnson
- Smoke Johnson
- Cornplanter
- Ely S. Parker
- Sullivan Expedition
- History of New York
- Iroquois economics
- Iroquoian languages
- Iroquois mythology
- Six Nations of the Grand River
- Covenant Chain
- Ganondagan State Historic Site
External links
- [http://www.sixnations.org/ Haudenosaunee Home Page] : the official source of news and information from the Haudenosaunee.
- [http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Great_Law_of_Peace/ Gayanashagowa]
Category:Iroquois
Category:First Nations in Quebec
Category:First Nations in Ontario
ja:イロコイ連邦
North Carolina
North Carolina is a Southern U.S. state in the United States, also considered a Mid-Atlantic state in some cases. North Carolina is one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. It is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. The state is named for King Charles I of England (in Latin, Carolus means Charles).
The USS North Carolina was named in honor of this state.
North Carolina has 3 metropolitan combined statistical areas with a population of over 1 million.
As of July 1, 2004:
- Charlotte-Gastonia-Salisbury, NC-SC - population 2,067,810
- Raleigh-Durham-Cary - population of 1,467,434
- Greensboro/Winston-Salem/High Point - population of 1,335,217
Source: US Bureau of the Census
Released April 2005
History
North Carolina was originally inhabited by a number of native tribes, including the Cherokee, Creek, Tuscarora, Lumbee, and Catawba. North Carolina was the first American territory the English attempted to colonize. Sir Walter Raleigh, for whom the state capital is named, chartered two colonies on the North Carolina (then Virginia) coast in the late 1580s, both ending in failure. The demise of one, the "Lost Colony" of Roanoke Island, remains one of the great mysteries of American history. Virginia Dare, the first English child to be born stateside, was born in North Carolina. Dare County is named for her.
The first permanent European settlers of North Carolina were poor English and Scots-Irish settlers who had failed at establishing themselves in Barbados. By the late seventeenth century, several permanent settlements had taken hold in the Carolina territory, which encompassed present-day South Carolina and Tennessee as well. The Carolina territory was a gift from King Charles II of England to the so-called Lords Proprietors, a group of noblemen who had helped restore Charles to the English throne in 1660. In 1712, North Carolina became a separate colony. With the exception of the Earl Granville's holdings, it became a royal colony seventeen years later. According to legend, on May 20 1775, Mecklenburg County became the first North Carolina county to declare its independence from Great Britain. (No period documentation survives to verify this legend.) On April 12 1776, the colony became the first to instruct its delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for independence from the British crown. The dates of both of these independence-related events are memorialized on the state flag and state seal.
On November 21, 1789, North Carolina ratified the Constitution to become the twelfth state in the Union. Between the American Revolutionary War and the American Civil War, North Carolina worked to establish its state and local governments. In 1840, it completed the state capitol building in Raleigh, still standing today. In mid-century the state's rural and commercial areas were further connected by construction of a 129 mile (208 km) wooden plank road, known as a "farmer's railroad," from Fayetteville in the east to Bethania (northwest of Winston-Salem).
In 1860 North Carolina was a slave state, however according to the Museum of the Cape Fear, it was only two percent of the population that owned over 99 percent of the slaves in the state. There were also about 30,000 free blacks residing in the state. Somewhat divided on whether to support the North or the South in the Civil War, North Carolina was the last state to secede from the Union in 1861. Governor Ellis, leader of the state at the war's beginning in 1861, famously declared in response to President Lincoln's call for 75,000 troops to suppress the "rebellion" that "you can get no troops from North Carolina." However, under his leadership and that of his successor, Governor Zebulon Baird Vance of Asheville, elected in 1862, the Tar Heel State did provide 125,000 troops to the Confederacy, more than any other Confederate state. Approximately 40,000 of those troops never returned home, dead of battlefield wounds, disease and privation.
Although few major engagements took place in North Carolina itself, her troops served in virtually all the major battles of the Army of Northern Virginia. The largest battle that occurred in North Carolina was at Bentonville, a futile attempt by Confederate Gen. Joseph Johnston to slow Union Gen. Sherman's advance into the Carolinas in the spring of 1865. Gen. Johnston surrendered one of the largest Confederate armies near Durham in late April 1865, weeks after Gen. Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox, but the final surrender in North Carolina came at Waynesville in Western North Carolina in May, when remnants of Thomas' Cherokee Legion laid down their arms.
Today, North Carolina is home to Fort Bragg, near Fayetteville; it is one of the largest and most comprehensive military bases in the United States and is the headquarters of the XVIII Airborne Corps, 82nd Airborne Division, and the U.S. Army Special Operations Command. Next to Fort Bragg is Pope Air Force Base. North Carolina is also home to Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune which, when combined with nearby Marine bases MCAS Cherry Point, Camp Geiger, Camp Johnson, Stone Bay and Courthouse Bay, makes up the largest concentration of Marines and sailors in the world.
Over the past century, North Carolina has grown to become a national leader in agriculture, financial services, and industry. The state's industrial output—mainly textiles, chemicals, electrical equipment, paper and paper products—ranked eighth in the nation in the early 1990s. Tobacco, one of North Carolina's earliest sources of revenue, remains vital to the local economy. Recently, technology, research, and banking has become a driving force in the state, especially with the creation of the Research Triangle Park between Raleigh and Durham in the 1950's, along with Charlotte's newfound international status as the second largest banking center in the entire United States. The state is also a center of American motorsports with many NASCAR racing teams and related industries located near Charlotte.
In 2005, the state Legislature voted to implement a state lottery, killing North Carolina's reputation as the "anti-lottery" state, where owning a lottery ticket, even from another state, was once a felony.
North Carolina has had three constitutions:
- 1776: This one was ratified December 18, 1776, as the first constitution of the independent state. The Declaration of Rights was ratified the preceding day.
- 1868: This was framed in accordance with the Reconstruction Acts after North Carolina was readmitted into the Union. It was a major reorganization and modification of the original into fourteen articles. It also introduced townships which each county was required to create, the only Southern state to do so.
- 1971: This is a minor consolidation of the 1868 constitution and subsequent amendments.
Law and Government
The capital of North Carolina is Raleigh. North Carolina's governor is Mike Easley, a Democrat. Its two U.S. senators are Elizabeth Dole and Richard Burr, both Republicans.
Executive branch
The governor, lieutenant governor, and eight elected department heads form the North Carolina Council of State. Ten other department heads appointed by the Governor form the North Carolina Cabinet. The state's current governor is Democrat Mike Easley. See List of North Carolina Governors
Legislative branch
The North Carolina General Assembly consists of two houses, a 50-member Senate and a 120-member House of Representatives. For the 2005–2006 session, the current President Pro Tempore of the Senate is Democrat Marc Basnight (the Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina is the President of the Senate); The House Speaker is Democrat James B. Black. The prior term's power sharing Co-Speaker arrangement is no longer in effect, as the House Democrats won a decided victory and majority of the seats in the 2004 election.
Judicial branch
The Supreme Court of North Carolina is the state's highest appellate court; it numbers seven justices. The North Carolina Court of Appeals is the only intermediate appellate court in the state; it consists of fifteen judges who rule in rotating panels of three. Together, the Supreme Court and Court of Appeals constitute the Appellate division of the court system.
The Trial division includes the Superior Court and the District Court. All felony criminal cases, civil cases involving more than $10,000 and misdemeanor and infraction appeals from District Court are tried in Superior Court. A jury of 12 hears the criminal cases. In the civil cases, juries are often waived.
Civil cases such as divorce, custody, child support and cases involving less than $10,000 are heard in District Court, along with criminal cases involving misdemeanors and infractions. The trial of a criminal case in District Court is always without a jury. The District Court also hears juvenile cases involving children under the age of 16 who are delinquent and children under the age of 18 who are undisciplined, dependent, neglected or abused. Magistrates accept guilty pleas for minor misdemeanors, accept guilty pleas for traffic violations, and accept waivers of trial for worthless-check cases among other things. In civil cases, the magistrate is authorized to try small claims involving up to $4,000 including landlord eviction cases.
Source: [http://www.nccourts.org/Courts/Default.asp North Carolina Court System official site]
Economy
According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, the state's 2003 total gross state product was $314 billion. Its 2003 Per Capita Personal Income was $28,071, 38th in the nation. North Carolina's agricultural outputs are poultry and eggs, tobacco, hogs, milk, nursery stock, cattle, and soybeans. Its industrial outputs are tobacco products, textile goods, chemical products, electric equipment, machinery, and tourism. Charlotte, the largest city in the state, is also the nation's largest banking presence outside of New York City. North Carolina is also the largest film making state outside of California. Movie studios are located in Shelby, Raleigh, Durham, Charlotte, and the most popular, EUE Screen Gems Studios in Wilmington. Some of the films and television shows filmed there include: Dawson's Creek, One Tree Hill, Cape Fear, Maximum Overdrive and The Crow.
Demographics
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2004, North Carolina's population was 8,541,221.
:See Metropolitan_Combined_Statistical_Area
The racial makeup of the state is:
- 70.2% White Non-Hispanic
- 21.6% Black
- 4.7% Hispanic of any race
- 1.4% Asian
- 1.2% Native American
- 1.3% Mixed race
The five largest ancestry groups in North Carolina are: African American (21.6%), American (13.9%), English (9.5%), German (9.5%), Irish (7.4%). It is probable that most of those claiming "American" descent are descended from the early Scots-Irish settlers who settled primarily in the Piedmont and the mountains.
African-Americans are concentrated in the state's eastern Coastal Plain and in parts of the Piedmont Plateau where plantation agriculture was most dominant (See "History"). Until the mid 1860s, North Carolina had more small farms and fewer plantations than adjacent South Carolina and Virginia. These farmers were called "Yeoman" farmers who were non-slave owning, private land owners of tracts of approximately 500 acres (2 km²).
North Carolinians of British ancestry are concentrated in the western mountains, coastal areas, and Piedmont areas. Residents who claim American descent are most prevalent in the rural areas of the central Piedmont and most of the mountains. The tri-racial Lumbee Indians, who claim descent from the Lost Colony survivors, live primarily in Robeson County, and the Cherokee Indians live in western Swain County. The state has one of the fastest growing Latino and Asian populations in the country; these populations have nearly quintupled and tripled respectively between 1990 and 2002.
6.7% of North Carolina's population were reported as under 5, 24.4% under 18, and 12.0% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51% of the population.
Transportation
Airports
- Asheville Regional Airport
- Charlotte Douglas International Airport
- Fayetteville Regional Airport - Grannis Field
- Piedmont Triad International Airport (Greensboro/High Point)
- Raleigh-Durham International Airport
- Wilmington International Airport
Major Highways
- Interstate 26
- Interstate 40
- Interstate 74
- Interstate 77
- Interstate 85
- Interstate 240
- Interstate 277
- Interstate 440
- Interstate 485
- Interstate 540
- U.S. Highway 1
- U.S. Highway 15
- U.S. Highway 17
- U.S. Highway 19
- U.S. Highway 25
- U.S. Highway 52
- U.S. Highway 64
- U.S. Highway 70
- U.S. Highway 74
- U.S. Highway 76
- U.S. Highway 117
- U.S. Highway 158
- U.S. Highway 178
- U.S. Highway 220
- U.S. Highway 421
- U.S. Highway 501
- NC 147 (Durham Freeway)
Religion
North Carolina, like other Southern states, is overwhelmingly Protestant, with the largest Protestant denomination being the Baptists. The current religious affiliations of the people of North Carolina are shown below:
- Christian – 88%
- Protestant – 77%
- Baptist – 40%
- Methodist – 10%
- Presbyterian – 3%
- Other Protestant or general Protestant – 24%
- Roman Catholic – 10%
- Other Christian – 1% (Eastern Orthodox, etc.)
- Non-Religious – 11% (atheists, agnostics, etc.)
- Other Religions – 1% (Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, etc.)
Important cities and towns
Small towns/areas with interesting names:
- Bat Cave (in Henderson County, near Asheville)
- Climax (in Guilford County, near Greensboro)
- Frog Level (in Pitt County)
- Frying Pan Landing (in Tyrrell County)
- Fuquay-Varina (in Wake County)
- Kill Devil Hills (in Dare County)
- Lizard Lick (in Wake County, near Raleigh)
- Mount Airy (in Surry County, was the inspiration for Mayberry in the popular TV program The Andy Griffith Show, and is Griffith's birthplace)
- Rich Square (in Northampton County)
- Rockfish (in Hoke County)
- Soul City (in Warren County)
- Tickbite (in Pitt County)
- Welcome (in Davidson County)
Education
Colleges and universities
Professional sports teams
Despite having over eight million people, the disbursement of North Carolina's population over three major metropolitan areas left the state unable to attract any major professional sports league teams until recently. North Carolina remains without a Major League Baseball team despite numerous efforts to attract a team to the state. Although more populous New Jersey also does not have an MLB team, North Carolina is the most populous state without a team from each of the major leagues either within or very close to the state's borders.
Miscellaneous information
- North Carolina state symbols
- North Carolina Award
- List of individuals executed in North Carolina
- List of television stations in North Carolina
- List of radio stations in North Carolina
- List of famous North Carolinians
See also
- North Carolina communities
- North Carolina subcategories
- Order of the Long Leaf Pine
External links
- [http://www.ncgov.com North Carolina government]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/37000.html US Census Bureau]
- [http://www.bluenc.com BlueNC] Multi-author blog about progressive politics in North Carolina.
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Category:States of the United States
ko:노스캐롤라이나 주
ja:ノースカロライナ州
Susquehannock
The Susquehannock people were natives of areas adjacent to the Susquehanna River and its tributaries from the southern part of what is now New York, through Pennsylvania, to the mouth of the Susquehanna in Maryland at the north end of the Chesapeake Bay. These people were called
- Andastes by the French (from their Huron name Andastoerrhonon),
- Minquas by the Dutch and Swedes (their Delaware name meaning "treacherous"),
- Susquehannocks by the English of Maryland and Virginia (an Algonquin name meaning "people of the muddy river", and
- Conestoga by the English of Pennsylvania (from Kanastoge, meaning place of the immersed pole, the name of their village in Pennsylvania).
It is unknown what the Susquehannocks called themselves.
The Susquehannocks were Iroquoian-speaking people who rejected invitations to join the Five Nations Iroquois League to the north. This made them a typical enemy of the Five Nations. The true nature of their society, whether comprised of a single tribe in a single village, or a confederacy of smaller tribes occupying scattered villages, will probably never be known, since Europeans seldom visited this inland region during the early colonial period. It's likely that the Susquehannocks had occupied the same land for several hundred years. They had a formidable village in the lower river valley near present-day Lancaster, Pennsylvania, when Captain John Smith of Jamestown met them in 1608. He estimated the population of their village to be two thousand, although he never visited it. Modern estimates of their population, including the whole territory in 1600, range as high as seven thousand.
External links
- [http://www.brokenclaw.net/native/susquehannock.html "Where are the Susquehannock?" from brokenclaw.net]
- [http://www.dickshovel.com/susque.html "Susquehannock History" by Lee Sultzman]
Category:Extinct languages
Category:Iroquoian languages
Category:Languages of the United States
Category:Native American tribes
1669
Events
- March 11 - Mount Etna erupts - the eruption destroys the town of Nicolasi and kills 20.000
- June 22 - Roux de Marsilly publicly tortured to death in Paris accused of plotting to assassination of the Louis XIV
- June 25 - Francois de Vendome, Duke of Beaufort, disappears during a battle in a siege of Candia in Crete
- September 23 - Leopold I Habsburg grants the status and privileges of a university to the Jesuit Academy in Zagreb, the precursor to the modern University of Zagreb
- Samuel Pepys stops writing his diary.
- The Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb destroys several Hindu temples and banned the whole religion, so Hindus rebel.
- Antonio Stradivari makes his first violin
- Famine in Bengal kills 3 million people
- The Hanseatic League, formed 400 years ago, holds its final meeting
- Ottoman Turks take Candia, the Venetians lose Crete
- Francois de Beaufort, grandson of Henry IV of France, goes missing at Candia, presumed dead
- The Chinese herbal medicine company Tongrentang, or 同仁堂 in Chinese, is established.
Births
- February 2 - Louis Marchand, French organist and harpsichordist (d. 1732)
- May 26 - Sébastien Vaillant, French botanist (d. 1722)
- August 24 - Alessandro Marcello, Italian composer (d. 1747)
Deaths
- February 23 - Leo Aitzema, Dutch historian and statesman (b. 1600)
- March 10 - John Denham, English poet (b. 1615)
- May 14 - Georges de Scudéry, French writer (b. 1601)
- May 16 - Pietro da Cortona, Italian artist (b. 1596)
- June 25 - François de Vendôme, duc de Beaufort, French soldier (b. 1616)
- September 10 - Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I of England (b. 1609)
- October 4 - Rembrandt, Dutch painter (b. 1606)
- October 14 - Antonio Cesti, Italian composer (b. 1623)
- October 24 - William Prynne, English Puritan leader (b. 1600)
- November 4 - Johannes Cocceius, Dutch theologian (b. 1603)
- December 9 - Pope Clement IX (b. 1600)
- December 16 - Nathaniel Fiennes, English politician
Publications
- Algemeene Verhandeling van de bloedeloose dierkens by Jan Swammerdam, groundbreaking work in microscopy as well as entomology
- Der Abenteuerliche Simplicissimus Teutsch by Hans von Grimmelshausen, the first major German novel
- Tyrannic Love by John Dryden
- Tartuffe by Molière
- Britannicus by Jean Racine
Category:1669
ko:1669년
Common Nettle
The Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica and sometimes jaggy nettle or burning weed) is a herb native to Europe, Asia, and North America, the best known member of the nettle genus Urtica.
The taxonomy of stinging nettles has been confused, and older sources are likely to use a variety of systematic names for these plants. Formerly, more species were recognised than are now accepted. However, there are at least three clear subspecies, formerly classified as separate species:
- U. dioica subsp. dioica (European stinging nettle). Europe.
- U. dioica subsp. gracilis (Ait.) Selander (American stinging nettle). North America.
- U. dioica subsp. holosericea (Nutt.) Thorne (Hairy nettle). North America.
Other former species names that are now regarded as synonyms of U. dioica include U. breweri, U. californica, U. cardiophylla, U. lyalli, U. major, U. procera, U. serra, U. strigosissima, U. trachycarpa, and U. viridis. Other vernacular names include Tall nettle, Slender nettle, California nettle, and Bull nettle (a name shared by Cnidoscolus texanus and Solanum carolinense). Away from its native area, it has also been introduced to South America. The European subspecies has also been introduced into North America.
South America
It is abundant in northern Europe, found widely in the countryside and readily colonising fertile nutrient-rich ground including urbanized areas. In North America it is widely distributed in the United States, where it is found in every state except for Hawaii, Arkansas, and South Carolina. However, in North America stinging nettles are markedly less common than in northern Europe.
The Stinging nettle is a herbaceous perennial, growing to 1-2 m tall in the summer and dying down to the ground in winter. The soft green leaves are 3-15 cm long, with a strongly serrated margin, a cordate base and an acuminate tip. Both the leaves and the stems are covered with brittle, hollow, silky hairs that were thought to contain formic acid as a defence against grazing animals; but recent research has revealed the cause of the sting to be from three chemicals- a histamine to irritate the skin, acetylcholine to bring on a burning sensation and hydroxytryptamine to encourage the other two chemicals (Elliott 1997). Bare skin brushing up against a stinging nettle plant will break the delicate defensive hairs and release the trio of chemicals, usually resulting in a temporary and painful skin rash. One folk remedy for the sting is to treat the affected part with juice from the crushed leaf of a dock (Rumex obtusifolia), which commonly grows in association with nettles; it is not a very effective remedy.
Uses
Despite its sting, the nettle is a plant with many uses. It is recommended by the herbalists of many different cultures for a wide variety of purposes in herbal medicine. Cooking, crushing or chopping disables the stinging hairs, and the leaves are not only tasty, but high in nutrients. The young leaves are edible and make a very good pot-herb. A simple recipe is to gather the upper stalks including 3-4 pairs of leaves before the plants flower (using gloves), until one has enough to entirely fill a small saucepan. Fill the pan with cold water, and then put on a lid and drain off the water until all that remains is what is clinging to the leaves. Then put the pan on high heat and steam the leaves, shaking the pan occasionally, until all the leaves are wilted. The leaves can also be dried and used to make a tisane.
In the maintenance of buildings there is a historic practical use of the drained off water as it is acid in nature and was used as an effective way of neutralising the alkaline salts evident on the walls of older damp houses. The salt contaminated patches on the walls continue to 'look' damp even after effective damp resistant course has been inserted. This is due the fact that the crystals have hygroscopic properies i.e. moisture attracting.
Nettle stems contain a bast fiber which has been traditionally used for the same purposes as linen, and is produced by a similar retting process. Nettles can also be used as cattle fodder; cows appear to find harvested nettles a delicacy.
Influence on language and culture
cattle
In England the nettle is the only common stinging plant, and has found a place in several figures of speech in the English language. To "nettle" someone is to annoy them. Shakespeare's Hotspur urges that "out of this nettle, danger, we grasp this flower, safety" (Henry IV, part 1, Act II Scene 3). The common figure of speech "to grasp the nettle" probably originated as a condensation of this quotation. It means to face up to or take on a problem that has been ignored or deferred. The metaphor refers to the fact that if a nettle leaf is grasped firmly rather than brushed against, it does not sting so readily, because the hairs are crushed down flat and do not penetrate the skin so easily.
References and external links
- Elliott, C. (1997). Rash Encounters. Horticulture 94: 30.
- [http://www.scs.leeds.ac.uk/cgi-bin/pfaf/arr_html?Urtica+dioica Plants for a Future database entry for Urtica dioica; comprehensive account with a long list of uses]
- [http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/plant_profile.cgi?symbol=URDI USDA plant description of Urtica dioica]
- [http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/thome/band2/tafel_021.html image from 'Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz']
- [http://mic-ro.com/plants/ Contact-poisonous plants of the world]
Nettle, Stinging
Category:Fiber plants
Category:Leaf vegetables
mieszne gry narty francja Zamwienia publiczne domeny Pozycjonowanie
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