:: wikimiki.org ::

Sullana

Sullana

Sullana is the name of the capital of the Sullana Province, in the north-western coastal plains of Peru on the Chira valley.

Location

Sullana is located at 04°53' south latitude and 80°41' west longitude, 38 km north of Piura, the capital of the region.

Climate

The province has a semi-tropical desert climate and an average temperature of 20 degrees Celsius, varying between 13 °C in the winter and 37 °C in the summer. Irrigated by the waters of the River Chira, the area around the capital city of Sullana is very fertile and there is much lush, tropical vegetation: Coconut palms, banana trees, paddy fields. What's more, Sullana is an important commercial centre in one of Peru's major cotton-growing areas.

Population

Migration to Sullana has been intensive, but "pueblos jóvenes" (shanty towns) are neither widespread nor conspicuous, as they are in Piura for example. The total population in Sullana was 112,770 in 1981, 147,361 in 1993 and circa 162,500 in 2005. In Sullana more than 40% of the heads of household are unemployed or have only occasional employment.

History

The Chira valley has always been an important farming area. Before the Spanish invasion, ethnic groups like the Tallanes, the Mochicas, the Chimu, and finally the Incas had settled here. This region was chosen by the Spaniards to found their first city in this part of the Americas, San Miguel de Tangarara, on July 15, 1532. The Spaniards changed the native farming system and created Repartimientos and Encomiendas. Sullana was founded late in the 18th century, on July 8, 1783, by Bishop Baltazar Jaime Martinez de Compañon y Bufanda and given the name of "El Principe" (The Prince).

Tourism

Sullana has good bus connections to the north, to Piura in the south, as well as inland to Ayabaca and to La Tina on the Ecuadorian border. In the first week of January the Feria Internacional de los Reyes is celebrated. The Poechos reservoir 27 km from the city offers water sports like water skiing, motor-boating, fishing and swimming. Category:Cities in Peru

Peru

The Republic of Peru, (Spanish: República del Perú), or Peru, is a country in western South America, bordering Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the east, south-east and south, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Peru is rich in cultural anthropology, and is well-known as the cradle of the Inca empire.

History

Main article: History of Peru Peru was home to various Pre-Inca cultures and later, to the Inca Empire. Francisco Pizarro landed on the Peruvian coast in 1532, and by the end of the 1530s Peru became a Viceroyalty and a major source of gold and silver for the Spanish Empire. Peru declared its independence from Spain on July 28, 1821 thanks to an alliance between the Argentine army of José de San Martín, and the Neogranadine Army of Simón Bolívar. Its first elected president, however, was not in power until 1827. From 1836 to 1839 Peru and Bolivia were united in the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, dissolved only after an internal conflict. Between these years, political unrest did not fade away, with the Army as an important political force. In 1879, Chile declared war against Bolivia in response to the fact that Bolivia had changed the tax rules regarding Chilean business activities in the Bolivian province of Antofagasta. Since Peru had made a secret political alliance with Bolivia prior to this conflict, Peru was obliged to declare war against Chile. This was referred to as the War of the Pacific which lasted from1879 until 1883 with Chile's victory. The war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica). After the Chilean occupation ended, Peru was engulfed by internal political strife and civil war. Political stability was achieved only during the early years of the 1900s. In 1929 Peru and Chile signed a peace treaty (Treaty of Ancon) by which Tacna was to be returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the rich province of Arica, although keeping certain rights to the port activities in Arica. It is said that the country received its name from a Spanish pronunciation of the Belu river. [http://www.excel-spanishlanguageprograms-peru.org/english/peru.html]

Regions

Main article: Political division of Peru Political division of Peru Peru's territory is divided successively into regions (25) (Spanish: regiones; singular: región), provinces (180) and districts (1747). The Lima Province, located in the central coast of the country, is unique in that it doesn't belong to any of the twenty-five regions. The city of Lima is located in this province, which is also known as Lima Metropolitana (Metropolitan Lima). Until 2002, Peru was divided into 24 departments (departamentos) plus one constitutional province (Callao), and many people still use this term when referring to today's regions, although it is now obsolete. Current Peruvian regions are:

- Amazonas
- Ancash
- Apurímac
- Arequipa
- Ayacucho
- Cajamarca
- Callao
- Cusco
- Huancavelica

- Huánuco
- Ica
- Junín
- La Libertad
- Lambayeque
- Lima
- Loreto
- Madre de Dios

- Moquegua
- Pasco
- Piura
- Puno
- San Martín
- Tacna
- Tumbes
- Ucayali

Geography

Main article: Geography of Peru Geography of Peru Peru is located in Western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean, between Chile and Ecuador. It also shares borders with Colombia, Brazil and Bolivia. The western coastal plains (costa) are separated from the eastern lowland jungle of the Amazon Basin (selva) by the high and rugged Andes in the center (sierra). On the border with Bolivia lies Lake Titicaca, the world's highest navigable lake at 3821 m. A land rich in cultural heritage and a variety of natural environments, harbors 84 of the 118 known life zones of the earth. Peru is a land rich in minerals, and its three types of land (Costa, Sierra y Selva) proportionate wonderful sights. Peru's various Geography permits the development of various activities, such as: (In the Costa)Surfing, Sandboard, 4
- 4 and sandbuggy, (In the Sierra) alpinism, rafting, rappelling, downhill and rally, and in the Selva you can enjoy hard excursions.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Peru The current president is Alejandro Toledo, leader of Perú Posible. This governing party is, with 45 seats, the largest in the 120-seat parliament. The second and third largest parties are in opposition; respectively Partido Aprista Peruano (short: PAP, 28 seats), which is led by Alan García Pérez, and Unidad Nacional (short: UN, 17 seats), which is led by Lourdes Flores Nano.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Peru Economy of Peru The Peruvian economy has become increasingly market oriented, with major privatizations completed since 1990; in the mining, electricity, and telecommunications industries. Thanks to strong foreign investment and the cooperation between the former Fujimori administration, the IMF, and the World Bank, growth was strong in 1994–97 and inflation was brought under control. In 1998, El Niño's impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in Asia, and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth. And 1999 was another lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of El Niño and the Asian financial crisis working its way through the economy. Lima did manage to complete negotiations for an Extended Fund Facility with the IMF in June 1999, although it subsequently had to renegotiate the targets. Pressure on spending grew in the run-up to the 2000 elections. Growth up to 2004 has been driven by construction, investment, domestic demand, and exports to different world regions. Peru's economy is one of the better-managed in Latin America. Over the next few years, the country is likely to attract both domestic and foreign investment in the tourism, agriculture, mining, petroleum and natural gas, and power industries.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Peru Demographics of Peru Peru is one of only three countries in Latin America whose largest population segment is comprised of unmixed Amerindians - the other two being Bolivia and Guatemala, where almost half of all Peruvians are Amerindian, or 45 percent of the total population. The two major indigenous ethnic groups are the various Quechua-speaking populations, followed closely by the Aymará, as well as several dozen small Amerindian ethnic tribes scattered throughout the country beyond the Andes Mountains and in the Amazon basin. Mestizos, a term that denotes people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, constitute around 37% of the people. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin.

Language

Europe Peru has two official languages - Spanish and the foremost indigenous language, Quechua. Spanish is used by all coastal Peruvians, the government, the media, and in education and formal commerce; although there is an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools. The major obstacle to the diffusion of the usage and teaching of Quechua is the almost absolute lack of fluidly available material written in the Quechua language, namely books, newspapers, software, magazines, technical journals, etc. Importantly, non-governmental organizations as well as state sponsored groups are involved in projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language; for instance, in late 2005 a superb version of Don Quixote was presented in Quechua. Nevertheless, these books are just collectors items as they have no natural readership. Significantly, most of the native speakers of Quechua are illiterate. Thus, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially an oral language.

Painting and Sculpture

Don Quixote The art of Peru was shaped by the melting between Spanish and Amerindian cultures. During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the major centers of artistic expression in The Americas, where Pre-Inca cultures, such as Chavín, Moche, Paracas, Huari (Wari), Nazca, Chimu, and Tiahuanaco developed high-quality pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture. Drawing upon earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these crafts but made even more impressive achievements in architecture. The mountain town of Machu Picchu and the buildings at Cuzco are excellent examples of Inca architectural design. Peru has passed early 20th century brought "indigenismo," expressed in a new awareness of Indian culture. Since World War II, Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals such as Cesar Vallejo and Jose Maria Arguedas have participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends. During the colonial period, Spanish baroque fused with the rich Inca tradition to produce mestizo or creole art. The Cuzco school of largely anonymous Indian artists followed the Spanish baroque tradition with influence from the Italian, Flemish, and French schools. Painter Francisco Fierro made a distinctive contribution to this school with his portrayals of typical events, manners, and customs of mid-19th-century Peru. Francisco Lazo, forerunner of the indigenous school of painters, also achieved fame for his portraits. Peru's 20th-century art is known for its extraordinary variety of styles and stunning originality. In the decade after 1932, the "indigenous school" of painting headed by Jose Sabogal dominated the cultural scene in Peru. A subsequent reaction among Peruvian artists led to the beginning of modern Peruvian painting. Sabogal's resignation as director of the National School of Arts in 1943 coincided with the return of several Peruvian painters from Europe who revitalized "universal" and international styles of painting in Peru. During the 1960s, Fernando de Szyszlo, an internationally recognized Peruvian artist, became the main advocate for abstract painting and pushed Peruvian art toward modernism. Peru remains an art-producing center with painters such as Fernando de Szysslo, Gerardo Chavez, Jose Tola, Alberto Quintanilla, and Jose Carlos Ramos, along with sculptor Victor Delfin, gaining international stature. Promising young artists continue to develop now that Peru's economy allows more promotion of the arts.

Folklore and Music

Victor Delfin Peru is home to thousands of dances of pre Inca, Andean and mestizo origin. The southern Andean region is famous for the Huayno and Cusco for its Muliza. Arequipa is the proud creator of the famous Yaravi Arequipeño (sang by many brothers of the Andes) and the Pampeñas. The Huaylas is a happy the dance of the central Andes. The coast has a different feel to the Andean, more rhythm yet it just as melancholic and interesting. Coastal have big Romany gypsy music and African influences, along other more romantic tunes like the well know Peruvian Valse; probably representing the ethnical coastal mix of Perú and especially Lima. Commonly known Peruvian Valse tunes are: Alma Corazon y Vida, Odiame, Mi Propiedad Privada, El Plebeyo, La Flor de La Canela and Devuelveme El Rosario de Mi Madre, some of which are sang by Caribbean artists in the Bolero or Salsa version. Out of the resulting mix most coastal rhythms is sang and played by duos of Creole guitars, the Peruvian Cajon and spoon rhythms. African derived rhythms like the Festejo or Landó are common in the black communities of the southern coast. Music with a strong African influence is known as Afro Peruvian. Chabuca Granda is widely considered as the most important composer of Coastal Creole music, with such songs as La Flor de La Canela, Fina Estampa, and José Antonio. Susana Baca is a renowned singer and composer of Afro Peruvian music. She won a Grammy award in 2002 for her album Lamento Negro. The central and north coast Trujillo, Lambayeque and Piura; are most famous for guitar hymns like the piuran Tondero, the Limeñan Zamacueca, the Resbalosa and the bands of Marinera. The Amazon has its own music. Chicha Music from the Amazon is unique since it mixes and intermingles Cumbia, Huayno and the tragic Peruvian Valse. Lima is famous for the Señor de los Milagros Procession and Bullfighting, which takes place in Plaza de Acho (the oldest bullfighting venue of the Americas). Considered the largest procession in South America, congregating devotees from all over the country, the Señor de los Milagros or Lord of Miracles Procession takes place during October. During the whole month, known as the mes morado -or purple month-, minor observations in honour of the patron (whose colour is purple) are celebrated. The main event occurs the 18th: dressed in purple habits, hundreds of thousands of devotees sing and pray while accompanying the image on its 24-hour route from the Nazarenas temple to La Merced church in the Barrios Altos district.

Sports

Soccer: The most popular Peruvian sport is soccer (World Cup appeareances: 1930,1970,1978,1982 two Copa America tournaments). Although the National team has not been very successful, most of the population of Peru follow the World Cup torunament on television. Soccer legends from Peru include Hugo Sotil, Cesar Cueto, and Teofilo Cubillas, Peru's best striker in World Cup Finals with 10 goals. Current renowned players include midfielder Nolberto Solano (Newcastle United since 1998, with a 2-year parenthesis in Aston Villa), and strikers Claudio Pizzaro (Bayern Munich) and Jefferson Farfán (PSV Eindhoven). Volleyball: Other popular sport is Women’s Volleyball (Silver medal in Seoul 1988 Olympic Games and 14 times South American champion). Surfing: Sofia Mulanovich, Women’s World Surf Champion in 2004 and 2005. Sailing: Peru is the only country of the region that has won for six consecutive years the world Cup in the Sunfish Class. In addition, Peru has won the Central American, South American & Caribbean Championships for the same category. In the Optimist Class, it was three times World Champion in Team-Racing in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Shooting: Peruvian shooters have won 3 of Peru's 4 olympic medals. Edwin Vásquez won Peru's only gold medal in London 1948 Olympic Games, while Francisco Boza (Los Angeles 1984), and Juan Giha (Barcelona 1992) both won silver medals.

International rankings

- Reporters without borders world-wide press freedom index 2004: Rank 116 out of 167 countries (2005)
- UN Human Development Index 2005: Ranked 79 out of 177 countries. Up 6 places from 85 in 2004.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Peru
- Foreign relations of Peru
- List of famous Peruvians
- Military of Peru
- Miss Peru
- Peruvian nationality law
- Public holidays in Peru
- South American Community of Nations
- Surfing in Peru
- Transportation in Peru
- Mining in Peru PBS FRONTLINE/World/New York Times documentary and Web site "The Curse of Inca Gold" October 2005.

External links

- [http://www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ PeruLinks.com] Very complete directory linking to possibly as many as 4000 Peru-related sites. The site and navigation are in both English and Spanish.
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Peru Open Directory Project - Peru] directory category
- [http://www.destination360.com/peru.htm Virtual Tour of Peru, Machu Picchu, and other areas]
- [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html Climate of 60 locations among Peru]
- [http://www.elsner.consul.cc/ Consulate for Peru to Austria] Music
- [http://www.revista69.com/ Peruvian Modern Rock Webzine]
- [http://www.sonidorock.org/ Peruvian Music News]
- [http://www.rockperu.com/ Peru Rock Music]
- [http://www.peruradio.net/ Peru Net Radio] Tourism
- [http://www.promperu.gob.pe Peruvian Tourism Authority's Official Site]
- [http://www.inca-trails.net Inca trail hikes to Machu Picchu]
- [http://www.machu-picchu.info Machu Picchu Travel Information Site and Links]
- [http://andrys.com/indox.html Peru Photo diary, by Andrys]
- [http://www.inca-tours.com/ Peru Inca Trail]
- [http://www.ecstravel.com/ Peru Tours]
- [http://www.peru-explorer.com Peru travel information and tours]
- [http://peruinfo.org Peru Tourist Travel Information Site and Links]
- [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america.htm South America Pictures]
- [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america-map.htm South America Map]
- [http://www.globe-images.com/south-america.htm South America Satellite Images]
- [http://www.sportfishingperu.com/ Sports Fishing in Peru]
- [http://www.peru-machu-picchu.com Travel resources and virtual tours of Peru and Machu Picchu]
- [http://www.peruazul.com.pe/ Surf in Peru]
- [http://www.tabiviaje.info/perou.htm Tabiviaje goes to Peru]
- [http://www.atlastoursandtravels.com/tours-travels-directories.php The Complete Peruvian]
- [http://www.generaccion.com Revista Generaccion Travel Directory] Category:South American countries zh-min-nan:Perú ko:페루 ms:Peru ja:ペルー simple:Peru th:ประเทศเปรู

Piura

Piura is a city in northwestern Peru. It is the capital of the Piura Region and the Piura Province. The population is 359,400. It was here that Spanish Conqueror Francisco Pizarro founded the first Spanish city in Peru, San Miguel de Piura, in 1532, thus also becoming the first Spanish city in South America. Piura declared its indepedence on January 4, 1821.

History

Like most of northern Peru, the territory of Piura had been inhabited by their autochthonous group of natives called tallanes (caribean origin) and yungas. These lived without an organization or single leader to rule until the Mochicas eventually took control and the mixture of these evolved into the Vicus Culure. Centuries later, Piura came under the rule of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, at least for around 40 years and before the Spanish arrived. With the arrival of the Spanish in 1532, the mestizo and creole culture of actual Piura wheee born. This mestizo culture includes influences from spanish Extremadura and Andalucia, african influence due to the arrival of slaves from Madagascar (Malgache slaves), the chinese coolies that migrated from Canton to work the rice fields and replace the slaves; and also roma gypsies whom came as pirates looking for pearls or as incongite spanish horsemen.

Colonial legacy

Piura served as the first main port through which the Inca gold the Spaniards had gathered was shipped back to Spain. Already in 1534, Sebastián de Belalcázar, one of Pizarro's men, left Piura to conquer the Inca bastion in Quito. Quito As the most ancient colonial city in Peru, its location was changed three times before it was established on its present location. The cathedral of Piura was built in 1588. The altar is covered in gold leaf and has a painting of Ignacio Merino, a renowned Peruvian artist.

Present Piura

The main of the two campuses of the University of Piura is located locally, while the other is in Lima. The city is also well known for its artisans who weave straw hats and make silverware. A museum commemorating the memory of Miguel Grau, a renowned Peruvian naval officer in the War of the Pacific, is located in Piura. Two airlines serve Piura, with flights to Lima and Chiclayo: LAN Peru and [http://www.tansperu.com.pe Tans Perú]

Tourism

Piura has many tourist attractions. One of the best known is Colan beach. Colan beach is a very long beach with warm waters. Local people like to go there during holidays.

Culture & Folklore

Piura is host to a stunning mestizo culture (the oldest in south america 1532, Piura is the first spanish city in south america) most famous for gastronomical dishes like Secho de Chavelo (the local dish), Algarrobina drinks, many types of Cebiche and Natilla Sweets. Popular crafts are the Chulucana Pottery and Catacaos is famous for its "Hats" and "Silversmith" arts. The Tondero and Cumanana is the traditional dance of mestizo Piura and northern Lambayeque, as well as the famous peruvian valse (northern peruvians have their style). "Chicha Music" now called Tecnocumbia (originally a peruvian styled cumbia), is also quite popular all over, as well as Salsa among youngsters. Category:Cities in Peru

Desert

In geography, a desert is a landscape form or region that receives little precipitation - less than 250 mm per year. Deserts have a reputation for supporting very little life. Compared to wetter regions this may be true, although upon closer examination, deserts often harbor a wealth of life that usually remains hidden (especially during the daylight) to preserve moisture. Approximately one-third of Earth's land surface is desert. (See a map of the world's non-polar deserts, http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/what/world.html.) Desert landscapes have certain common features. Desert soil is often composed mostly of rocky surfaces called regs. Sand dunes called ergs and stony or hamada surfaces compose the minority of desert surfaces. Exposures of rocky terrain are typical, and reflect minimal soil development and sparseness of vegetation. Bottom lands may be salt-covered flats. Eolian (wind-driven) processes are major factors in shaping desert landscapes. Deserts sometimes contain valuable mineral deposits that were formed in the arid environment or that were exposed by erosion. Because deserts are dry, they are ideal places for human artifacts and fossils to be preserved. In the Köppen climate classification system, they are classed as (BW).

Types of desert

Most classifications rely on some combination of the number of days of rainfall, the total amount of annual rainfall, temperature, humidity, or other factors. In 1953, Peveril Meigs divided desert regions on Earth into three categories according to the amount of precipitation they received. In this now widely accepted system, extremely arid lands have at least 12 consecutive months without rainfall, arid lands have less than 250 millimeters of annual rainfall, and semiarid lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 millimeters. Arid and extremely arid land are deserts, and semiarid grasslands generally are referred to as steppes. However, lack of rainfall alone can't provide an accurate description of what a desert is. For example, Phoenix, Arizona receives less than 250 millimeters, (10 inches), of precipitation per year, and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert. The North Slope of Alaska's Brooks Range also receives less than 250 millimeters of precipitation per year, but is not generally recognized as a desert region. The difference lies in something termed "potential evapotranspiration." The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P-PE+/-S, whereby P is precipitation, PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is amount of surface storage of water. Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through atmospheric evaporation, coupled with the evaporative loss of water through the life processes of plants. Potential evapotranspiration, then, is the amount of water that could evaporate in any given region. Tucson, Arizona receives about 300 millimeters, (12 inches), of rain per year, however about 2500 millimeters, (100 inches), of water could evaporate over the course of a year. In other words, about 8 times more water could evaporate from the region than actually falls. Rates of evapotranspiration in other regions such as Alaska are much lower, so while these regions receive minimal precipitation, they should be designated as specifically different from the simple definition of a desert: a place where evaporation exceeds precipitation. That said, there are different forms of deserts. Cold deserts can be covered in snow; such locations don't receive much precipitation, and what does fall remains frozen as snow pack; these are more commonly referred to as tundra if a short season of above-freezing temperatures is experienced, or as an ice cap if the temperature remains below freezing year-round, rendering the land almost completely lifeless. Most non-polar deserts are hot because they have little water. Water tends to have a cooling, or at least a moderating, effect in environments where it is plentiful. In some parts of the world deserts are created by a rain shadow effect in which air masses lose much of their moisture as they move over a mountain range; other areas are arid by virtue of being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture (this is true in some middle-latitude landmass interior locations, particularly in Asia). Deserts are also classified by their geographical location and dominant weather pattern as trade wind, midlatitude, rain shadow, coastal, monsoon, or polar deserts. Former desert areas presently in nonarid environments are paleodeserts, and extraterrestrial deserts exist on other planets.

Montane deserts

Montane deserts are arid places with a very high altitude; the most prominent example is found north of the Himalaya, in parts of the Kunlun Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau. Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding 3,000 meters (9,843 feet) and the thermal regime can be hemiboreal. These places owe their profound aridity (the average annual precipitation is often less than 40mm) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture.

Desert features

hemiboreal] Sand covers only about 20 percent of Earth's deserts. Most of the sand is in sand sheets and sand seas—vast regions of undulating dunes resembling ocean waves "frozen" in an instant of time. In general, there are 6 forms of deserts: i.Mountain and basin deserts, ii. Hamada deserts, which comprise of a plateaux landforms, iii. Regs which consist of rock pavements, iv. Ergs which are formed by sand seas, v. Intermontane Basins, and vi. Badlands which are located at the margins of arid lands comprising of clay-rich soil. Nearly 100 percent of desert surfaces are plains where eolian deflation—removal of fine-grained material by the wind—has exposed loose gravels consisting predominantly of pebbles but with occasional cobbles. The remaining surfaces of arid lands are composed of exposed bedrock outcrops, desert soils, and fluvial deposits including alluvial fans, playas, desert lakes, and oases/oasis. Bedrock outcrops commonly occur as small mountains surrounded by extensive erosional plains. There are several different types of dunes. Barchan dunes are produced by strong winds blowing across a level surface and are crescent shaped. Longitudinal or seif dunes are dunes that are parallel to a strong wind that blows in one general direction. Transverse dunes run are a right angle to the constant wind direction. Star dunes are star-shaped and have several ridges that spread out around a point. Oases are vegetated areas moistened by springs, wells, or by irrigation. Many are artificial. Oases are often the only places in deserts that support crops and permanent habitation.

Soils

irrigation Soils that form in arid climates are predominantly mineral soils (classified as Aridisols) with low organic content such as salt. The repeated accumulation of water in some soils causes distinct salt layers to form. Calcium carbonate precipitated from solution may cement sand and gravel into hard layers called "calcrete" that form layers up to 50 meters thick. Caliche is a reddish-brown to white layer found in many desert soils. Caliche commonly occurs as nodules or as coatings on mineral grains formed by the complicated interaction between water and carbon dioxide released by plant roots or by decaying organic material.

Vegetation

Most desert plants are drought- or salt-tolerant, such as xerophytes. Some store water in their leaves, roots, and stems. Other desert plants have long tap roots that penetrate the water table, anchor the soil, and control erosion. The stems and leaves of some plants lower the surface velocity of sand-carrying winds and protect the ground from erosion. Deserts typically have a plant cover that is sparse but enormously diverse. The Sonoran Desert of the American Southwest has the most complex desert vegetation on Earth. The giant saguaro cacti provide nests for desert birds and serve as "trees" of the desert. Saguaro grow slowly but may live 200 years. When 9 years old, they are about 15 centimeters high. After about 75 years, the cacti develop their first branches. When fully grown, saguaro are 15 meters tall and weigh as much as 10 tons. They dot the Sonoran and reinforce the general impression of deserts as cacti-rich land. Although cacti are often thought of as characteristic desert plants, other types of plants have adapted well to the arid environment. They include the pea family and sunflower family. Cold deserts have grasses and shrubs as dominant vegetation.

Water

sunflower Rain does fall occasionally in deserts, and desert storms are often violent. A record 44 millimeters of rain once fell within 3 hours in the Sahara. Large Saharan storms may deliver up to 1 millimeter per minute. Normally dry stream channels, called arroyos or wadis, can quickly fill after heavy rains, and flash floods make these channels dangerous. Though little rain falls in deserts, deserts receive runoff from ephemeral, or short-lived, streams fed by rain and snow from adjacent highlands. These streams fill the channel with a slurry of mud and commonly transport considerable quantities of sediment for a day or two. Although most deserts are in basins with closed, or interior drainage, a few deserts are crossed by 'exotic' rivers that derive their water from outside the desert. Such rivers infiltrate soils and evaporate large amounts of water on their journeys through the deserts, but their volumes are such that they maintain their continuity. The Nile River, the Colorado River, and the Yellow River are exotic rivers that flow through deserts to deliver their sediments to the sea. Lakes form where rainfall or meltwater in interior drainage basins is sufficient. Desert lakes are generally shallow, temporary, and salty. Because these lakes are shallow and have a low bottom gradient, wind stress may cause the lake waters to move over many square kilometers. When small lakes dry up, they leave a salt crust or hardpan. The flat area of clay, silt, or sand encrusted with salt that forms is known as a playa. There are more than a hundred playas in North American deserts. Most are relics of large lakes that existed during the last ice age about 12,000 years ago. Lake Bonneville was a 52,000-square-kilometer lake almost 300 meters deep in Utah, Nevada, and Idaho during the Ice Age. Today the remnants of Lake Bonneville include Utah's Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, and Sevier Lake. Because playas are arid land forms from a wetter past, they contain useful clues to climatic change. When the occassional preticipation does occur, it erodes the desert rocks quickly and powerfully. Wind is the other factor that erodes deserts- they are constant yet slow. The flat terrains of hardpans and playas make them excellent race tracks and natural runways for airplanes and spacecraft. Ground-vehicle speed records are commonly established on Bonneville Speedway, a race track on the Great Salt Lake hardpan. Space shuttles land on Rogers Lake Playa at Edwards Air Force Base, California.

Mineral resources

Some mineral deposits are formed, improved, or preserved by geologic processes that occur in arid lands as a consequence of climate. Ground water leaches ore minerals and redeposits them in zones near the water table. This leaching process concentrates these minerals as ore that can be mined. Evaporation in arid lands enriches mineral accumulation in their lakes. Playas may be sources of mineral deposits formed by evaporation. Water evaporating in closed basins precipitates minerals such as gypsum, salts (including sodium nitrate and sodium chloride), and borates. The minerals formed in these evaporite deposits depend on the composition and temperature of the saline waters at the time of deposition. Significant evaporite resources occur in the Great Basin Desert of the United States, mineral deposits made forever famous by the "20-mule teams" that once hauled borax-laden wagons from Death Valley to the railroad. Boron, from borax and borate evaporites, is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of glass, ceramics, enamel, agricultural chemicals, water softeners, and pharmaceuticals. Borates are mined from evaporite deposits at Searles Lake, California, and other desert locations. The total value of chemicals that have been produced from Searles Lake substantially exceeds US$1 billion. The Atacama Desert of South America is unique among the deserts of the world in its great abundance of saline minerals. Sodium nitrate has been mined for explosives and fertilizer in the Atacama since the middle of the 19th century. Nearly 3 million tonnes were mined during World War I. Valuable minerals located in arid lands include copper in the United States, Chile, Peru, and Iran; iron and lead-zinc ore in Australia; chromite in Turkey; and gold, silver, and uranium deposits in Australia and the United States. Nonmetallic mineral resources and rocks such as beryllium, mica, lithium, clays, pumice, and scoria also occur in arid regions. Sodium carbonate, sulfate, borate, nitrate, lithium, bromine, iodine, calcium, and strontium compounds come from sediments and near-surface brines formed by evaporation of inland bodies of water, often during geologically recent times. The Green River Formation of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah contains alluvial fan deposits and playa evaporites created in a huge lake whose level fluctuated for millions of years. Economically significant deposits of trona, a major source of sodium compounds, and thick layers of oil shale were created in the arid environment. Some of the more productive petroleum areas on Earth are found in arid and semiarid regions of Africa and the Mideast, although the oil fields were originally formed in shallow marine environments. Recent climate change has placed these reservoirs in an arid environment. Other oil reservoirs, however, are presumed to be eolian in origin and are presently found in humid environments. The Rotliegendes, a hydrocarbon reservoir in the North Sea, is associated with extensive evaporite deposits. Many of the major U.S. hydrocarbon resources may come from eolian sands. Ancient alluvial fan sequences may also be hydrocarbon reservoirs.

List of deserts

Americas

- Atacama desert in Chile
- Mojave, Great Basin, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan See also: List of North American deserts

Africa

- Libyan
- Kalahari
- Sahara
- Namib

Asia-Pacific

- Dasht-e Kavir, central Iran.
- Gobi desert of Mongolia; Taklamakan desert in China.
- Kara Kum deserts in Central Asia.
- Thar-Cholistan desert in India and Pakistan.
- Kavir-e Lut, souteast Iran.
- Kyzyl Kum - Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan
- Negev - southern Israel
- Judean Desert - eastern Israel and Palestine
- Simpson Desert, Great Sandy Desert, Sturt's Stony Desert, Tanami Desert, Great Victoria Desert, Big Desert, Little Desert (all in Australia)
- Taklamakan - Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China
- Rangipo Desert - New Zealand

Irrigation

] Irrigation (in agriculture) is the replacement or supplementation of rainfall with water from another source in order to grow crops. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is sometimes referred to as dryland farming.

Overview

The water source for irrigation may be a nearby or distant body of liquid or frozen water such as a river, spring, lake, aquifer, well, or snowpack. Depending on the distance of the source and the seasonality of rainfall, the water may be channelled directly to the agricultural fields or stored in reservoirs or cisterns for later use. In addition, the "harvesting" of local rain that falls on the roofs of buildings or on nearby unfarmed hills and its use to supplement the rain that falls directly on farmed fields also involves irrigation. Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is distributed within the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.

Types of irrigation

Flood (furrow) irrigation

Ditches can be dug with hand tools, turned with a plow pulled by an animal or tractor, or precisely fashioned using laser-guided instruments depending on economic and physical factors such as the size of the field, the types of technology available, and the cost of manpower. Plants are grown in raised beds or listed rows. Water is distributed throughout the field via canals, unlined ditches, or furrows, between the rows or beds by use of rigid gated plastic or aluminum pipe, layflat plastic with holes punched at each furrow, concrete or plastic lined ditches, or unlined ditches. Where ditches are used, siphon tubes move water from the main ditch to the furrow. When pipes are used, water flow can be controlled by turning it on or off at the local source or by using automatic or manually controlled gates to transfer it from one set of ditches to another. Unless the field is small or very level, parts of it may suffer from water-logging while other parts may be too dry. Depending on heat, wind, and soil permeability, much water may be lost before it can benefit the plants. Automatic valves, also known as surge valves, can increase the efficiency of furrow irrigation because they alternately wet the furrows and allow the soil infiltration rate to slow prior to using the furrow for actual irrigation. Once common in the United States, many ditch irrigation systems have been replaced because of high labor costs and increasing demands on water resources. Furrow irrigation also has a tendency to raise the water table in some areas and cause soil salination, requiring drainage. These types of systems are still common in other parts of the world.

Terracing

Terracing is a form of irrigation in which large steps are cut into hillsides and supported by stone or concrete walls. The level parts are used as garden plots or small fields. As water flows down the hillside it is channelled to each plot (probably most often by ditch irrigation). Terracing is usually very labor-intensive, since fields are small and access to them may be steep and narrow making it difficult to mechanize the work. In addition, the walls need constant maintenance, especially in rainy climates. However, terracing does allow steep mountainsides to be used to grow plants (although it may be more cost-effective to use them only for animal pasturage).

Overhead (sprinkler) irrigation

animal pasturage]] In overhead or sprinkler irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns or by lower-pressure sprays. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Some sprinklers can also be hidden below ground level, if aesthetics is a concern, and pop up in response to increased water pressure. This type of system is commonly used in lawns, golf courses, cemeteries, parks, and other turf areas. Sprinklers that spray in a fixed pattern are generally called sprays or spray heads. Sprays are not usually designed to operate at pressures above 30 lbf/in² (200 kPa), due to misting problems that may develop. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 40 to 130 lbf/in² (275 to 900 kPa) and flows of 50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to 76 L/s), usually with nozzle diameters in the range of 0.5 to 1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression and logging. Sprinklers may also be mounted on movable platforms connected to the water source by a hose. At the high-tech end, computerized, automatically moving wheeled systems may irrigate large areas unattended. At the low end, such as in a small greenhouse or landscape, a person may be watering each plant individually with a hose end sprinkler or even a watering can. One drawback of overhead irrigation is that much water can be lost because of high winds or evaporation, and irrigating the entire field uniformly can be difficult or tedious if the system is not properly designed. Water remaining on plants' leaves may promote fungal and other diseases. If fertilizers are included in the irrigation water, plant leaves can be burned, especially on hot, sunny days. Overhead irrigation is generally the best solution for watering lawns and golf courses, although drip irrigation is gaining in popularity in some lawn applications. (See also center pivot irrigation.) Manually assembled systems of piping that are broken down to permit tillage and harvesting are sometimes called "hand set" or "hand move pipe". These are also commonly used on athletic fields where permanently installed sprinklers or outlets are not desired or where low initial costs are a factor. harvesting

Center pivot irrigation

Central pivot irrigation is a form of overhead irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminum) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The system moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are common in parts of the United States where terrain is flat. Most center pivot systems now have drops hanging from a u-shaped pipe called a gooseneck attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. The crops are planted in a circle to conform to the center pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Low Energy Precision Application Originally, most center pivots were water powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems (T-L) and electric motor driven systems (Lindsay, Reinke, Valley). Most systems today are driven by an electric motor mounted at each tower. Center pivot equipment can also be configured to move in a straight line, where the water is pulled from a central ditch. In this scenario, the system is called a linear move irrigation system.

Lateral move (Side roll, Wheel line) irrigation

A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together at one edge of a field. Water is supplied at one end using a large hose. After sufficient water has been applied, the hose is removed and the remaining assembly rotated either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers move 10m across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated until the opposite edge of the field is reached. This system is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor intensive to operate, and it is limited in the amount of water it can carry. Most systems utilize 4 or 5 inch diameter aluminum pipe. One feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections that can be easily disconnected. They are most often used for small or oddly-shaped fields, such as those found in hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is inexpensive.

Drip, or trickle irrigation

Low Energy Precision Application :See main article at drip irrigation Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This type of system can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation. Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for too long of a duration. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and relatively labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from a computerized set of valves. Both pressure regulation and filtration to remove particles are important. The tubes are usually black (or buried under soil or mulch) to prevent the growth of algae and to protect the polyethylene from degradation due to ultraviolet light. But drip irrigation can also be as low-tech as a porous clay vessel sunk into the soil and occasionally filled from a hose or bucket. Subsurface drip irrigation has been used successfully on lawns, but it is more expensive than a more traditional sprinkler system. Surface drip systems are not cost-effective (or esthetically pleasing) for lawns and golf courses.

Subirrigation

Used in commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants, water is delivered from below, absorbed upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Typically, a solution of water and nutrients floods a container or flows through a trough for a short period of time, 10-20 minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank for reuse. Subirrigation requires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages are water and nutrient conservation, and labor-saving through lowered system maintenance and automation. It is similar in principle and action to subsurface drip irrigation. The same concept of subsurface flooding and drainage is also being experimented with as an outdoor subirrigation method.great system of irrigation is on indus river

How an irrigation system works

Most commercial and residential irrigation systems are "in ground" systems, which means that everything is buried in the ground. With the pipes, sprinklers, and irrigation valves being hidden, it makes for a cleaner, more presentable landscape without garden hoses or other items having to be moved around manually. The beginning of a sprinkler system is the water source. This is usually a tap into an existing (city) water line or a pump that pulls water out of a well or a pond.

History of irrigation

Evidence exists of irrigation in Mesopotamia and Egypt as far back as the 6th millennium BC. There is also evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayûm as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, as the lake swelled annually as caused by the annual flooding of the Nile. Ancient visitors reported the appearance of "an artificial excavation, as reported by classic geographers and travellers" ([http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05329b.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Egypt: I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Flora and Agriculture]). In the Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists found remains of 3 irrigation canals radiocarbon dated from the 4th millennium BC, the 3rd millennium BC and the 9th century. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World. Traces of a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BC were found under the 4th millenium canal.(Dillehay, et al., 2005) By the middle of the 20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led for the first time to systems that could pump groundwater out of major aquifers faster than it was recharged. This can lead to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground subsidence, and other problems. The future of food production in such areas as the North China Plain, the Punjab, and the Great Plains of the US is threatened.

Problems in irrigation

- Competition for surface water rights.
- Depletion of underground aquifers.
- Ground subsidence (e.g. New Orleans, Louisiana)
- Buildup of toxic salts on soil surface in areas of high evaporation.

References

-
-
- PMID 16284247

External links

-
-
- Category:Agriculture Category:Agronomy Category:Water Category:Environmental science ja:灌漑 simple:Irrigation

Coconut

The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera), is a member of the Family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only species in the Genus Cocos, and is a large palm, growing to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4-6 m long, pinnae 60-90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly leaving the trunk smooth. The term coconut refers to the fruit of the coconut palm.

Origins and Cultivation

The origin of this plant are the subject of controversy with some authorities claiming it is native to southeast Asia, while others claim its origin is in northwestern South America. Fossil records from New Zealand indicate that small, coconut-like plants grew there as far back 15 million years ago. Even older fossils have been uncovered in Rajasthan, India. Regardless of its origin, the coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in many cases by sea-faring peoples. The fruit is light and buoyant and presumably spread significant distances by marine currents: fruits collected from the sea as far north as Norway have been found to be viable (subsequently germinated under the right conditions). In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the Islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in the South Pacific. The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity and prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (750 to 2,000 mm annually), which makes colonising shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward. Coconuts also need high humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity (e.g. the Mediterranean), even where temperatures are high enough. They are very hard to establish and grow in dry climates. The flowers of the coconut palm are polygamomonoecious, with both male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. Flowering occurs continuously, with female flowers producing seeds. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.

The fruit

pollinated Botanically, a coconut is a simple dry fruit known as a fibrous drupe (not a true nut). The husk (mesocarp) is composed of fibres called coir and there is an inner "stone" (the endocarp). This hard endocarp (the coconut as sold in the shops of non-tropical countries) has three germination pores that are clearly visible on the outside surface once the husk is removed. It is through one of these that the radicle emerges when the embryo germinates. Adhering inside wall of endocarp is the testa with a thick albuminous endosperm, the coconut meat, the white and fleshy edible part of the seed. When viewed on end, the endocarp and germination pores resemble the face of a monkey, the Portuguese word for which is macaco, sometimes abbreviated to coco, whence the name of the fruit. The specific name nucifera is Latin for nut bearing. To open a coconut, remove the outer husk (if not purchased already removed) and pierce two of the three eyes of the fruit (one for the juice to come out of, one to enable air to go in); drain the juice from the fruit. Since coconuts have a naturally-forming fracture point, they can be opened by taking a heavy knife, such as a meat cleaver, and striking the coconut with the flat edge of the knife. Or you can use a flat-bladed screwdriver and a hammer (which is easier, and may be safer then using a cleaver). After inserting the screwdriver slightly, twist it to crack the shell. The coconut should then be turned, and this process repeated until there is a contiguous crack in the shell around the entire fruit. Afterwards, the fruit can be separated at this fracture point. Coconuts falling from trees have been known to cause fatalities, and was the subject of a paper published in 1984 that won the Ig Nobel Prize in 2001. Falling coconut deaths are often used as a comparison to shark attacks, making the claim that it is more likely to be killed by a falling coconut than by a shark ([http://www.straightdope.com/columns/020719.html column from The Straight Dope]). In some parts of the world, trained monkeys are used to harvest coconuts. Training schools for monkeys still exist in southern Thailand. Competitions are held each year to discover the fastest harvester.

Uses

Thailand All parts of the coconut palm are useful, and the trees have a comparatively high yield (up to 75 "nuts" per year); it therefore has significant economic value. The name for the coconut palm in Sanskrit is kalpa vriksha, which translates as "the tree which provides all the necessities of life". In Malay, the coconut is known as pokok seribu guna, "the tree of a thousand uses". In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly given the title "Tree of Life". Uses of the various parts of the palm include: #The white, fleshy part of the seed is edible and used fresh or dried (desiccated) in cooking. #The cavity is filled with "coconut water" containing sugars, fibre, proteins, anti-oxidants, vitamins and minerals, which provide excellent isotonic electrolyte balance, and an exceptional nutritional food source, which is why it is used as a refreshing drink throughout the humid tropics. It is also used in the making of the gelatinous dessert Nata de Coco. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than young immature coconuts. Coconut water is sterile until the coconut is opened (unless the coconut is spoiled). #Coconut milk (which is approximately 17% fat) is made by processing grated coconut with hot water or hot milk which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds from the fibre. #Coconut cream is what rises to the top when coconut milk is refrigerated and left to set. #The leftover fibre from coconut milk production is used as livestock feed. #The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut form a drink known as "toddy" or, in the Philippines, tuba. #Apical buds of adult plants are edible and are known as "palm-cabbage" (though harvest of this kills the tree). #The interior of the growing tip may be harvested as heart-of-palm and is considered a rare delicacy. Harvesting this also kills the tree. Hearts of palm are often eaten in salads; such a salad is sometimes called "millionaire's salad". #The coir (the fibre from the husk of the coconut) is used in ropes, mats, brushes, caulking boats and as stuffing fibre; it is also used extensively in horticulture for making potting compost. #Copra is the dried meat of the seed which is the source of coconut oil. #The trunks provide building timbers. #The leaves provide materials for baskets and roofing thatch. #The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a good source of charcoal. #Hawaiians hollowed the trunk to form a drum, a container, or even small canoes. #The wood can be used for specialized construction (notably in Manila's Coconut Palace). #Coconut sap is fermented to produce toddy. #The stiff leaflet midribs make cooking skewers, kindling arrows, or bound into bundles, brooms and brushes. #The roots are used as a dye, a mouthwash, or a medicine for dysentery. A frayed-out piece of root makes a poor man's toothbrush. #Half coconut shells are used in theatres, banged together to create the sound effect of a horse hoofbeats. #Dried half coconut shells are used to buff floors. #In fairgrounds, a coconut shy is a popular target practice game, and coconuts are commonly given as prizes. #A coconut can be hollowed out and used as a home for a rodent or small bird. #Coconut water can be used as a replacement for blood plasma during a transfusion.

Cultural aspects

Coconuts are extensively used in Hindu religious rites. Coconuts are usually offered to the gods, and a coconut is smashed on the ground or on some object as part of an initiation or inauguration of building projects, facility, ship, etc., taking the place of Champagne in western culture. The Indonesian tale of Hainuwele tells the story of the introduction of coconuts to Seram. The word "coconut" is also used as a derogatory slang word referring to a person of Latino descent who emulates a Caucasian (brown on the outside, white on the inside). "Coconut" is also the title of a song by Harry Nilsson.

External links

- [http://www.coconutresearchcenter.org/ Coconut Research Center]
- [http://www.kokonutpacific.com.au Kokonut Pacific] Developers of Direct Micro Expelling (DME) technology that enables Islanders to produce pure cold-pressed virgin coconut oil
- [http://www.mysabah.com/2005_coconut-fest/ Coconut Festival]
- [http://cocos.arecaceae.com/ Coconut Time Line]
- [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cocos_nucifera.html Purdue University crop pages: Cocos nucifera] Category:Nuts and seeds Category:Palms ms:Kelapa ja:ココヤシ ja:ココナッツ zh-min-nan:Iâ-á

Banana

:For other meanings, see banana (disambiguation) Hybrid origin; see text A banana plant is a herb in the genus Musa, which because of its size and structure, is often mistaken for a tree. Bananas are of the family Musaceae, and closely related to plantains. Globally, bananas rank fourth after rice, wheat and maize in human consumption; they are grown in 130 countries worldwide, more than for any other fruit crop. Bananas are native to tropical southeastern Asia. The stems grow to 4–8 m tall, with large leaves 2–3 m long. The term banana is also applied to the elongated fruit (technically a false berry of the plant, species and varieties) in hanging clusters, several to many fruits to a tier (called a hand), many tiers to a bunch. Bananas typically weigh between 125–200 g, though this varies considerably between different cultivars; of this, about 80% is edible, and the skin the remaining 20%. The total of hanging clusters is called a 'stem' in the commercial world. The banana was originally cultivated by pre-historic peoples in southeast Asia and the western Pacific Ocean islands. The flavour and texture of many kinds of bananas are affected by the temperature at which they ripen. Bananas spoil and turn grey at low temperatures and are only refrigerated down to 13.5°C during transportation. In 2002, over 68 million tonnes were harvested of which 12 million tonnes were traded worldwide, with Ecuador, Costa Rica, Colombia and the Philippines exporting over 1 million tonnes of bananas each.

History

The domestication of bananas took place in southeastern Asia. Many species of wild bananas still occur in New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BC, and possibly goes back to 8000 BC. This would make the New Guinean highlands the place where bananas were first domesticated. It is likely that other species of wild bananas were later also domesticated elsewhere in southeastern Asia. 8000 BC The banana is mentioned for the first time in written history in Buddhist texts in 600 BC. Alexander the Great discovered the taste of the banana in the valleys of India in 327 BC. The existence of an organized banana plantation could be found in China back in the year AD 200. In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Arab merchants eventually spread bananas over much of Africa. In 1502, Portuguese colonists started the first banana plantations in the Caribbean and in Central America. The word 'banana' came via Spanish or Portuguese from a West African language (possibly Wolof) circa 1597, though the scientific name for the genus is similar to the Arabic and Persian names for the fruit itself.

Properties

fruit Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colours; most cultivars are yellow when ripe but some are red. The ripe fruit is easily peeled and eaten raw or cooked. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can be starchy to sweet, and firm to mushy. Unripe or 'green' plantains and bananas are used in cooking and are the staple starch of some tropical populations. While the original bananas contained rather large seeds, seedless and triploid cultivars have been selected for human consumption. These are propagated asexually from offshoots of the plant. The plant is allowed to produce 2 shoots at a time—a larger one for fruiting immeditely and a smaller 'sucker' or 'follower' that will produce fruit in 6–8 months time. The life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individual stools or planting sites may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation dictates. Latin Americans sometimes comment that the plants are "walking" over time. A stem of bananas can weigh from 30–50 kg, and they are usually carried on the shoulder. The commercial sweet varieties most commonly eaten in temperate countries (species Musa acuminata or the hybrid Musa x paradisiaca, a cultigen) are imported in large quantities from the tropics, where they are popular in part because they are available fresh year-round. In global commerce, by far the most important of these banana cultivars is 'Cavendish', which accounts for the vast bulk of bananas exported outside of the tropics. It is common for fruit exports to be dominated by a single or very few cultivars (another example is the mango cultivar 'Tommy Atkins'). As in this case, the most important properties making 'Cavendish' important are related to transport and shelf life rather than taste; major commercial cultivars are rarely as sweet or as good flavour as many less widespread cultivars. This is also related to the fact that export bananas are picked green, and ripen on route. Banana chips are a snack produced from bananas. Dried bananas have a dark brown colour and a typical intense banana taste. Bananas have also been used in the making of jam. However unlike other fruits, bananas have only recently been used to prepare juice and squashes. Despite an 85% water content, it has historically been difficult to extract juice from the fruit because when compressed, a banana simply turns to pulp. In 2004, scientists at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), India, patented a technique for extracting juice by treating banana pulp in a reaction vessel for four to six hours [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/s1087416.htm]. In addition to the fruits, the flower of the banana plant (also known as banana blossom or banana heart) is used in Southeast Asian, Bengali and Kerala (India) cooking, either served raw with dips or cooked in soups and curries. The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used, notably in Burmese, Bengali and Kerala cooking. Banana leaves, large, flexible, and waterproof, are used as umbrellas and to wrap food for cooking. Chinese zongzi and Central American tamales are sometimes steamed in banana leaves, and the Hawaiian imu is often lined with them. In South India, the leaves are used as a natural plate to serve food. Once eaten, the leaf is thrown away for cattle consumption, an eco-friendly practice. The practice has regained popularity due to the hygiene it offers and the fact that it saves on water and detergents that would normally have been used to clean a plate. Moreover, hot food served in a tender banana leaf manifests a distinct banana flavour that is also said to have nutritional benefits. Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana) considered to be one of the forerunners of the common domesticated banana, are sold in markets in Indonesia.

Cultivation

cattle Bananas are sterile, meaning that they do not produce viable seeds. Lacking seeds, another form of propagation is needed. The two standard ways to plant bananas are to either transplant part of the root (called a “corm”) or to transplant suckers (shoots that develop at the bases of the banana plant). Suckers are living plants and are too delicate to transport over long distances and they must be handled with some care. Corms on the other hand are similar to flower bulbs. They can be left out of the ground for up to 2 weeks; they need no one to water or tend them, and can be boxed together for shipment.

Banana pests and diseases

cattle While in no danger of outright extinction, in the next 10-20 years the most common edible banana cultivar the 'Cavendish' could become unviable for large-scale cultivation. The predecessor to 'Cavendish', the cultivar 'Gros Michel', has already suffered this fate. The Cavendish banana is an extremely popular fruit in Europe and the Americas; unfortunately, like almost all bananas, it lacks genetic diversity which makes it vulnerable to diseases such as:
- Panama disease (Race 1) – fusarium wilt (a soil fungus). The fungus enters the plants through the roots and moves up with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums. These plug and cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt. Prior to 1960 almost all commercial banana production centered on the cultivar 'Gros Michel', which was highly susceptible to fusarium wilt. The cultivar 'Cavendish' was chosen as a replacement for 'Gros Michel' because out of the resistant cultivars it was viewed as producing the highest quality fruit. More care is required for shipping the Cavendish banana and some argue that the Gros Michel tasted better.
- Tropical Race 4 - a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease. A virulent form of fusarium wilt that has wiped out the Cavendish in several southeast Asian nations. It has yet to reach the Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how Race 4 has move from one plantation to another and it’s most likely route into Latin America. Unfortunately it is currently resistant to all known fungicides.
- Black Sigatoka - a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964, Black Sigatoka (also known as Black Leaf Streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics due to infected banana leaves being used as packing material. It affects all of the main cultivars of bananas and plantains, impeding photosynthesis by turning parts of their leaves black, and eventually killing the entire leaf. Being starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow suffer premature ripening, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever increasing resistance to fungicidal treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare exceeding US$1000 per year. In addition to the financial expense there is the question of how long such intensive spraying can be justified environmentally. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received wide scale commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.
- Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) this virus is spread from plant to plant by aphids. It causes stunting of the leaves resulting in a "bunched" appearance. Generally, a banana plant infected with the virus will not set fruit, although mild strains exist in many areas which do allow for some fruit production. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a disease other than BBTV. There is no cure for BBTV, however its effect can be minimized by planting only tissue cultured plants (In-vitro propagation), controlling the aphids, and immediately removing and destroying any plant from the field that shows signs of the disease. These four diseases represent the main threats to both commercial cultivation, and small-scale subsistence farming of bananas. Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, the Gros Michel is not entirely extinct, as it is still grown in some areas where Panama Disease is not found. Likewise, the Cavendish is in no danger of complete extinction, but there is a possibility that it could leave the shelves of the supermarkets for good if disease winnows the harvest down to where it can no longer hope to supply the global market. It is unclear if any banana cultivar currently existing could replace the Cavendish on a scale needed to fill current demand, so various hybridization and genetic engineering programs are working on creating a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.

Banana trade

Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in the world, and the only fruit to appear in the top ten biggest food crops. However, many banana farmers receive a low price for their produce. Large chain store retailers leverage their size to negotiate lower year round contract prices for bananas. Marketers of bananas thus have reduced their margins which in turn has led to more pressure to lower prices to growers. Dole, Chiquita and Del Monte grow their own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Honduras. Banana plantations are capital intensive and demand high expertise so the majority of independent growers are large and wealthy landowners of these countries. This has led to bananas being available as a 'fair trade' item in some countries. The banana has an extensive trade history beginning with the founding of the United Fruit Company at the end of the nineteenth century. For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee dominated the export economies of Central America. In the 1930s, bananas and coffee made up as much as 75 percent of the region's exports. As late as 1960, the two crops accounted for 67 percent of the exports from the region. Though the two were grown in similar regions, they tended not to be distributed together. The United Fruit Company based its business almost entirely on the banana trade, as the coffee trade proved too difficult for them to control. The term "banana republic" has been broadly applied to the countries in the region, but from a strict economic perspective only Costa Rica, Honduras, and Panama were actual "banana republics" – countries with economies dominated by the banana trade. (Source of statistics: Skidmore, T., Smith, P., (2001) Modern Latin America (5th edition). New York: Oxford University Press)

Attitudes toward bananas

Bananas are one of the most popular fruits among people of all origins. However, because of the stereotypical image of monkeys and apes eating bananas, they have been used as a means for racist insults, such as throwing bananas at sports players of African descent (e.g. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tv_and_radio/world_football/2399629.stm]). Bananas are also humorously used as a phallic symbol (a metaphor for the human penis) due to similarities in size and shape. In some parts of southeast Asia (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore), "banana" is a derogatory term for a person of Chinese descent who does not know much about Chinese culture and speaks English more fluently than Mandarin (or other Chinese dialects). This reference is due to the resemblance of character between the two objects: "yellow outside, white inside". (Compare this with the African-American slang term "Oreo".) The depiction of a person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. A 1906 comedy record produced by Edison Records features a popular character of the time, "Cal Stewart" claiming to describe his own such incident, saying: :I don't think much of a man what throws a bananer peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think much of a bananer what throws a man on the sidewalk, neether. ... my foot hit that bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, and cum down ker-plunk, and fer about a minnit I seen all the stars what stronomy tells about, and some that haint been discovered yit. Wall jist as I wuz pickin' myself up a little boy cum runnin' cross the street and he sed 'Oh mister, won't you please do that agin, my mother didn't see you do it.'

Urban legends

In the 1940s and 1950s, an urban legend involved tarantulas hidden among bunches of bananas. While tarantulas do not hide in bananas, certain other large exotic spiders have been known to do so (see Brazilian wandering spider). These spiders are quite venomous and highly aggressive. It is also an urban legend that the dried skin of banana fruit is hallucinogenic when smoked. Unlike many urban legends, the origin of this one has been traced. It dates back to an article in the student newspaper Berkeley Barb in March 1967, which got the story from the singer Country Joe McDonald. This was brought to attention once more in the late 1980s, when the satiric punk group The Dead Milkmen released a song concerning the effects of smoking banana peels. Even the FDA investigated. As with the spider legend, this legend is also not entirely without merit. The darkening of ripening bananas, proceeding from yellow, to brown, to black, is mainly due to large amounts of serotonin (an important human neurotransmitter), which is produced from tryptophan in banana peels. While this property would seem to implicate bananas as a natural antidepressant, such is not the case. Upon ingestion, serotonin is immediately broken down by enzymes in the stomach (particularly monoamine oxidase). Due to its high melting point (213° C), serotonin is unsuitable for smoking and decomposes into toxic gases (carbon and nitrogen oxides) during combustion. Additionally, it cannot cross the blood-brain barrier.

Reference

- FAO. [http://www.fao.org/es/esc/en/20953/20987/highlight_28367en.html Bananas Commodity notes: Final results of the 2003 season], 2004
- Denham, T., Haberle, S. G., Lentfer, C., Fullagar, R., Field, J., Porch, N., Therin, M., Winsborough B., and Golson, J. (2003) Multi-disciplinary Evidence for the Origins of Agriculture from 6950-6440 Cal BP at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea. Science June Issue.

External links

- [http://www.nutritiondata.com/foods-banana009000000000000000000.html Complete nutritional info.]
- [http://www.inibap.org/ International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)]
- [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html Banana] by Julia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates, pp. 29–46.
- [http://www.honduras.com/fhia/banana.htm Honduran Foundation of Agricultural Research] - Bananas & Plantains
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2664373.stm Bananas could split for good]
- [http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/news/2003/13120-en.html Further details from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization].
- [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2003-02/aps-ppu021403.php Plant pathologists unpeel rumors of banana extinction]
- [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/banana.html Banana Fruit Facts - California Rare Fruit Growers Organization].
- [http://www.pacificbiological.org.au/projects/PBF_02_3/pbf_02_3.htm Tracing antiquity of banana cultivation in Papua New Guinea]
- [http://www.uga.edu/fruit/banana.htm Banana and Plantain - Musa spp.]
- [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/banana.html Banana] listing some of the common cultivars of California, U.S. Category:Zingiberales Category:fruit zh-min-nan:Kin-chio ms:Pisang ja:バナナ simple:Banana th:กล้วย

Cotton

Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to the tropical and subtropical regions of both the Old World and the New World. The fibre is most often spun into thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Cotton is a valuable crop because only about 10% of the raw weight is lost in processing. Once traces of wax, protein, etc. are removed, the remainder is a natural polymer of pure cellulose. This cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton unique properties of strength, durability, and absorbency. Each fibre is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the cotton boll (seed case) is opened the fibres dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning into a fine yarn.

History

yarn]] yarn Cotton has been used to make very fine lightweight cloth in areas with tropical climates for millennia. Some authorities claim that it was likely that the Egyptians had cotton as early as 12,000 BC, and evidence has been found of cotton in Mexican caves (cotton cloth and fragments of bloody fibre interwoven with feathers and fur) which dated back to approximately 7,000 years ago. There is clear archaeological evidence that people in South America and India domesticated different species of cotton independently thousands of years ago. The earliest written reference to cotton is in India. Cotton has been grown in India for more than three thousand years, and it is referred to in the Rig-Veda, written in 1500 BC. A thousand years later the great Greek historian Herodotus wrote about Indian cotton: "There are trees which grow wild there, the fruit of which is a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep. The Indians make their clothes of this tree wool". (Book iii. 106) During the late mediaeval</