:: wikimiki.org ::

Nightclothes

Nightclothes

Nightwear, also called "sleepwear", "nightclothes", or "nightdress", is clothing designed to be worn while sleeping. It is generally worn otherwise only in the company of those one knows well. Some people do not use nightwear at all, preferring to sleep nude or in some kind of underwear. Some nightwear usage is seasonal, i.e. some persons only wear nightwear in winter. Examples of types of items of nightwear include
- Babydoll
- Chemise
- Negligee
- Nightgown
- Nightshirt
- Peignoir
- Pajamas
- Slip nightgown Category:Clothing

Clothing

(See also List of types of clothing and Clothing terminology) Humans nearly universally wear articles of clothing (also known as dress, garments, or attire) on the body. In its broadest sense, clothing is defined as coverings for the torso and limbs as well as coverings for the hands (gloves), feet (shoes, sandals, boots), and head (hats, caps). For the alternative, see nudity. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses, canes, and umbrellas) are normally counted as accessories rather than as clothing. Jewelry and eyeglasses are usually counted as accessories as well, even though in common speech these items are described as worn rather than carried. Humans also decorate their bodies with makeup or cosmetics, perfume, and other ornamentation; they also cut, dye, and arrange the hair of their heads, faces, and bodies (see hairstyle), and sometimes also mark their skin (by tattoos, scarifications, and piercings). All these decorations contribute to the overall effect and message of clothing, but do not constitute clothing per se. People wear clothing for functional as well as for social reasons. Clothing protects the body from the extremes of weather and other features of our environment. But every article of clothing also carries a cultural and social meaning.

Functional clothing

Practical functions of clothing include providing the human body protection against weather — strong sunlight, extreme heat or cold, and precipitation — also protection against insects, noxious chemicals, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances. In sum, clothing protects against anything that might injure the naked human body. Humans have shown extreme inventiveness in devising clothing solutions to practical problems. See: armor, diving suit, bee-keeper's costume, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and protective clothing.

Clothing as social message

protective clothing is a social message]] Social messages sent by clothing, accessories, and decorations can involve social status, occupation, ethnic and religious affiliation, marital status and sexual availability, etc. Humans must know the code in order to recognize the message transmitted. If different groups read the same item of clothing or decoration with different meanings, the wearer may provoke unanticipated responses.

Social status

In many societies, people of high rank reserve special items of clothing or decoration for themselves as symbols of their social status. In ancient times, only Roman senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple; only high-ranking Hawaiian chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa or carved whale teeth. In China before the establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. In many cases throughout history, there have been elaborate systems of sumptuary laws regulating who could wear what. In other societies (including most modern societies), no laws prohibit lower-status people from wearing high-status garments, but the high cost of status garments effectively limits purchase and display. In current Western society, only the rich can afford haute couture. The threat of social ostracism may also limit garment choice.

Occupation

Military, police, and firefighters usually wear uniforms, as do workers in many industries. School children often wear school uniforms, while college and university students sometimes wear academic dress. Members of religious orders may wear uniforms known as habits. Sometimes a single item of clothing or a single accessory can declare one's occupation or rank within a profession — for example, the high toque or chef's hat worn by a chief cook.

Ethnic, political, and religious affiliation

In many regions of the world, national costumes and styles in clothing and ornament declare membership in a certain village, caste, religion, etc. A Scotsman declares his clan with his tartan. A Sikh may display his religious affiliation by wearing a turban and other traditional clothing. A French peasant woman may identify her village with her cap or coif. Clothes can also proclaim dissent from cultural norms and mainstream beliefs, as well as personal independence. In 19th-century Europe, artists and writers lived la vie de Bohème and dressed to shock: George Sand in men's clothing, female emancipationists in bloomers, male artists in velvet waistcoats and gaudy neckcloths. Bohemians, beatniks, hippies, Goths, punks and Skinheads have continued the (countercultural) tradition in the 20th-century West. Now that haute couture plagiarizes street fashion within a year or so, street fashion may have lost some of its power to shock, but it still motivates millions trying to look hip and cool.

Marital status

Hindu women, once married, wear sindoor, a red powder, in the parting of their hair; if widowed, they abandon sindoor and jewelry and wear simple white clothing. Men and women of the Western world may wear wedding rings to indicate their marital status. See also Visual markers of marital status.

Sexual availability

Some clothing indicates the modesty of the wearer. For example, many Muslim women wear a head or body covering (see hijab, burqa or bourqa, chador and abaya) that proclaims their status as respectable women. Other clothing may indicate flirtatious intent. For example, a Western woman might wear extreme stiletto heels, close-fitting and body-revealing black or red clothing, exaggerated make-up, flashy jewelry and perfume to show sexual availability. What constitutes modesty and allurement varies radically from culture to culture, within different contexts in the same culture, and over time as different fashions rise and fall. Moreover, a person may choose to display a mixed message. For example, a Saudi Arabian woman may wear an abaya to proclaim her respectability, but choose an abaya of luxurious material cut close to the body and then accessorize with high heels and a fashionable purse. All the details proclaim sexual desirability, despite the ostensible message of respectability.

Sexual fetishes involving clothing

Because clothing and adornment are closely related to ideas of human sexuality and sexual display, humans may develop clothing fetishes. They may be strongly aroused by the sight of another person wearing clothing and accessories they consider arousing or sexually exciting. Sometimes the object of clothing becomes the object of arousal itself. Fetishes have been documented in every culture and have been recorded throughout history. Common fetishes involving clothing include arousal by or involving shoes, leather, uniforms, or lingerie. Fetishes vary as much as fashion. Sometimes the clothing itself becomes the object of fetish, such as in case with used girl panties in Japan.

Religious habits and special religious clothing

Religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may also be worn everyday as a marker for special religious status.
- Christian liturgical clothing (vestments)
- Christian clerical clothing (non-liturgical dress)
- Christian monastic habits
- Buddhist monastic dress
- Orthodox Jewish dress
- Hindu religious dress
- Muslim religious dress

Clothing materials

Common clothing materials include:
- Cloth, typically made of cotton, flax, wool, hemp, ramie, or silk
- Down for down-filled parkas
- Fur
- Leather
- Nylon Less-common clothing materials include:
- Bark
- Paper
- Rubber
- PVC Reinforcing materials such as wood, bone, plastic and metal may be used to stiffen garments such as corsets, bodices, or swimsuits.

Clothing maintenance

Clothing, once manufactured, suffers assault both from within and from without. The human body inside sheds skin cells and body oils, and exudes sweat, urine, and feces. From the outside, sun damage, damp, abrasion, dirt, and other indignities afflict the garment. Fleas and lice take up residence in clothing seams. Well-worn clothing, if not cleaned and refurbished, will smell, itch, look scruffy, and lose functionality (as when buttons fall off and zippers fail). In some cases, people simply wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Cleaning leather presents difficulties; one cannot wash bark cloth (tapa) without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but old leather and bark clothing will always look old. But most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt). Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering, ranging from the earliest "pound clothes against rocks in running stream" to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the darn was practically invisible. When the raw material — cloth — was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the time it would take to repair it. Many people prefer to buy a new piece of clothing rather than to spend their time mending old clothes. But the thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems.

The life cycle of clothing

Used, no-longer-wearable clothing was once desirable raw material for quilts, rag rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It could also be recycled into paper. Now it is usually just tossed into the trash. Used but still wearable clothing can be sold at consignment shops, flea markets, online auction, or just donated to charity. Charities usually skim the best of the clothing to sell in their own thrift stores and sell the rest to merchants, who bale it up and ship it to poor Third World countries, where vendors bid for the bales and then make what profit they can selling used clothing.

Early 21st-century clothing styles

Western fashion has to a certain extent become international fashion, as Western media and styles penetrate all parts of the world. Very few parts of the world remain where people do not wear items of cheap, mass-produced Western clothing. Even people in poor countries can afford used clothing from richer Western countries. However, people may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or if carrying out certain roles or occupations. For example, most Japanese women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but will still wear expensive silk kimonos on special occasions. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu. Western fashion, too, does not function monolithically. It comes in many varieties, from expensive haute couture to thrift store grunge.

Mainstream Western or international styles

- International standard business attire -- global in influence, just as business functions globally.
- Haute couture

Regional styles

- Clothing of Europe and Russia
- Clothing in the Americas
- United States mainstream fashion :For example: "Catalogue" fashion, regional styles such as preppy or Western wear.
- United States alternative fashion :These fashions are often associated with fans of various musical styles. :See also Goth, Hippie, Grunge, Hip-hop, and Fetish-wear
- Clothing in Asia
- Clothing in Africa
- Clothing in Oceania

Origin and history of clothing

Clothing in Oceania]] According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing probably consisted of fur, leather, leaves or grass, draped, wrapped or tied about the body for protection from the elements. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia, in 1988. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, have conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that indicates that they originated not more than about 72,000 +/- 42,000 years ago. Since most humans have very sparse body hair, body lice require clothing to survive, so this suggests a surprisingly recent date for the invention of clothing. Its invention may have coincided with the spread of modern Homo sapiens from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. (Note that some religions dispute the scientific accounts of human evolution and early history, and embrace accounts of human origins, including the origins of clothing, based on sacred texts or myths. See Traditional accounts of the origin of clothing.) Some human cultures, such as the various peoples of the Arctic Circle, until recently made their clothing entirely of furs and skins, cutting clothing to fit and decorating lavishly. Other cultures have supplemented or replaced leather and skins with cloth: woven, knitted, or twined from various animal and vegetable fibres. See weaving, knitting, and twining. Although modern consumers take clothing for granted, making the fabrics that go into clothing is not easy. One sign of this is that the textile industry was the first to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution; before the invention of the powered loom, textile production was a tedious and labor-intensive process. Therefore, methods were developed for making most efficient use of textiles. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many peoples wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit — for example, the Scottish kilt or the Javanese sarong. Pins or belts hold the garments in place. The precious cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes can wear the garment. Another approach involves cutting and sewing the cloth, but using every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing. The tailor may cut triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and then add them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for men's shirts and women's chemises take this approach. Modern European fashion treats cloth much more prodigally, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; home sewers may turn them into quilts. In the thousands of years that humans have spent constructing clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which we can reconstruct from surviving garments, photos, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history serves as a source of inspiration to current fashion designers, as well as a topic of professional interest to costumers constructing for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.

Future trends

As technologies change, so will clothing.
- Man-made fibers such as nylon, polyester, Lycra, and Gore-Tex already account for much of the clothing market. Many more types of fibers will certainly be developed, possibly using nanotechnology. For example, military uniforms may stiffen when hit by bullets, filter out poisonous chemicals, and treat wounds.
- "Smart" clothing will incorporate electronics. Clothing may incorporate wearable computers, flexible wearable displays (possibly leading to fully animated clothing and some forms of invisibility cloaks), medical sensors, etc.
- Present-day ready-to-wear technologies will presumably give way to computer-aided custom manufacturing. Harmless laser beams (usually white light) will measure the customer; computers will draw up a custom pattern and execute it in the customer's choice of cloth.

Clothing industry

The clothing industry is concentrated outside of western Europe and America, and garment workers often have to labor under poor conditions. Coalitions of NGO's and trade unions like the Clean clothes campaign (CCC) seek to improve these conditions as much as possible by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the workers' plight.

External links

- [http://ipl.si.umich.edu/div/pf/entry/48452 The Internet Public Library - Clothing resources]
- [http://www.marquise.de La Couturière Parisienne]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/2777111.stm Japanese scientist invents 'invisibility coat' - BBC News]
- [http://www.german-hosiery-museum.de/hosiery-museum.htm German Hosiery Museum (English language)]
- [http://ejrs.com/converters/clothesizes.html International Clothes Sizes]
- [http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Kittler.CurBiol.2003.pdf Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing] by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking (PDF file) Category:Human appearance Category:Clothing Category:Consumer goods ja:衣類 simple:Clothing

Nude

:For other uses of nudity, nude, and naked, see Nudity (disambiguation) Nudity or nakedness is the state of wearing no clothing. It is sometimes used to refer to wearing significantly less clothing than expected by the conventions of a particular culture and situation, and in particular exposing the bare skin of intimate parts.

Terminology

Although nude and naked have the same objective meaning (i.e. not covered by clothing) and a common origin, they have differing subjective connotations, which partly match their differing etymologies ("nude" originally had a meaning of "plain, bare, unadorned" in a broader sense when introduced into English from Latin "nudus", while "naked" derives from the common early English word for "unclothed" that is cognate with "nudus"). Some consider one term more appropriate than the other. The book Nude, Naked, Stripped suggests that these three terms define a continuum ranging from artistic or tasteful absence of clothing by choice at one end, and a forced or mandatory condition of being without clothes (e.g. strip search) at the other.
- As the concept nudity often refers more to perception by the observer than the mere description whether someone's body is covered or not, there can be a grey area. Thus, while someone exposing 'private parts' is often called 'naked' regardless of garments on other body parts (indeed, an 'undressed' state is often considered even more sexy than full nudity) hence the terms half-naked and, a fortiori, near-naked refer to a body that is not completely exposed, but showing more than is customary or considered quite acceptable, at least in a given context. Thus even wearing boxer shorts, sufficient to guard the modesty of a shooto fighter, is described as near-naked in Japan because the kimono-type uniform associated with traditional martial arts is missing. Half-naked is also used for a degree of skin exposure that is not offensive (as no delicate zone is shown) but still barer than 'fully dressed', such as a man in bare torse.
- As the exposure of specific, usually intimate, skin zones suffices to be offensive and/or sensual, it is not surprising that specific terms are commonly used for such cases. More specifically :
- Terms like bare-butt and bare-arse or kaalgat in Afrikaans (literally 'bald (arse-)hole', also an illustration that one's own dense body hair is considered to undo or at least mitigate nudity; animal furs are probably the oldest form of warm clothing focus only on the buttocks.
- Terms like bare balls and bullock-naked are used to explicitly emphasize the naked exposure of the most private parts, often as a dysphemism for total male nudity, even in a context where another part of the anatomy is functionally more relevant.
- The term topless is sometimes used—especially in reference to females—to describe the lack of clothing covering the breasts
- As a counterpart, some expressions explicitly express total nudity. A special case is stark naked, or in British English starkers, as these terms were erroneously changed from 'start naked' (start is an old Germanic word for tail, as above fixating on the ) to 'stark', an old Germanic word meaning 'strong' but used as 'utter(ly)'. Euphemisms may be used, such as birthday suit and au naturel (French for 'in the natural state') or the Dutch words spiernaakt ('muscle naked', since one sees every muscle under bare skin) and poedelnaakt (refers to the often ridiculed shaving of poodle dog breeds).

Historical overview

poodle Although scientific anthropologists and Christian Biblical literalists offer conflicting accounts of it, they agree that humans originally lived without clothing as their natural state. The former describe the adaptation of animal skins and vegetation into coverings to protect the wearer from cold, heat and rain, especially as humans migrated to new climates. The latter describe the first humans Adam and Eve, after their transgression against God's rules (the original sin), being ashamed of their nakedness and making aprons of fig leaves. Nudity itself was not the original sin, but some people take it so, perhaps explaining the taboo against it. After the introduction of clothing, different cultures have held a wide variety of attitudes and practices about being nude. In some hunter-gatherer cultures in warm climates, near-complete nudity has been (at least until the introduction of Western culture) standard practice for both men and women. In at least one African tribe, the men would go completely naked except for a string tied about the waist. With this string they would be considered properly dressed for hunting and other group activities. In a number of tribes in the South Pacific island of New Guinea, the men use hard gourdlike pods as penis sheaths. While obscuring and covering the actual penis, these at a longer distance give the impression of a large, erect phallus. Yet a man without this "covering" could be considered to be in an embarrassing state of nakedness. Among the Chumash native Americans of southern California, men were usually naked, and women were often topless. Native Americans of the Amazon Basin, usually went nude or nearly nude; in many tribes, the only clothing worn was some device worn by men to clamp the foreskin shut. However, other similar cultures have had different standards. For example, other native North Americans generally avoided total nudity, and the native Americans of the mountains and west of South America, such as the Quechua, kept quite covered. Quechua (1847)]] In some regions of ancient Greece, such as Minoa and Sparta, nudity was more or less accepted, which indicates that nudity is not foreign to European culture, and being a hunter-gatherer society is not a prerequisite for a society that tolerates nudity. In Classical Greece and Rome, public nakedness was accepted in the context of public bathing or athletics. (The Greek word gymnasium means "a place to be naked".) Athletes commonly competed nude, but many city-states allowed no female participants or even spectators at those events, Sparta being a notable exception. However, it was also common for a person to be punished by being stripped and whipped in the public square. In Biblical accounts of the Roman Imperial era, prisoners were often stripped naked, as a form of humiliation. In the 6th century, Benedict of Nurcia advised in his Rule that the monks sleeping in the dormitory should sleep fully dressed. Until the beginning of the 8th century, Christians in Western Europe were baptised naked, emerging from the water like Adam and Eve before the fall. "The disappearance of baptism by immersion in the Carolingian era gave nudity a sexual connotation that it has previously lacked for Christians" (Rouche 1987 p 455). About the same time it became common to represent Christ on the Cross wearing a long tunic, the colobium. European men wore long tunics until the 15th century, when codpieces, tights, and tight trousers gradually came into use; these all covered the male genitals but at the same time drew attention to them. During the Victorian era, public nakedness was considered obscene (though reports that this prudish obsession led to the covering up of piano legs which suggested bare female limbs are fictional exaggerations). In addition to beaches being segregated by gender, bathing machines were also used to conceal the naked body. In the early 20th century, exposure of male nipples was considered indecent at some beaches. Ironically, as in the Middle Ages, the bathing suits worn by men, while covering the genitals, often nonetheless made them quite obvious.

Various modern-era attitudes

As a general rule, public nudity is not considered "proper" in most societies. There are, however, many exceptions and particular circumstances in which nudity is tolerated, accepted, or even encouraged. In general and across cultures, most restrictions are found for exposure of those parts of the human body that put in evidence sexual arousal between male and female adults. Therefore, sex organs and women's breasts are often covered, even when other parts of the body may be freely uncovered. sex organ Nudity in front of a sexual partner is widely accepted, but there may be restrictions — for example, only at the time and place of sex, or with subdued lighting, or covered by a sheet or blanket. Nudity in front of strangers of the same gender is often more accepted than in front of those of the other or both genders, for example when bathing, in common changing rooms, etc. Gender-specific restrooms serve to prevent accidental partial nudity in front of the other gender. Urinals may have partitions between them to avoid the partial nudity of men to be visible by other men. In some cultures, even for people of the same gender to see each other nude is considered inappropriate and embarrassing. Also, the implication of homosexuality among naked members of the same gender can discourage this type of nudity. In certain structured settings in which nudity serves a practical purpose — such as providing access to a patient's body during a medical procedure or therapeutic massage, or providing figure drawing students with unobstructed views of the human body — an individual may be naked in front of one or several clothed people. In most such situations, the exposed individual will be given a loose robe or cloth to cover themselves partially, even if their "private parts" must be exposed. Total nudity for the model remains the norm in figure drawing studios, however. Similarly, pornography is typically photographed with the models fully nude and the crew fully dressed. None of these settings are routinely experienced by most members of society, however, so they are not normative. Although exposure of the top of women's breasts is usually tolerated, in the United States of America, exposure of female nipples is still not usually allowed in public; public breastfeeding, since the exposure it involves is functional, may be looked upon more mildly, but still it is sometimes considered problematic. However, courts in some North American jurisdictions—including Ontario and New York State—have legalized the exposure of women's nipples on equal protection grounds (see United States Constitution/Amendment Fourteen). The movement of "topfree equality" promotes equal rights for women to have no clothing above the waist; the term "topfree" rather than "topless" is used to avoid the latter term's sexual connotations. However, there are still extreme reactions on the parts of many to exposure of the full breast, as in Janet Jackson's partial breast exposure during the half-time show of the 2004 Super Bowl. Nakedness (full or partial) can be part of a corporal punishment or as an imposed humiliation (especially when administered in public). In fact, torture manuals may distinguish between the male and female psychological aversion from self-exposure versus being disrobed. Nudity is closely associated with sexuality in most cultures where some level of body modesty is expected. This is evidenced by the existence of striptease in these cultures. Sexual dimorphism when depicted in the main stream media of these cultures is often seen as sexually related. As an effect of Catholic cultural heritage, in Latin cultures the common definition of modesty does not generally admit genital nudity, but the definition of what is lewd has changed and women's breasts are now commonly exposed or depicted without scandal. The trend in some European countries (for instance Germany, Finland, and the Netherlands) is to allow both genders to bathe together naked (In Finland typical only in private within family). Typically, older German bathhouses, such as Bad Burg, remain segregated by gender. The reverse is true of Japanese sentos. Most of the newer Japanese bathhouses are gender segregated, whereas the older baths in the countryside are mixed gender. In both cases (mixed or segregated) public bathing in Japan is done in total nudity. Some people enjoy public nudity in a non-sexual context. This movement is known as nudism or naturism, and is often practiced in reserved places that used to be called "nudist camps" but are now more commonly referred to as naturist resorts, beaches, or clubs. Such facilities may be designated topless, clothing-optional, or fully-nude-only. nudismOthers practice public nudity more casually. Topless sunbathing is considered acceptable by many on the beaches of France, Spain, and most of the rest of Europe (and even in some outdoor swimming pools); however, exposure of the genitals is restricted to nudist areas in most regions, Eastern Germany being a notable exception. (Nude bathing was one of the few generally tolerated liberties people could take in the socialist GDR, which explains its popularity.) In the United States, topless sunbathing and thongs are common in South Miami Beach, Florida. There are a number of nude beaches up and down the West Coast of the U.S., as well. A 1996 court decision in Ontario allows women to go topless in public in Canada. One of the more interesting examples of certain modern attitudes towards nudity occurred in 2002 when Republican U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft ordered a semi-nude statue at the Department of Justice covered with a curtain. The statue, the Spirit of Justice, has been on display at DOJ since the 1920s. When new Attorney General Alberto Gonzales, also a Republican, assumed the office in 2005, he ordered the curtain removed. The statue had also been curtained temporarily from time-to-time under Republican Attorney General Richard Thornburgh when he spoke in the room. In another memorable episode, when Republican Attorney General Edwin Meese released a report on pornography in the 1980s, press photographers hit the floor to photograph him speaking in front of the partially clad statue.

Children

Attitudes toward the nudity of children vary substantially, depending on the child's age and the context of the nudity. Among some people they have changed noticeably since the mid 20th century, largely due to increasing concerns about sexual abuse of children. One of the more traditional attitudes regards children who have not yet reached puberty (or perhaps a younger age) as essentially asexual, and treats their nudity as harmless. This is most commonly true of infants, who are often depicted nude without negative social connotation. The work of Anne Geddes, for example, often depicts nude infants in scenes that would be considered in quite a different light if the children were several years older. In some cultures, it may be acceptable for male children to be seen nude by females, but not vice versa. This was formerly the practice in parts of the rural United States, for example. In many places children are taught to never to be seen nude by those of the opposite sex (especially of the same approximate age). In these circumstances, children would be ashamed or very embarrassed if anyone (except perhaps a parent, sibling, or other close relative) of the opposite sex saw them nude. They may even be subject to giggling and teasing by clothed children of similar culture. However, children of this age may also be motivated by their curiosity to covertly expose themselves to a child of the other gender in exchange for them doing the same ("I'll show you mine if you show me yours"). This attitude toward nudity and gender separatism usually peaks at about age nine, later very gradually changing to allow for a sexual partner to eventually see them nude. Increasing awareness of the fact that children are sexually abused has created a partial backlash in developed countries against the general trend toward increasing acceptance of public nudity, especially of children. In some cases, any public nudity of a person under the age of consent might be accused of being abusive. For example, there have been incidents in which snapshots taken by parents of their infant or toddler children bathing or otherwise naked were destroyed or turned over to law enforcement as child pornography. In New Zealand photographs of naked minors in newspapers and magazines were once socially acceptable, but would invoke horror and revulsion amongst the readership if published today. Perhaps coincidentally, swimwear fashions for children have become less revealing over this same time period. Debates are unresolved about the acceptability of child nudity. Most naturists do not believe that nudity harms children or otherwise promotes abuse (assuming the child has no qualms about it). In virtually all cases of childhood sexual abuse, both the victim and their abuser were of clothed culture. It is being away from public view and secrecy -- not nudity -- which leads to abuse, they say. Any male who shows arousal at children can easily be identified within an all nudist setting; whereas in a clothed environment it would be much more difficult. Furthermore, they believe children of clothed culture tend to have curiosities about the nude body and sex that naturist children do not have.

Non-Western attitudes

Attitudes in Western cultures are not all the same as explained above, and likewise attitudes in non-western cultures are many and variant. Cultures usually dictate what is proper and what is not proper by traditions. Many non-western cultures allow women to breast feed in public, and some have very strict laws about showing any sort of skin. Some strict interpretations of Islam require women to observe purdah, covering their entire bodies, including the face (see burqa), on threat of severe punishment. Still very different traditions exist among, for example, post-colonial Sub-Saharan Africans. Whereas some tribes and family-groups including some Togolose and Ethiopian (e.g., Suri) tribes still commonly parade fully naked or without any covering below the waist, amongst Bantu people there is often a complete aversion from public nudity— thus, in Botswana when a newspaper printed a photograph seen here: [http://www.corpun.com/bwj00507.htm#16132| CorPun website on corporal punishments] of a thief suffering lashes on the bared buttocks imposed by a traditional chief's court, there was national consternation, not about the flogging (actually extended soon to age 50 and to women) but about the 'peeping tom'. In various cultures children can go publicly naked (fully or strategically) while adults don't, usually till an age or ceremony considered the start of adolescence or of adulthood. An example of a rite of passage in a Benin tribe, traditional body scarification on the head is performed on a small child while completely naked, but to a boy being initiated as an adult baring only the torso (where the scars are made). Much of East Asian culture still maintains a conservative attitude toward nudity, alongside relatively conservative traditional attitude towards body contact; this attitude has changed in recent decades to both revert to some preWestern cultural values, and accept new values through exposure to Western imagery, advertising, and media. Despite this relative prevalence of traditional attitudes for adults, however, Chinese culture continues to sanction the wearing of shorts by children which are not enclosed, permitting them to more easily relieve bodily functions. Moreover, in the preparations for the upcoming 2008 Beijing Olympics, some have called for the end of the tradition permissiveness for adult males to go shirtless in public during warm weather.

Nudity beyond social norms

Beijing Olympics Streaking is running naked through a non-nudist public place, usually for fun or as a practical joke. Nudity has sometimes been used to attract more attention to a public protest, a tactic used by the Doukhobors in the early 20th century, and later (particularly from the 1960s onwards) used more widely. Modern slogans include "Disrobe for disarmament", "Nudes, not nukes!", "Naked For Peace", "Dare 2 Bare 4 Freedom + Peace", "I'd rather go naked than wear fur!" and "I Got Rid Of My Bush! Read My Lips — No To War!" In softcore pornography, which was originally presented mainly in the form of "men's magazines", it was barely acceptable to show a glimpse of nipple in the 1950s. By the 1970s, in such mainstream magazines as Playboy and Hustler, no region of the body was considered off limits. Meanwhile, a growing business of hardcore pornography has developed, including photo magazines and motion pictures, in which total nudity (and any variety of sexual activity) is commonplace. Originally, nude dancing was mainly presented in the form of the "strip-tease". This was generally a stage show in which the dancer progressively removed her clothing while dancing to music. Prominent early- to mid-twentieth century "strip-tease artists" such as Gypsy Rose Lee rarely included total nudity as part of their sometimes quite elaborate acts. Now most "exotic" dancers perform topless (independent of gender, of course), perhaps wearing a thong bottom. In the 1970s, on an official level, men entered the strip club field, performing partially-unclothed dances primarily at clubs aimed for heterosexual women (the Chippendales being the most common example). Both genders had been unofficially dancing at clubs for many years (at least since the 1950's), and today at clubs catering to gay, straight, and everything in-between clientele.

Depictions of nudity

The depiction of nudity in art has generally conformed — with some variation — to social standards for public nudity; in cultures where nudity was accepted, nude figures in painting and sculpture were as well. However, some cultures have tolerated artistic nudity more than actual nudity, with a different set of standards of what is acceptable. As social attitudes about artistic nudity have changed, this has sometimes led to conflict over art that no longer conforms to prevailing standards. For example, the Roman Catholic Church once organized the so-called fig-leaf campaign to cover nudity in art, starting from the works of Renaissance artist Michelangelo. The nude has become an enduring genre of representational art, especially painting, sculpture, and photography. It depicts people without clothes on, usually with stylistic and staging conventions that distinguish the artistic elements (such as innocence, or similar theatrical/artistic elements) of being nude with the more provocative state of being naked. A nude figure is one, such as a goddess or a man in ancient Greece, for whom the lack of clothing is its usual condition, so that there is no sexual suggestiveness presumed. A naked figure is one, such as a contemporary prostitute or a businessman, who usually wears clothing, such that their lack of it in this scene implies sexual activity or suggestiveness. The latter were rare in European art from the Medieval period until the latter half of the 1800s; in the interim, a work featuring an unclothed woman would routinely identify her as "Venus" or another Greco-Roman goddess, to justify her nudity. Venus.]] Nudity in art, also publicly displayed, is rather common and more accepted than public nudity of real people. For example, a statue or painting representing a nude person may be displayed in public places where actual nudity is not allowed. However, there is also much art depicting a nude person with a piece of cloth seemingly by chance covering the genitals. A 1960s sketch featuring English comedians Peter Cook and Dudley Moore admiring Cézanne's Les Grandes Beigneuses in the National Gallery humorously suggested that there must be hundreds of paintings that are not publicly displayed because the pieces of cloth did not fall in just the right places while the artist was painting them. In modern media, images of partial and full nudity are used in advertising to draw additional attention. In the case of attractive models this attention is due to the visual pleasure the images provide; in other cases it is due to the relative rarity of images of nudity. The use of nudity in advertising tends to be carefully controlled to avoid the impression that the company whose product is being advertised is indecent or unrefined. There are also limits on what advertising media such as magazines allow. The success of sexually provocative advertising is claimed in the truism "sex sells". However, responses to nudity in American advertisements have been more mixed; nudity in the advertisements of Calvin Klein, Benetton, and Abercrombie and Fitch, to name three companies, have provoked much negative as well as positive response. (See also: Sex in advertising). Of images of nudity (not necessarily pornographic), the most extreme form is "full frontal" nudity, referring to the fact that the actor or model is presented from the front and including "everything", indicating that the genitals are exposed. Frequently images of nude people do not go that far and photos are deliberately composed, and films edited, such that in particular no genitalia are seen, as if the camera failed to see them by chance. photos, rated PG13 by MPAA]] The portrayal of nudity in motion pictures has long been controversial. Several early films of the silent era featured nudity; in response to objections voiced by several groups, scenes of nudity were forbidden in mainstream USA films by the Hays Code from the 1930s until the 1960s when the MPAA film rating system was instituted. In the early 1950s the only open cinematic displays of nudity were in naturist quasi-documentary films. In 1959 the film The Immoral Mr. Teas became the first non-naturist film openly exhibiting nudity. These earlier films were about nudity or about the visualization of nudity, rather than its use in film using incidental nudity as part of a larger story. Only with the MPAA rating system could nudity be legitimately included in a commercially successful film built around some other story. Since then, many films have featured various levels of nudity; however, full frontal nudity (especially featuring male anatomy) is still rare in US cinema. Further (and primarily because of the implications involved) it is commonly more acceptable for a male's genitals to be depicted in a flacid state, but not while erect. The film Angels and Insects was the first to be given an NC-17 rating specifically because an actor had an erection. Full nudity has gained much wider acceptance in European cinema, where in contrast to their US counterparts the audience perceive nudity and sexuality in general as less objectionable than the depiction of excessive violence. Noteworthy films with famous nude scenes include:
- Inspiration (1915) the first film to feature nudity
- Ecstasy (1933) first theatrical film to feature sex and a woman's bare breasts
- Blow-Up (1966) first to show female genitalia
- I Am Curious (Yellow) (1967) explicit portrayal of sex and nudity
- Women in Love (1969) first theatrical movie to show male genitalia
- Last Tango in Paris (1972) explicit portrayal of sex starring Marlon Brando and Maria Schneider
- Pretty Baby (1978) a nude and underage Brooke Shields
- American Gigolo (1980) first full frontal of a major hollywood actor Richard Gere
- Porky's (1982) voyeristic shower scene
- Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982) portrayals of teenage sex, Phoebe Cates removing her bikini top
- Basic Instinct (1992) pantyless uncrossing of legs by Sharon Stone
- Showgirls (1995) numerous nude and exotic scenes starring Elizabeth Berkley
- Titanic (1997) nude portrait of Kate Winslet
- Eyes Wide Shut (1999) scene of Nicole Kidman dancing in front of the mirror completely nude Broadcast television and most "basic cable" outlets in the United States have been more reluctant to display nudity in most cases, the exception being PBS. A few series in the 1990s, including NYPD Blue, have occasionally used partial nudity, both male and female. When broadcast on television, theatrically released films featuring nudity are usually presented with the nude scenes edited out, or the nudity is obscured in some fashion (for example digital imagery may be used to clothe nude actors). Several premium cable services such as HBO and Showtime have gained popularity for, among other things, presenting unedited films. In addition, they have produced series that do not shy away from nude scenes, including Oz, Sex and the City, The Sopranos, and Queer as Folk. Nudity is occasionally presented in other media as well, often with attending controversy. Album cover art featuring nude photographs, featuring music by performers such as Jimi Hendrix, John Lennon and Yoko Ono, Blind Faith, and Jane's Addiction, have stirred controversy over the years. Several rock musicians have performed nude on stage, including members of Jane's Addiction, Rage Against the Machine, Green Day, The Jesus Lizard, Red Hot Chilli Peppers, and Blink 182. Television soap operas have rarely shown any risque nudity, the exception being the Procter & Gamble soap operas As the World Turns and Guiding Light which in 2005 went as far as featuring rear male nudity during lovemaking scenes. After the Super Bowl controversy, FCC commissioner Michael J. Copps stated that it was time for a crackdown on daytime television and indicated that he was reviewing whether soap operas were violating the agency's indecency prohibitions. Following this news, Guiding Light edited out nudity from an episode that had already been taped. A week later, the show's executive producer John Conboy was fired and replaced by Ellen Wheeler. All nine American network soaps began to impose an unwritten rule of avoiding any sort of risque adult scenes. for more information see Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy. On the Internet, especially on websites featuring images of well known people, the terms nude and nudity have often been used (some would say misused) to signify indecent exposure; for example, a photo of an otherwise fully clothed woman with a nipple exposed. See also: Nude celebrities on the Internet. An exception is often made for the depiction of peoples whose nudity is acceptable within the mores of a traditional culture. This so-called "ethnographic" nudity has appeared in National Geographic magazine, as well as documentaries broadcast in the United States. In some cases, media outlets may show nudity which occurs in a "natural" or spontaneous setting in news programs or documentaries, while blurring out or censoring the nudity in a dramatic work.

References

- Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in A History of Private Life vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 ISBN 0-674-39974-9
- Brandom, Robert, "Critical Notice of Blind and Worried", Theoria 70:2-3, 2005.

External links

- [http://www.sfheart.com/naked_for_peace.html Naked for Peace]
- [http://www.spencertunick.com/ Art photos of public mass nudity] by Spencer Tunick
- [http://photography.about.com/cs/nudephotography/ Nude photography]
- [http://d-sites.net/english/eroteye.htm 'The erotic eye and its nude: an inquiry into the vicissitudes of the scopic and phanic drive']
- [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A48432-2005Jan4.html/ Gonzales' Curtain Call] Attorney General Alberto Gonzales unveils Spirit of Justice after curtained for three years by A.G. John Ashcroft
- [http://www.simplenudes.com Simple Nudes] Category:Human appearance ja:裸

Winter

Winter is one of the four seasons of temperate zones. Astronomically, it begins with the winter solstice (around December 21 in the Northern hemisphere and June 21 in the Southern hemisphere), and ends with the spring equinox (around March 21 in the Northern hemisphere and September 23 in the Southern hemisphere). In meteorology, it is by convention counted instead as the whole months of June, July and August in the Southern hemisphere and December, January and February in the Northern hemisphere. However, in the United Kingdom and Ireland the winter solstice is traditionally considered as midwinter, the winter season beginning November 1 on All Hallows or Samhain. Elsewhere, in Chinese astronomy (and other East Asian calenders), winter is taken to commence on or around November 7, with the Jiéqì known as (立冬 lì dōng, i.e. "establishment of winter".

Meteorological aspects

Meteorological winter is the season having the shortest days (which vary greatly according to latitude) and the lowest temperatures. Nighttime predominates the winter season, and in some regions it has the highest rate of precipitation, as well as prolonged dampness due to permanent snow cover in such areas. Measured astronomically, winter begins on the shortest day of the year, and each day of winter has more sunlight than the previous one. During winter, there is much snow and cold, especially in areas that are farther away from the Equator. Blizzards often develop and cause many delays. A rare meteorological phenomenon encountered during winter is ice fog, which is composed of ice crystals suspended in the air and happening only at very low temperatures (at least 10 degrees below zero).

What causes winter

Of course, the Earth rotates around the sun once every year. At the same time, the planet tilts on its axis, and this has an even more dramatic effect on the weather. The popular belief that winter is caused as the Earth moves away from the Sun during the widest part of its orbit, and thus causes winter, is not necessarily true. In actual fact, winter occurs when the sun is at its closest point in the case of the northern hemisphere. The planet tilts 23°27' (23 degrees 27 minutes) and this causes different parts of the Earth's surface to be closer to the sun at various parts of its orbit. It is this variation that brings about the seasons. In winter, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun and thus experiences colder temperatures. Since the southern hemisphere will be tilted toward the sun at this point, its seasons are always the northern's opposite. During the winter, the light rays coming in from the sun hit the Earth surface at a lower angle. Less energy is transferred to the surface as a result of the glancing nature of these rays. Basically, the same amount of light energy is spread out over a larger area. This effect is compounded by the larger distance this light must travel through the atmosphere, allowing it to absorb more of this already limited heat.

Activities

ice crystal

Snow activities

- Bobsledding - a winter sport in which teams make timed runs down narrow, twisting, banked purpose-built iced tracks in a gravity-powered, steerable sled.
- Skiing - the activity of gliding over snow using what is now fiberglass planks called skis that are strapped to the skiers' feet with ski bindings.
- Sledding - a downhill activity where the user uses a sled to glide down the hill.
- Snowball fight - a physical game in which snowballs are thrown with the intention of hitting somebody else.
- Snowboarding - an increasingly common sport where participants strap a composite board to their feet and slide down a snow-covered mountain.
- Snowshoeing - a means of travel in which one is able to walk on top of the snow by increasing the surface area of their feet.
- Snowman building - creating a man-like model out of snow

Ice activities

- Ice Skating - a means of traveling on ice with skates, narrow (and sometimes parabolic) blade-like devices moulded into special boots (or, more primitively, without boots, tied to regular footwear).
- Ice boating - a means of travel in a specialized boat similar in appearance to a sailboat but fitted with skis or runners (skates) and designed to run over ice instead of (liquid) water.
- Ice fishing - the sport of catching fish with lines and hooks through an opening in the ice on a frozen body of water.
- Ice diving - a type of penetration diving where the dive takes place under ice.
- Ice Sculpture - elaborate sculptures are carved out of blocks of ice.

Ecology

Ice Sculpture

Animals

To survive the harshness of winter, many animals have developed different behavioral and morphological adaptations:
- Migration is a common effect of winter upon animals, affecting basically birds. However some birds, i.e. the cardinal do not migrate.
- Hibernation is a state of reduced metabolic activity during the winter. These animals "sleep" during winter and only come out as warm weather returns. For example, gophers, bears, frogs, snakes or bats hibernate.
- Some animals store food for the winter and live upon it instead of hibernating completely. This is the case of squirrels, beavers, skunks, badgers and raccoons.
- Resistance is observed when an animal endures winter, but changes in ways such as color and musculature. The color of the fur or plumage are changed to white in order to be confused with snow and thus, to retain their cryptic coloration year round. Examples are the ptarmigan, the arctic fox, the weasel, the white-tailed jack rabbit or the mountain hare.
- Some fur-coated mammals grow a heavier fur coat during the winter. This improves the heat-retention qualities of the fur. The coat is then shed following the winter season to allow better cooling. The heavier winter coat made this season a favorite for trappers who sought more profitable skins.
- Snow also affects the ways animals behave, as many take advantage of the insulating properties of snow by burrowing in it. Mice and voles typically live under the snow layer.

Plants

Annual plants never survive the winter. As for perennial plants, many small ones profit from the insulating effects of snow by being buried in it. Larger plants, particularly deciduous trees, usually let their upper part die, but their roots are still protected by the snow layer.

Psychology

deciduous trees Passing seasons change the habits and moods of people. Around winter months, a gloominess, called "winter blues" or "February blahs" or "Holiday depression"-- during November and December in the northern hemisphere-- is informally noted amongst people. The severest cases of this type of depression is diagnosed as seasonal affective disorder (SAD). Symptoms include sleeping more, tiredness, depression, and physical aches. Although causes include genetic disposition and stress, the prevailing environmental influence is decreased exposure to light due to winter weather patterns.

The symbolism of winter

Winter is highly symbolic of many things to many people and has been used to represent various things by artists in all media. Some use winter to suggest death, as in Robert Frost's "Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening." Some use it to suggest the absence of hope, as in C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, where it was always winter but never Christmas. Winter is one movement in Vivaldi's "The Four Seasons;" and there are many examples of four paintings, all showing the same scene in different seasons. Ursula K. LeGuin's novel The Left Hand of Darkness is set on a planet named Winter. In Alex Raymond's comic strip, Flash Gordon there is a land called Frigia, where it is always winter. The land of Frigia is also featured in the serial Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe. Other uses of winter in the graphic arts occur in Winsor McCay's Little Nemo in Slumberland. There are many films where a winter setting plays an important role, Fargo for example. In addition to this, novels such as Ethan Frome also use a winter setting to mirror the bleak, frozen feelings that the characters harbor.

Mythological explanations of winter

In Greek mythology, Hades kidnapped Persephone to be his wife. Zeus ordered Hades to return her to Demeter, the goddess of the earth and her mother. However, Hades tricked Persephone into eating the food of the dead so Zeus decreeded Persephone would spend six months with Demeter and six months with Hades. During the time when her daughter is with Hades, Demeter becomes depressed and causes winter.

Exceptional winters

- Russian Winters of 1812/13 and 1941/42
- The Winter of Discontent is the name for the British winter of 1978-79, during which there were widespread strikes. Lorry drivers, train drivers, nurses, most public sector employees, refuse collectors, and workers at Ford Motors all went on strike. Most notorious however was an unofficial strike by gravediggers.

References

- Rosenthal, Norman E. (1998). Winter Blues. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 1572303956

External links

- [http://www.oulu.fi/northnature/english/englanti/ajankohttalvi.html "Winter of animals and plants in Finland"] by Northern Nature Project
- [http://www.thursdaysclassroom.com/23sep99/story5.html Native American seasons myth from the Zion Natural History Association] Category:Seasons ja:冬 simple:Winter

Babydoll

:For other instances, see Baby Doll (disambiguation). Baby Doll (disambiguation) A babydoll is a short nightgown or negligee intended as nightwear for a female. The garment is often trimmed with lace, ruffles, bows and ribbons, optionally with spaghetti straps. Sometimes it is made of sheer or translucent fabric like nylon or chiffon or silk. It is said the name was popularized by the 1956 movie Baby Doll starring Carroll Baker in the title role, which essentially marked the beginning of the enduring popularity of the style for adults. At the same time, new synthetic fabrics and boutique retailing made the form both affordable and easy to purchase. Short daywear dresses of a similar style are sometimes called babydoll dresses; the name is sometimes two words, baby doll, and sometimes hyphenated, baby-doll. Some styles are similar to what is worn by dolls in the form of infants, and by some infants; the gown is short enough that diapers are easily changed. Thus, it is a common garment for those who indulge in sexualized play-acting around ideas of infantilism. However, there may be an alternative origin for the style, if we consider the lineage of lace-trimmed shortie bed-jackets and bed-capes of the 1930s and 1940s. It is now a highly eroticized item of adult apparel, often classified as a form of lingerie. When worn by an adult woman there is great contrast to when worn by an infant; the legs are fully displayed and some styles emphasize or deliberately expose the breasts as well. The gown is often sold as a set with matching panties (UK - knickers) as a typical babydoll is short enough that these are visible when it is worn with them. Styles of the same general length but not intended to emphasize sex appeal are sometimes called shortie nightgowns. Babydolls are now available in a sufficiently wide variety of styles that many lingerie retailers consider babydolls a distinct department. Modern babydolls often vary considerably from the styles of the 1960s and 70s. Baby doll negligees from the 1950s to the early 1980s are now collectable items. Category:Clothing Category:Underwear Category:Fetish clothing als:Babydoll ja:ベビードール

Negligee

The negligee is a form of womenswear intended for wear at night and in the bedroom. It is a form of nightgown; first introduced in France in the 18th Century, where it mimicked the heavy head-to-toe style of women's day dresses of the time. By the 1920s it began to mimic women's satin single-layer evening dresses of the period. The term 'negligee' was used of a Royal Doulton run of ceramic figurines in 1927, showing women wearing what appears to be a one-piece knee-length silk or rayon slip, trimmed with lace. The word comes from the French, 'to make light of' (referring to something light, a frippery to be cast aside). Although the evening-dresses style of nightwear made moves towards the modern negligee style (translucent bodices, lace trimming, bows - exemplified in 1941 by a photo of Rita Hayworth in Life), it was only after World War II that nightwear changed from being primarily utilitarian to being primarily sensual or even erotic; the negligee emerged strongly as a form of lingerie. Modern negligees were often much looser and made of sheer and semi-translucent fabrics and trimmed with lace or other fine material, and bows. Multiple layers of fabric were often used. The modern negligee thus perhaps owes more to women's fine bedjackets or bed-capes, and up-market slips than to the nightgown. It spread to a mass market, benefiting from the introduction of cheap synthetic fabrics such as nylon and its finer successors. From the 1940s to the 1970s, the trend was for negligees to become shorter in length (e.g.: the babydoll of the 1970s). Negligees made from the 1940s to the 1970s are now collectible items. In the UK at 2004, negligees account for only four per cent of women's nightwear sales, women's pajamas having dominated since the mid 1980s. However, UK negligee sales are said to have been the fastest increasing sector of the market since 1998 (Source: BBC, Dec 2004). Category:Clothing

Nightgown

A Nightgown (also called a nightdress) is a loosely hanging item of nightwear nowadays solely for women. Its length may vary from hip-length (babydoll) to floor-length (peignoir) but is typically knee-length. A nightgown is manufactured of e.g. cotton, silk, satin, or nylon. It may be decorated with lace appliqués or embroidery at cups and hem. Optionally, panties (UK - knickers) are worn under the nightgown (nightdress). A short nightgown is often called nightie. See also dressing gown and pyjamas. Category:Clothing

Nightshirt

A nightshirt is a special kind of shirt used in sleeping. As a purely bedtime garment, the nightshirt is the successor of an undergarment used by Europeans through the 19th Century. This undergarment was worn all day under outer clothing. At night the outer clothing was removed, and men and women slept in the long shirt-like garment. This smock was longer for women than for men. Upon arising in the morning, the outer garments were again put on. The major difference in the use of the nightshirt is that it replaces all clothing worn during the day. It is removed after arising and put away for use during the next sleeping period. Category:Clothing

Pajamas

Pajamas or pyjamas (often PJs) are a form of nightwear for those who do not prefer to sleep in their underwear or nude. Pyjamas are usually two-piece garments but may be one-piece garments. They are worn by children and adults alike, although children seem to prefer them. The wearing of pyjamas by adults is sometimes seasonal; e.g., only in winter time. The word "pajama" came by the way of the Hindi word pajama, originally from the Persian words پايجامه Payjama meaning "leg garment." Since November 2005, Pajamas Media, Temporarily also known as Open Source Media (OSM), is a worldwide aggregate of blogs. The founders chose this name "after that now-famous remark about bloggers being 'just a bunch of people sitting around in their pajamas.'" Pajamas Media

External links

- [http://www.professionalsinpajamas.com Professionals in Pajamas]
- [http://www.infashionkids.com/pajamas.html Children Pajamas] - commercial
- [http://www.osm.org/index_html Pajamas Media] Category:Clothing ja:パジャマ

Category:Clothing

Category:Culture Category:Fashion Category:Consumer goods ja:Category:衣類

Thomas Hunt Morgan

Thomas Hunt Morgan (ur. 25 września 1866 w Lexington, Kentucky)- zm. 5 grudnia 1945 w Pasadenie, Kalifornia) - amerykański biolog, genetyk, twórca chromosomowej teorii dziedziczności, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie fizjologii i medycyny w 1933 roku. Profesor zoologii w Columbia University, powtórny odkrywca dziedziczenia chromosomowego. Thomas Morgan udowodnił, że nośnikami genów są chromosomy. W 1908 roku, Morgan zaczął eksperymenty na owadach Drosophila melanogaster (muszka owocowa). W 1915 Morgan i jego zespół współpracowników opublikował tzw. Chromosomową Teorię Dziedziczności, a w 1926 Teorie genów. Źródła:
- Beata Tarnowska (red.), Nagrody Nobla. Leksykon PWN, Warszawa 2001, ISBN 8301133937 Linki zewnętrzne:
- [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1933/ Thomas Hunt Morgan] Morgan, Thomas Hunt Morgan, Thomas Hunt Morgan, Thomas Hunt ja:トーマス・ハント・モーガン

diety �mieszne zdj�cia online casinos sprzet Biuro Rachunkowe Kielce

:: RELATED NEWS ::

Canberra Women's Tennis Classic
The Canberra Women's Tennis Classic is an annual WTA Tour tournament held in Canberra, Australia in the week leading up to the Australian Open. The tournament is held at the National Sports Club in the Northern Canberra suburb of Lyneham and played on Rebound-Ace

Benigno S. Aquino, Jr.
:For the municipality, see Sen. Ninoy Aquino, Sultan Kudarat Sen. Ninoy Aquino, Sultan Kudarat Benigno "Ninoy" Simeon Aquino Jr. (November 27, 1932–August 21, 1983) was a leading opposition Read More...

Hussein bin Ali
::This article concerns Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. For other persons of the same name, see Hussein bin Ali (disambiguation). Hussein bin Ali (disambiguation) Husayn ibn Ali ibn Abu Talib (c. 626 - October 10, 680) (; transliterated: Husayn b

Michael Witt
Michael Witt (born in Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia on January 1, 1984) is a rugby league player and is one of the rising stars of the National Rugby League competition. When 16, he moved to Sydney

Spar (Breath of Fire character)
This is a list of the major and minor characters of Breath of Fire II.

Playable characters

Ryu

right Ryu is the protagonist of Breath of Fire II. Ryu is named after and descended from the protagonist of Breath of Fire, and, like his ancestor, he is a hereditary member of the legendary dragon clan, inheriting the abilit

Hussein bin Ali (Sharif of Mecca)
Hussein bin Ali or Husayn ibn Ali (died 1931) was the Sharif of Mecca, and Emir of Mecca from 1908 until 1917, when he proclaimed himself king of Hejaz, which received international recognition. In 1924, he further proclaimed himself Caliph of all Muslims. He ruled Hejaz until 1924, when, defeated by

LaserActive
LaserActive was a short-lived Laserdisc-based game console released by Pioneer in 1993. In addition to laseractive games, separately sold add-on modules (refered to as "PAC" by Pioneer) expanded the hardware to include compatibility with the Mega Drive/Sega Genesis and PC-Engine