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Hunter X Hunter

Hunter x hunter

Hunter × Hunter is a manga by Yoshihiro Togashi about a 12-year-old boy named Gon Freaks, and his quest to find his father, Ging Freaks. Ging is a Hunter, which in the setting of Hunter × Hunter means that he is a member of society's elite, with pretty much total license to go anywhere or do anything. It started running in Japan in Weekly Shonen Jump in the 14th issue of 1998.

Plot Summary

Hunter Test Story Arc

In the first major story arc, Gon takes a series of bizarre tests to become a Hunter himself, which include such things as navigating a deadly jungle, hunting other applicants, killing a wild boar, and making sushi. During the Hunter Test, Gon meets and befriends three of the other applicants, who become the supporting characters:
- Killua Zaoldyeck (奇犽): Another 12-year old boy, raised in a family of assassins.
- Kurapika (酷拉皮卡): The last of his clan, and whose eyes turn scarlet when he is enraged.
- Leorio (里奧里多): A medical student who, although he's the oldest of the four, is always scrambling to catch up with the others. Another of the applicants in the Hunter Test is Hisoka, a complex villain who uses playing cards as weapons, and who views Gon as an "unripe fruit" that he will take great pleasure in killing once he's grown up enough to present a challenge.

Zaoldyeck Family & Celestial Tower Story Arcs

The second story arc involves Gon, Kurapika, and Leorio springing Killua from his parents' mansion. At the end of the second story arc, Leorio leaves for medical school and Kurapika leaves to find work as a Hunter, taking both characters out of the story. In the third story arc, Gon and Killua go to the Celestial Tower, a 251-floor building where people can compete in fighting tournaments around the clock for cash. It is here they meet the Kungfu master Wing, who teaches them about nen, a chi-like energy that can be used to manifest superhuman powers. They fight in the tournament to gain money and experience. Hisoka defeats another powerful Nen user, Kastro, who was able to create and use a double made by his Materialization and Manipulation Nen ability. Hisoka loses both arms in the battle but Machi, a fellow nen user, uses her nen ability to sew them back on. Gon battles Hisoka and is able to land a few hits, but loses in the end.

Genei Ryodan Story Arc

The fourth story arc reunites the four main characters for the world's largest auction in a sprawling metropolis called York Shin City. While Gon, Killua, and Leorio try different methods to make enough money to buy Greed Island, a "Joystation" video game that could help Gon find his father, Kurapika takes center-stage. This story arc introduces the Genei Ryodan ("Phantom Brigade"), a group of thieves who, among many many other crimes, slaughtered all the other members of Kurapika's clan. Kurapika crosses paths with them while working as a bodyguard for a teenage girl named Neon, who has a clairvoyant nen ability. He spends the rest of the arc balancing his bodyguard duties with his goal to hunt down the Genei Ryodan. The Genei Ryodan 's 13 members are:
- Kuroro Lucifer: The leader of the Genei Ryodan; A young man with the ability to permanently steal other peoples' nen abilities, which he stores inside a Materialized book.
- Bonorenofu: Who does absolutely nothing in the Genei Ryodan story arc. Later, in the Chimera Ant story arc, it is revealed that his body is covered in holes, and by dancing he can play music with the holes to summon the powers of various gods.
- Feitan: A short 28-year-old man who is a true sadist. Like Bonorenofu, his true nen ability (to absorb and transform the damange an enermy inflicts on him into a powerful heat attack) is not revealed until the Chimera Ant story arc.
- Franklin: A giant whose fingertips pop off to reveal gun barrels from which he can emit nen bullets.
- Hisoka: The card-throwing, villainous magician from the Hunter Exam, who also showed up in the Celestial Tower story arc.
- Korutopi: A cousin It-like character who can materialize a perfect duplicate of anything (even skyscrapers and human bodies). His duplicates fade after 24 hours.
- Machi: The world's deadliest seamstress, who can mold her nen into threads. These threads can sew severed limbs back on perfectly or support immense weights.
- Nobunaga: A hot-tempered samurai.
- Shalnark: A young computer-whiz who can control people with his cell-phone after first attaching an antenna to them.
- Shizuku: A forgetful, thick-spectacled girl who can manifest a vacuum cleaner that can suck up anything non-living material (including dead bodies, of which there are a lot when the Genei Ryodan are around).
- Sphinx: A master of martial arts, who alternately dresses either like a pharaoh or in a designer jogging suit. In the Chimera Ant story arc, it is revealed that he can "wind up" his punch to make it devastatingly powerful.
- Pakunoda: A woman with the ability to read into the memories of others simply by touching them. She can also form memory bullets which can transfer memories into other people.
- Ubogin: The obligatory musclebounder, who strives to make his punch as powerful as an atomic bomb, and isn't far off. By the end of the Genei Ryodan story arc, Kurapika has directly killed Ubogin, indirectly killed Pakunoda (via a deadly nen ability which killed her when she broke the conditions he had set onto her), and "sealed" Kuroro Lucifer's nen ability (via the same ability he used on Pakunoda). The latter two are accomplished via an unsteady alliance with Hisoka, who betrays the Genei Ryodan in exchange for a chance to fight Kuroro Lucifer. Once Kuroro's powers are "sealed", Hisoka completely loses interest and walks away.

Greed Island Story Arc

Gon, Killua, and Leorio return to help Kurapika at the end of the third story arc, after which Leorio and Kurapika leave again, returning the focus to Gon and Killua. The fifth story arc concerns Gon and Killua's adventures on Greed Island, the seemingly-magical video game that sucks its players physical bodies into its own world. It is later revealed that the game is actually set on an island in the real world (the physical game set is actually just a teleporting device), created and ran by a group of powerful nen users who are led by none other than Gon's own father Ging. The Greed Island story arc is very video-game-like. The game Greed Island runs on a complex card-based gaming system. The goal of the game is to collect a number of set cards, although almost everything in the game, from food to money, can be turned into cards. There are cards capable of doing anything, from making people pregnant regardless of gender, granting wishes, and magic spell cards that can warp you to specific towns. Inside Greed Island Gon and Killua are joined by Biscuit (nicknamed "Biske"), a 57-year-old woman who looks like a 12-year-old girl, and is a master and experienced teacher of nen. She continues the nen training Wing gave to Gon and Killua during the Celestial Tower arc. Also during this arc, Killua's little brother, Karuto, joins the Genei Ryodan; replacing Hisoka as member number 4. (See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter_%D7_Hunter#Miscellany Miscellany] section of this article for details regarding Karuto's gender)

Chimera Ant Story Arc

After leaving Greed Island, Gon and Killua meet up with Kaito, the Hunter who told Gon about Gin and Hunters in the very first chapter. They are all hired to investigate a strange insect leg that washed up on a beach. Genetic testing determines that the leg belongs to an abnormally large queen Chimera Ant, an insect that eats other insects and animals, and then gives birth to children that are combinations of all the different insects and animals it has eaten. The queen Chimera Ant itself just happens to wash up on the shore of an island inhabited by a luddite culture, and proceeds to wipe most of them out and spawn hundreds of offspring before Gon, Killua, and Kaito arrive. As a side story to the main plotline centered around Gon and Killua, one of the children of the queen Chimera Ant, Zazan, started a colony near Ryuuseigai (City of the Shooting Stars); the place that is the origin of the Genei Ryodan. Half of the group: Phinx, Feitan, Shalnark, Shizuku, Bonorenof and Karuto travel to the Ryuuseigai to halt the invasion. Upon reaching the colony, the team splits up, agreeing that whoever defeats Zazan will be the temporary leader of the Genei Ryodan until Kuroro Lucifers return. The manga is still a work in progress, and is currently nearing the end of the Chimera Ant story arc.
Media
The manga is currently published in Japan in Weekly Shonen Jump, and past episodes have been compiled into a set of 22 tankōbon and growing. The manga is currently being published in the United States by VIZ Media. An early Hunter × Hunter OVA was shown only at the 1998 Jump Super Anime Tour. An anime of Hunter × Hunter was broadcast on Fuji Television from mid October 1999 to March 2001, and ran for 62 episodes. The anime series removed the vast quantities of gore and severed limbs that filled the manga, added new scenes like the "Battleship Island" test in the Hunter Test, and fleshed out both the main characters and a few minor characters. The televised anime ended just before the end of the Genei Ryodan story arc. Three subsequent OVAs have carried the story through the end of the Genei Ryodan story arc (8 episodes), and through the Greed Island story arc (8 episodes, released from February through April 2003, and 14 episodes, released from March through August 2004). The anime is produced in English in Singapore by Odex. Oddly, there also appears to have been a Takarazuka stage musical made of Hunter × Hunter, about which there is precious little information available. As with practically every other anime series, Hunter × Hunter has spawned numerous video games (most of which take place on Greed Island),the most recent being Jump Superstars for the Nintendo DS, and a trading card game (which is not based on the cards used on Greed Island).
Miscellany
The title is pronounced "Hunter Hunter" rather than "Hunter-ecks-Hunter". Yoshihiro Togashi got the idea for the title from a Japanese cop show in which the hero's sidekick always says everything twice. Yoshihiro Togashi himself makes two cameo appearances in the anime as a man wearing a dog mask with square-rimmed glasses. In the first appearance, he gives the audience some very tangential exposition about Hisoka's childhood, and in the second appearance he gives the audience a brief, public-service-announcement-style warning about the perils of online auctions. Both appearances are completely superfluous to the plot, and the main characters are oblivious to his presence. The manga is noticeably more talky and poorly-drawn through the middle of the Greed Island story arc. This is supposedly because Yoshihiro Togashi was "very sick" at the time (which in Japan, where illness is almost always left vague, could mean anything from "a bad flu" to "on chemotherapy"). Kurapika's gender is a major point of contention among fans of the series. Although Kurapika speaks "male Japanese", his features, clothes, and mannerisms are all very feminine, he is voiced by a woman in the anime, and he does numerous things (like refusing to undress in front of anyone else, becoming incredibly embarrassed when Leorio strips down to his underwear at one point in the anime, and showing complete sexual disinterest in either women or men) clearly designed to keep his gender ambiguous. In a scene that some fans feel resolves the issue, Kurapika dons a long-haired pink wig and even more feminine clothing as a disguise to capture someone. When his captive says "I didn't realize [the person who was hunting me] was a girl", Kurapika removes the wig and replies "you shouldn't make assumptions" which is, of course, probably the most ambiguous answer possible. This dispute is easily resolved by pointing out the cover to manga volume 14, which depicts him shirtless. He has also appeared shirtless in episodes of the anime, completely comfortable as thus, and without any indication of breasts. In addition to this, the Official Hunter x Hunter manga guidebook stats his gender as being male. This communicates that he is merely another in a long line of anime bishounen. Hisoka is sexually aroused by people with very powerful nen ability, regardless of gender, and derives sexual satisfaction from fighting and killing them. At one point in the Celestial Tower story arc, when he's telling Gon how impressed he is with his power, he is depicted with beams of energy emenating from his crotch, and at another point in the Greed Island story arc, he holds an extended telescope against his crotch while talking about how arousingly powerful another character is. While Killua's little brother Karuto appears to be female (i.e. dressing like a girl and being voiced by a female seiyuu in the anime), he addresses himself as "boku" (the male first-person pronoun in Japanese), and the manga guidebook for Hunter x Hunter distinctly states that Karuto is male. Also, there are only five Zoaldyeck children, and it is quite clearly stated in the manga that the Zoaldyeck's have 'five sons.' In an official "Hunter's Guide" book, that was released in June 2004, the official spelling of several names by Yoshihiro Togashi were shown. They are mostly considered bizarre, since they make very little sense. And because of the bizarre spellings, translaters kept the original translation names based on pronunciation rather than the official ones. Here are a few examples of the names of the official spellings:
- Kurapika - Curarpikt
- Hisoka - Hyskoa
- Quoll/Kuroro Lucifer - Quwrof Wrlccywrlir
- Ubogin - Wbererguin
- Shizuku - Chzzok
- Pakunoda - Phalcnothdk
Music from the Anime
Openings: #"Ohayou" by Keno (episode 1 - 48) #"Taiyou wa Yoru mo Kagayaku" by WINO (episode 49 - 62) #"Pale Ale" by Kenichi Kurosawa (episode 63 - 70/OVA) #"Pray" by Wish (GI) #"[http://www.sfg.jp/music/wma/sfg_01.wma Believe In Tomorrow]" by [http://www.sfg.jp Sunflower's Garden] (GI Final) Endings: #"Kaze no Uta" by Minako Honda (episode 1 - 31) #"E-Jan - Do You Feel Like I Feel" by Masato Nagai (episode 32 - 50) #"Hotaru" by Masato Nagai (episode 51 - 62) #"Carry On" by Kenichi Kurosawa (episode 63 - 70/OVA) #"Popcorn" by Mikuni Shimokawa (GI) #[http://www.sfg.jp/music/wma/sfg_02.wma "Moshimo Kono Sekai de Kimi to Boku ga Deaenakatta Nara"] by [http://www.sfg.jp Sunflower's Garden] (GI Final)
References and External links

- [http://www.dreams.9esolution.net/ Update HxH manga information]
- [http://hxh.believe.free.fr/ French encyclopedia about hunter X hunter]
- [http://www.j-hunterhunter.com/ Japanese Hunter × Hunter website]
- [http://jump.shueisha.co.jp/hunter/ Official Jump Comics Web Site]
- [http://www.nippon-animation.co.jp/na/hunter/index.htm Official Anime Web Site]
- [http://www.nexgear.com/index.php?showforum=14 Active Hunter x Hunter discussion forum]
Related articles

- Nen
- Greed Island
- Yoshihiro Togashi Category:Anime Category:Manga ja:HUNTER×HUNTER th:ฮันเตอร์ x ฮันเตอร์

Manga
:This article is about the Japanese medium. For other uses see Manga (disambiguation) Manga (disambiguation) Manga (漫画) is the Japanese word for comics and/or cartoons (not necessarily animated, this includes print cartoons); outside of Japan, it usually refers specifically to Japanese comics. Manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo-e and Western styles of drawing, and took its current form shortly after World War II. A small amount of the total manga output of Japan is adapted into anime, which is usually created afterwards, once a market interest has been established. Stories are often modified to appeal to a more mainstream market or meet broadcast regulations.
Origins
anime Literally translated, manga means "random (or whimsical) pictures". The word first came into common usage after the publication of the 19th century Hokusai Manga, containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai. However, gi-ga (lit. "funny pictures") drawn in the 12th century by various artists contain many manga-like qualities such as emphasis on story and simple, artistic lines. Manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo-e and Western art movements. When the United States began trading with Japan, Japan tried to modernise itself and catch up with the rest of the world. Thus, they imported Western artists to teach their students things such as line, form and colour (things which were never concentrated on in ukiyo-e as the idea behind the picture was normally considered more important). Manga as people know it in the 20th and 21st centuries only really came into being after World War II when government bans on non-propaganda were lifted and many publishers sprang up. In the 20th century, manga came to refer to comics, though in Japan, the word is more commonly used to describe children's animation; the English word (comic) is actually the main term in use. Though roughly equivalent to the American comic book, manga holds more importance in Japanese culture than comics do in American culture. Manga is well respected both as an art form and as a form of popular literature. Like its American counterpart, manga has been criticized for being violent and sexual; however, there have been no official inquiries or laws that have tried to limit what can be drawn in manga, except for vague decency laws that apply to all published materials, stating that "overly indecent materials should not be sold." This freedom has allowed artists to draw manga for every age group and about every topic.
Manga format
20th century Manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These manga magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known, are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages long. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued. When a series has been running for a while, the stories are usually collected together and printed in dedicated book-sized volumes, called tankōbon. These volumes use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. Recently, "deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have gotten older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen each to compete with the used book market. Manga are primarily classified by the age and gender of the target audience. In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores. Japan also has manga cafés, or manga kissaten. At a manga kissaten, people drink coffee and read manga. Many things appear in manga format, including wanted posters for criminals. Traditionally, manga are written from right to left. Some publishers of translated manga keep that format, but some switch the direction to left to right, so as not to confuse Western readers.
Manga outside Japan
Manga has been translated into many different languages in different countries including Korea, China, France, Germany, Italy, and many more. In the USA, manga is still a rather small industry, especially when compared to the inroads that Japanese animation has made in the USA. An example of a manga publisher in the United States is VIZ Media, the American affiliate of publishers Shogakukan (小学館 Shōgakukan) and Shueisha (集英社 Shūeisha). They have many popular titles such as Neon Genesis Evangelion, Dragon Ball Z, Tenchi Muyō!, Rurouni Kenshin, YuYu Hakusho, (Yūyū Hakusho), Yu-Gi-Oh! (Yūgiō) and the various works of Rumiko Takahashi. The UK has fewer manga publishers than the U.S. Since Japanese is usually written from right to left in works of fiction, manga is drawn and published this way in Japan. When various titles were first translated to other languages, the artwork and layouts were flipped and reversed in a process known as "flopping", so that the book may be read from left-to-right. However, various creators (such as Akira Toriyama) did not approve of their work being modified this way, and requested that foreign versions retain the right-to-left format of the originals. Soon, due to both fan demand and the requests of creators, more publishers began offering the option of right-to-left formatting, which has now become commonplace in North America. Left-to-right formatting has gone from the rule to the exception. Translated manga often includes cultural notes for details of Japanese culture that may not be familiar to foreign audiences. Another company, TOKYOPOP, is producing manga widely in the United States, with the right-to-left format as a highly publicized point. They are widely credited with starting the current boom in manga sales, particularly amongst teenage girls. Some critics have complained that their aggressive publishing schedule emphasizes quantity over quality, and might be responsible for translations which many feel to be of sub-optimal quality. Many also frown upon the company for their frequent localization changes, including additions such as American slang, excessive swearing that is not to be found in the Japanese originals of the same titles, and joke rewrites, among others. However, even their critics tend to admit that their contributions to the success of manga in America have been considerable. France is noted for having a particularly strong and diverse manga market. Many works that are published in France fall into genres that aren't well represented outside of Japan, such as adult oriented drama, or experimental and avant garde works. Authors such as Jiro Taniguchi who are relatively unknown in other western countries have received much acclaim in France. Part of the reason for the sheer popularity and diversity of manga in this country is due to it having a well established and respected comics market of its own (see Franco-Belgian comics). The company Chuang Yi publishes manga in English and Chinese in Singapore; some of Chuang Yi's English-language titles are imported to Australia and New Zealand. In Indonesia, manga has quickly become one of fastest growing consumer industries, and Indonesia has become one of the biggest manga markets outside of Japan. Manga in Indonesia is published by Elex Media Komputindo, Acolyte, Gramedia. Manga has greatly influenced Indonesia's original comic industry. In Australia, many popular Japanese and Chinese language manga and anime are distributed by Madman Entertainment. Another popular form of manga distribution outside of Japan is through the Internet as (mostly illegal) scanlations, also known as scanslations. Typically, a small group of people scan the original version of a series with no current license in the language which they wish to translate it to, translate it, and freely distribute; usually through the use of IRC or BitTorrent. Most scanlation groups request that downloaders cease distribution and purchase official copies in the event that their projects become licensed, though it is a common concern that readers will continue to use these unauthorized copies. Many readers prefer scanslations due to the frequent changes found in official translations, though scanslations are more likely to have some unintentional mistakes due to the varying degrees of skill employed by the unpaid translators. Some scanslators do make edits, though it is rare, especially compared to the official manga translation industry. In Korea, manga can be found in most bookstores. However it is also common to read manga online for a much cheaper price than a concrete copy of the comic. Publishers such as Daiwon and Seoul Munhwasa give out most of the popular manga in Korea. In Thailand before 1992–1995 almost all available manga was fast, unlicensed, poor quality bootlegs. More recently, licensed translations have begun to appear, but are still inexpensive compared to other countries. Thailand's manga publishers include Vibunkij, Siam Inter Comics, Nation Edutainment, and Bongkouh. Manga has proved so popular that it has led to other companies such as Antarctic Press, Oni Press, Seven Seas Entertainment, TOKYOPOP and even Archie Comics to release their own manga-inspired works that apply the same artist stylings and story pacing commonly seen in Japanese manga. The first of these such works came in 1985 when Ben Dunn, founder of Antarctic Press, released Mangazine and Ninja High School. While Antarctic Press actively refers to its works as "American Manga", not all of these manga-inspired works are made by Americans. Many of the artists working on Seven Seas Entertainment series such as Last Hope and Amazing Agent Luna are Filipino and TOKYOPOP has hired a variety of Korean and Japanese artists to work on titles such as Warcraft and Princess Ai.
The manga style
The most popular and recognizable style of manga is very distinctive. Emphasis is often placed on line over form, and the storytelling and panel placement differ from those in Western comics. Panels and pages are typically read from right to left, consistent with traditional Japanese writing. While the art can be incredibly realistic or cartoonish, it is often noted that the characters look "Western", or have large eyes. Large eyes have become a permanent fixture in manga and anime since the 1960s when Osamu Tezuka, creator of Astro Boy and considered the father of modern manga, started drawing them that way, mimicking the style of Disney cartoons from the United States. Being a very diverse artform, however, not all manga artists adhere to the conventions most popularized in the west through anime such as Akira, Sailor Moon, Dragon Ball Z, and Ranma ½. A fair number of manga artists do not feel that their stories and characters are set in stone. So a set of characters may build relationships, jobs, etc. in one set of stories ("story arc") only to have another story arc run where the same characters do not know each other. The Tenchi series in particular is known for this; there are more than thirteen different pretty-much unrelated story arcs based around Tenchi and his friends.
International influence
Tenchi Manga has long had an influence on international comics and animation the world over. American alternative comics artists such as Frank Miller and Scott McCloud were somewhat influenced by manga in a few of their works. Other artists such as Americans Brian Wood and Becky Cloonan (Demo) and Canadian Bryan Lee O'Malley (Lost At Sea) are heavily influenced by the mainstream manga style and have received acclaim for their work outside of anime/manga fan circles. These artists have many other influences that make their work more palatable to non-manga readers. These artists have their roots in the anime/manga subculture of their particular regions. American artist Paul Pope worked in Japan for Kodansha on the manga anthology Afternoon. Before he was fired (due to an editorial change at Kodansha) he was developing many ideas for the anthology that he would later publish in the U.S. as Heavy Liquid. As a result his work features a strong influence from manga without influences from international otaku culture. In France there is a "Nouvelle Manga" movement started by Frédéric Boilet which seeks to combine mature sophisticated daily life manga with the artistic style of traditional Franco-Belgian comics. While the movement also involves Japanese artists, a handful of French cartoonists other than Boilet have decided to embrace its ideal. In addition, there are many amateur artists who are influenced exclusively by the manga style. Many of these have their own small publishing houses, and some webcomics and webmanga in this style have become very popular (see Megatokyo). For the most part, these artists are not yet recognized outside of the anime and manga fan community. Many people outside of those circles view those works as being too focused on the American anime subculture, and not focused enough on telling stories that resonate with a wider audience.
Off the main path
Some manga artists will produce extra, sometimes unrelated material, which are known as omake (lit. "bonus" or "extra"). They might also publish their unfinished drawings or sketches, known as oekaki (lit. "sketches"). Unofficial fan made comics are called dōjinshi. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction. In addition other dōjinshi is produced by small amateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to small-press independently published comic books in the United States. Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with over 400,000 gathering in 3 days, is devoted to dōjinshi.
Types of manga
Many of these genres apply equally well to anime (which very often includes adaptations of manga) and Japanese computer games (some of which are also adaptations of manga).
By target audience

- Josei (or redikomi) women
- Kodomo children
- Seinen men
- Shōjo young and teenage girls
- Shōnen young and teenage boys
Genres

- Alternative (See also: Garo)
- Gekiga (dramatic pictures)
- La nouvelle manga (Franco-Belgian/Japanese artistic movement)
- Semi-alternative (popular publication individualistic style)
- Battling companion (not an official name)
- Magical girl (mahō shōjo)
- Mecha (giant robots)
- Moé (also mahō kanojo or magical girlfriend)
- Shōjo-ai (or Yuri, lesbian romance)
- Shōnen-ai (or Yaoi, gay romance)
- Dōjinshi Fan-art or self-published manga
Popular shōnen manga series

- Bleach (manga) (Spiritualism/Action/Adventure/Comedy)
- Dragon Ball (Fantasy/Action)
- Fullmetal Alchemist (Science-Fiction/Fantasy/Action)
- InuYasha (Action/Fantasy/Romance)
- Love Hina (Comedy/Romance)
- Naruto (Fantasy/Ninja)
- One Piece (Fantasy/Pirate)
- Ranma ½ (Action/Comedy)
- Rurouni Kenshin (Samurai Epic)
- Saint Seiya (Action/Mythology)
Popular shōjo manga series

- Nana (Drama/Romance)
- Ceres, Celestial Legend (Ayashi no Ceres) (Paranormal/Romance)
- Boys Over Flowers (Hana Yori Dango) (Drama/Romance)
- Fruits Basket (Comedy/Romance/Paranormal)
- Hana-Kimi (Hanazakari no Kimi-tachi e) (Comedy/Romance/Drama)
- Kare Kano (His and Her Circumstances a.k.a. Kareshi Kanojo no Jijō) (Comedy/Romance/Drama)
- Marmalade Boy (Comedy/Romance/Drama)
- Please Save My Earth (Sci-fi/Drama)
- Revolutionary Girl Utena (Action/Drama)
- X/1999 (Paranormal)
- Nana (Romance)
Popular seinen manga series

- 3x3 Eyes (Mythology/Comedy/Horror)
- Akira (Sci-Fi)
- Angel Densetsu (Drama)
- Berserk (Medieval/Fantasy)
- Blade of the Immortal (Samurai Drama)
- Ghost in the Shell (Sci-Fi)
- Lone Wolf and Cub (Samurai Drama)
- MONSTER (Horror/Drama)
- Hellsing (Action/Horror)
- Eden: it´s an endless world (Sci-Fi/Futuristic)
Distributors of manga

Major Japanese distributors

- Akita Publishing Co., Ltd.
- Chuokoron Shinsha
- Hakusensha
- Kadokawa Shoten
- Hayakawa Publishing
- Kōdansha
- Shinshokan
- Shodensha
- Shōgakukan
- Shōnen Gahōsha
- Shūeisha
Major English-language distributors

- ADV Manga
- CMX (an imprint of American comic book company DC Comics)
- CPM Manga
- Dark Horse Comics
- Del Rey Manga
- DrMaster
- TOKYOPOP
- VIZ Media (formerly Viz, LLC)
Other English-language distributors

- Blast Books
- BLU (an imprint of Tokyopop)
- Broccoli Books
- ChuangYi Publishing (Singapore) [http://www.chuangyi.com.sg/english/]
- ComicsOne (defunct)
- DH Publishing
- Digital Manga Publishing
- eigoMANGA
- NitenKyoso
- Kodansha (Once published bilingual editions of manga)
- Ponent Mon/Fanfare
- Raijin Comics (defunct)
- Seven Seas Entertainment
- Studio Ironcat (defunct)
- Vertical Publishing
- Madman Entertainment
Major Chinese-language distributors

Traditional Chinese

- Daran Books (Taiwan)
- Tong Li (Taiwan) [http://publishing.com.hk/org/orgdetail.asp?orgid=h03000020020503237]
- Sharp Poing Publishing (Taiwan)
- King Comics (Hong Kong)
- Culturecom Comics (Hong Kong) [http://www.culturecom.com.hk/comic]
- Comicsworld (Hong Kong) [http://www.comicsworld.com/]
- Jade Dynasty Publications Ltd
- Jonesky Limited
- Kwong's Creations Co Ltd
- Rightman Publishing Ltd
Simplified Chinese

- ChuangYi Publishing (Singapore) [http://www.chuangyi.com.sg/chinese1.html]
Major French-language distributors
French-language
- Asuka
- Casterman
- Delcourt
- Génération comics
- Glénat
- J'ai lu
- Kana
- Kabuto
- Pika Édition
- Tonkam
- Végétal Manga
Major German-language distributors

- Carlsen-Verlag
- Egmont Manga & Anime (EMA)
- Planet Manga
- TOKYOPOP Germany
Major Indonesian-language distributors

- Elex Media Komputindo
- M&C Comics
- Level Comics
Major Spanish-language distributors

- Glénat
- Planeta DeAgostini
- Editorial Vid México
- Norma Editorial
Major Italian-language distributors

- d/world
- Dynit
- Flashbook
- Hazard
- Star Comics
- PlayPress
- Planet Manga (part of Panini Comics)
Major Polish language distributors

- [http://www.jpf.com.pl JPF]
- [http://www.waneko.pl Waneko]
- [http://www.egmont.pl Egmont]
- [http://kasencomics.com Kasen Comics]
Major Brazilian Portuguese-language distributors

- [http://www.editorajbc.com.br JBC - Japan Brazil Communication]
- [http://www.conradeditora.com.br Conrad Editora]
- [http://www.animanga.com.br Editora Animangá]
- [http://www.paninicomics.com.br Panini Comics Brasil]
- [http://www.escala.com.br Editora Escala]
- [http://www.editoratalisma.com.br Editora Talismã]
Major Vietnamese-language distributors

- [http://www.nxbtre.com.vn Nha xuat ban Tre]
- [http://www.nxbkimdong.com.vn Nha xuat ban Kim Dong]
Major Malay-language distributors

- Comics House
- Tora Aman
List of manga magazines
See: List of manga magazines
Language notes
Because nouns in Japanese don't change based on pluralization, manga is the form for both plural and singular. It is also commonly called コミックス(comics) in Japanese. Mangaka (漫画家) is the corresponding Japanese word for a manga author/artist.
See also
For an extensive list of Japanese manga and Webmanga, see List of manga, List of manga by Japanese title, and List of dōjinshi (manga). For a list of Manga artists (or Japanese Cartoonists), see Mangaka. For an international list of manga magazines see List of manga magazines. For a list of pornographic manga, see List of H manga, and List of H dōjinshi (manga). See also: List of anime games.
- Dōjinshi
- Anime game
- Anime
- Dorama
- Gashapon
- Hentai
- Weekly Shonen Jump
- Manhua (Sinosphere)
- Manhwa (South Korea)
References

- Gravett, Paul. Manga: 60 Years of Japanese Comics. New York: Collins Design, 2004. ISBN 1856693910.
- Schodt, Frederik L. Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 1996. ISBN 188065623X.
- Schodt, Frederik L. Manga! Manga!: The World of Japanese Comics. New York: Kodansha International, 1983. ISBN 870117521, ISBN 4770023057.
External links
Websites with descriptions and informations:
- [http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/ Anime News Network]- A huge database of information on anime as well as manga.
- [http://www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html Anime University - History of Manga] History of Manga article from AnimeInfo.
- [http://www.manganews.net/ Manganews.net] - Contains a large database of manga titles with useful descriptions, and also lists recently scanlated manga, with manga news and reviews updated daily.
- [http://www.mangaupdates.com Baka-Updates Manga] Lists manga title and author information, and has information pertaining to manga scanlations.
- [http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/J/JAPAN_SUNDAY_COMICS?SITE=TXDER&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT U.S. Papers Adding Japanese-Style Comics] Websites of News:
- [http://www.mangalife.com/ Manga Life]- Manga reviews, news, and information updated daily.
- [http://www.mangajouhou.net/ Manga Jouhou]- Manga news
- [http://manga.3yen.com/ Manga.3Yen] - Daily news and info on Manga from Japan.
- [http://www.mangareviewer.com Manga Reviewer] - Reviews, previews and mangaka bios. Websites with illustrations:
- [http://mangallery.pl/ Mangallery]- A big Manga and Anime Gallery in Poland.
- [http://lyhana8.free.fr Lyhana8]- Huge database of pics, able to illustrate this article.
- [http://www.howtodrawmanga.com/tutorial.html How to draw manga] - A popular series of art instruction books. Here the tutorial page. Others websites:
- [http://www.imaf.co.uk/ IMAF] - International Manga and Anime Festival, County Hall, London
- [http://www.fansubbers.com Fansubbers.com Online Manga] Manga online by Fansubbers
- [http://www.mangaka.co.za Mangaka.co.za] A South African manga community site with artist profiles, video manga tutorials & forum discussions.
- [http://www.noated.net/ Noated]: Very active community forum, including anime/manga db, book store, and site directory.
- [http://www.thegioimanga.com The gioi Manga] - Community forum on Manga and Anime of Hong Bang University - Vietnam.
- Category:Comic books ko:일본 만화 ja:漫画 simple:Manga th:การ์ตูนญี่ปุ่น

Yoshihiro Togashi
Yoshihiro Togashi (冨樫義博 Togashi Yoshihiro) is a Japanese manga author. He is most notable for having created YuYu Hakusho. According to Shonen Jump, Togashi received the Tezuka Award, the most influential comic artist award in Japan. This award has been named after Osama Tezuka, the creator of Astro Boy. Togashi is married to Naoko Takeuchi, the creator of Sailor Moon (he mentioned their marriage in vol. 5 of Hunter x Hunter). His works include:
- Hunter × Hunter
- Level E
- Ookami Nante Kowakunai!!
- Tende Showaru Cupid
- YuYu Hakusho ----
Reference
[http://togashi.dtenshi.net The Yoshihiro Togashi Fanlisting] Togashi Yoshihiro ja:冨樫義博 th:โยชิฮิโร โตกาชิ

Weekly Shonen Jump

Weekly Shonen Jump (週刊少年ジャンプ Shūkan Shōnen Janpu), with a circulation of over 3 million, is one of the longest-running, weekly manga compilations in Japan. Monthly editions are published in North America and Europe.

History

Weekly Shonen Jump is targeted towards the young, male demographic ("Shōnen" means young boy or man). It features manga with lots of action and adventure, often featuring young, male protagonists with special powers and/or abilities. Weekly Shonen Jump was launched by Shueisha in 1968, to compete with the already-successful Shonen Magazine and Shonen Sunday. At its highest point, Weekly Shonen Jump had a regular circulation of over 6 million. Weekly Shonen Jump manga titles have also been translated and redistributed in countries where the magazine itself isn't published, such as South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Thailand. There were a few games made based on the manga and the series in it. There were two Famicom Jump games for its anniversary, on the NES, and lately Jump Superstars on the Nintendo DS.

10 weeks rule

Because Jump's start was late to its competitors, it had to find new mangakas. New-comming mangakas were appreciated by only reader's card. If his/her manga was not popular, soon to be finished. This system went well. Now, after a new manga begins, whether it continues long or finishes is decided in 3 weeks. Non-popular manga finishes in 10 to 15 weeks even if the manga was drawn by a very popular mangaka.

Shonen Jump worldwide

These magazines are published monthly, unlike their Japanese counterpart which is published weekly.

United States Shonen Jump

mangakas In 2002, Shueisha announced a partnership with Viz Communications (now Viz Media), a purveyor of anime and manga in the United States, to distribute a monthly version of Shonen Jump in that country. In its first issue (January 2003), it sold almost 300,000 copies, making it the top-selling comic book of any kind in the U.S. for that time period. The titles featured in the American version include Yu-Gi-Oh!, YuYu Hakusho, One Piece, Naruto, Shaman King and Sand Land. In January 2004, Sand Land ended and was replaced with Hikaru no Go in their lineup. Dragon Ball Z (the second part of Dragon Ball) was discontinued in the April 2005 Shonen Jump and the last part of the story will be serialized in graphic novel form. Shonen Jump also runs a line of graphic novels, including those that have run in the American Shonen Jump, but also other titles that ran in the Japanese Shonen Jump but not the American version, like Rurouni Kenshin, Knights of the Zodiac (Saint Seiya), Whistle!, The Prince of Tennis, Dr. Slump, Legendz, Beet the Vandel Buster, and Bleach. In addition, Kinnikuman: Nisei (better known as Ultimate Muscle in North America, Northern Europe, Oceania, and some regions), a sequel of the Jump title Kinnikuman, is sold in the graphic novel format as a "Shonen Jump Advanced" title in North America. Other titles on the "Shonen Jump Advanced" lineup include I"s, Eyeshield 21, Deathnote, and Hunter X Hunter. In the magazine's text, the U.S. Shonen Jump uses circumflexes instead of macrons to mark long vowels. The manga in the magazine doesn't always reflect this (e.g., the preview for Whistle! used macrons). Shonen Jump recently adopted a policy of editing dialogue and art to make it more suitable for younger audiences. This policy has received some criticism from old-time readers.

BANZAI!

Shonen Jump is published in Germany as the compilation magazine BANZAI! by Carlsen Verlag. BANZAI! publishes Hikaru no Go, Hakuchi One, Naruto, I"s, Hunter x Hunter, and Shaman King. Several other titles, such as Yu-Gi-Oh!, Halloweens, Dr. Slump, One Piece, Neko Majin, Sand Land, Neko Majin Z, DNA² and an original German manga series called Crewman3 were serialized in BANZAI!

Swedish Shonen Jump

The Swedish Shonen Jump has Yu-Gi-Oh!, Sand Land, Naruto, Shaman King and Rurouni Kenshin.

Norwegian Shonen Jump

The Norwegian Shonen Jump is being published by Schibsted Forlagene. The first issue appeared in March 2005 with the same series as the Swedish Shonen Jump and it is translated from Swedish.

Popular comics featured in the Japanese Shonen Jump

The magazine in Japan has produced some of the most popular manga titles around, including but not limited to:
- Barefoot Gen
- Bastard!! (Was later moved from Shonen Jump to Ultra Jump)
- Beet the Vandel Buster (Featured in the Japanese Monthly Shonen Jump)
- Black Cat
- Bleach
- Bobobo-bo Bo-bobo
- Bremen
- Busō Renkin
- Captain Tsubasa
- Cat's Eye
- City Hunter
- Cowa!
- Death Note
- D.Gray-man
- Dr. Slump
- Dragon Ball (The later half of it is titled Dragon Ball Z in North America)
- DNA²
- Eyeshield 21
- Gin Tama
- Gun Blaze West
- Highschool! Kimen-gumi
- Hikaru no Go
- Hokuto no Ken (Fist of the North Star)
- Hunter × Hunter
- I"s
- Ichigo 100%
- Jigoku Sensei Nube (Hell Teacher Nube)
- JoJo's Bizarre Adventure
- Kajika
- Katekyou Hitman REBORN!
- Kinnikuman (the toy line of that show was released in the U.S. as "M.U.S.C.L.E.")
- Kochikame
- Legendz
- Mazinger Z
- Mind Assassin
- Mr. Fullswing
- Naruto
- Neko Majin Z
- One Piece
- Pretty Face
- The Prince of Tennis
- Rokudenashi Blues
- Rurouni Kenshin
- Saint Seiya (Knights of the Zodiac)
- Sand Land
- Sannen Kimen-gumi
- Shaman King
- Slam Dunk
- Video Girl Ai
- Whistle!
- Yu-Gi-Oh!
- YuYu Hakusho
- Zombie Powder Pyuutofuku Jager

External links

- [http://www.shonenjump.com/ English Shonen Jump web site]
- [http://jump.shueisha.co.jp/ Japanese Weekly Shonen Jump web site]
- [http://www.jumpland.com/ Japanese Jumpland web site]
- [http://www.banzai-online.de/ German BANZAI! web site]
- [http://www.mangamedia.se/ Swedish Shonen Jump web site] Shonen Jump ja:%E9%80%B1%E5%88%8A%E5%B0%91%E5%B9%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%97 th:โชเนนจัมป์รายสัปดาห์

Assassin

, the alleged assassin of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, in a very public manner]] In its most common use, assassination has come to mean the killing of an important person. An assassin — one who carries out the assassination — is usually motivated by ideological or political reasons. Other motivations may be money in the case of a hitman; opposition to a person's beliefs or belief systems in the case of a fanatic; orders from a government that are often carried about by a subversive agent such as a spy; or loyalty to a competing leader or group. Assassination, like companion terms such as terrorism and freedom fighter, is often considered to be a loaded term. According to The American Heritage Dictionary, "To murder (a prominent person) by surprise attack, as for political reasons."[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=assassination] The definition of assassination is generally much clearer than the others. Most assassins appear comfortable enough with their deed to describe it as such publicly, whereas few call themselves terrorists.

Etymology

The term Assassin originally referred to a heretical Islamic order known as the Hashshashin. According to one derivation, the word means "those who use hashish" (cannabis resin) in Arabic because, according to Crusader histories, that group used to ingest hashish before carrying out military or assassination operations, in order to be fearless. The group, known as the Nizari Ismailis, was a Shia order who believed in the notion of the hazir imam and was organized as a secret underground political order, which infiltrated areas under the control of Seljuk Turks. In 1090 the sect captured a castle called Alamut in the mountains of Northern Iran. This sect was said to carry out assassinations of the enemies of the order, or Muslim rulers they believed to be impious. The earliest known record of the word in English dates back to 1603, referring to this sect rather than its more general modern sense. Similar words had earlier appeared in French and Italian. However, according to another derivation, the word Hashshashin derives from the Arabic word hassas, from the root hassa, meaning "to kill". Benjamin of Tudela provided the first western account of the sect. Marco Polo's elaborate account is probably fictionalized in part. He said that recruits were promised Paradise in return for dying in action. They were drugged, often with materials such as hashish (although some suggest opium and wine instead, despite all three drugs being condemned by Islamic religious authorities and interpretations of the time) then spirited away to a garden stocked with attractive and compliant women and fountains of wine. At this time, they were awakened and it was explained to them that such was their reward for the deed, convincing them that their leader, Hassan-i-Sabah, could open the gates to Paradise. The name assassin is derived from either hasishin for the supposed influence of their attacks and disregard for their own lives in the process, or hassansin for their leader. All this history, however, is tenous, as it relies entirely on crusader-authored histories which have been traditionally very unreliable for information about native cultures. Nowadays is known that "hashishinnya" was an offensive term used to depict this cult by its Muslim and Mongolian detractors; the extreme zeal of Nizarites and the very cold preparation to murder makes it very unlikely they ever used drugs, while there is evidence that one of the first of Hassan's sons was sentenced to death by his father only for drinking a little wine. Moreover, despite many unlikely legends, they usually died along with their target (a tale tells of a mother being sad knowing her son survived a "mission"). As far as known they only used daggers (no other weapons, poison or whatever fictional records make them use) and it seems that they killed only five westerners during the time of the Crusades. Hassan-i-Sabah. He was shot and injured, and thereafter appeared in public in a custom-built "Popemobile" featuring bulletproof glass]]

Definition problems

Unlike some topics, notably terrorism, wherein there is a substantial grey area and often bitter controversy between which specific instances qualify or even what standards should be used, the "common sense" classification of assassination stated at the outset of this article seems to stand with few objections. However, this does open larger issues concerning interpretation, notably regarding attempted killings by those with other motives — is it an assassination simply if the person is a major leader or public figure espousing a cause, or only if the assassin's reason for the attack is due to that person's status as a figurehead for a particular issue? Notable instances in which this definitive problem might come into effect include the attempt on the life of United States President Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley, who was determined subsequently to have serious psychological problems and publicly stated his intent was to get the attention of actress Jodie Foster rather than make any political statement. The killing of former Beatle John Lennon would raise the same problem — despite Lennon's outspokenness on many liberal political issues, his killer does not seem to have been more than an unstable fan. The use of the term "assassination" to describe Lennon's murder is a matter of some additional debate, since Lennon was primarily an entertainer, not a political figure, and it could be argued that describing his killing as an assassination is no more appropriate than, for example, using the term to describe the murders of singers Selena Quintanilla or Marvin Gaye. In another example, although conspiracy theorists suggest the apparent suicide of Marilyn Monroe might have been a politically motivated murder, the term "assassination" is rarely, if ever, used in this context. The attempt on the life of President Gerald Ford by a member of Charles Manson's cult could be the same; while it might perhaps be considered part and parcel of the anti-government, neo-fascist ideology to which Manson and his group adhered, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, the assassin, was not widely considered legally competent in her judgment at the time (although she was later tried and convicted). Should these cases be classified as attempted assassinations? The issue is further complicated by the fact that while Lennon was likely as outspoken politically as Reagan and Ford, and certainly as famous, Reagan and Ford were elected officials at the time, possibly requiring different criteria for Lennon's case. One can take one of three positions (note that this consideration is of necessity strictly based upon language, not law): that the killing of someone only for political, moral, or ideological reasons constitutes an assassination (hence neither Reagan nor Lennon were the victims of assassins' attacks, while Ford was), that the killing of someone serving in politics or public office counts (thus Reagan's and Ford's attackers were would-be assassins, while Lennon's killer was not), or that anyone with a significant level of political involvement would be an assassination victim in the event of their murder (in which case all three instances would be assassinations or attempts). While it must be acknowledged that attempting to read a person's thoughts is both imperfect and somewhat antithetical to the nature of such an issue, for the purposes of this article, the first, most conservative definition is taken. Although it is likely that the second is the most popular, the first is technically the most correct, and the third is generally considered to be too general in application. Therefore, all assassinations or attempts mentioned in the article will strictly follow the guidelines outlined at the outset to prevent confusion.

Reasons for assassinations

Assassination as a political tool

Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme' top political nemesis, was shot dead by an alleged assassin in 1983, who was later killed by military escorts of Aquino. Investigations later concluded that one of the escorts shot the late senator.]] Some would argue that assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics, dating back to the earliest governments of the world. Towards the end of the Warring States Period (3rd century BC) in China, the state Qin rose to hegemony over other states. The Prince of the state Yan felt the threat and sought to remove the Qin king (later Qin Shi Huang) and sent Jing Ke for the mission. The assassination attempt was foiled and Jing Ke was killed on the spot. Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, can be viewed as a victim of assassination. It is a fact, however, that by the fall of the Roman Republic assassination had become a commonly-accepted tool towards the end not only of improving one's own position, but to influence policy — the killing of Gaius Julius Caesar being a notable example, though many Emperors met such an end. In whatever case, there seems to have not been a good deal of moral indignation at the practice amongst the political circles of the time, save, naturally, by the affected. As the Middle Ages came about from the fall of the Roman Empire, the moral and ethical dimensions of what was before a simple political tool began to take shape. Although in that period intentional regicide was an extremely rare occurrence, the situation changed dramatically with the Renaissance when the ideas of tyrannomachy (i.e. killing of a King when his rule becomes tyrannical) re-emerged and gained recognition. Many a head of state of the time fell at the hands of an assassin, such as Henri III and Henry IV of France. There were notable detractors, however; Abd-ul-Mejid of the Ottoman Empire refused to put to death plotters against his life during his reign. As the world moved into the present day and the stakes in political clashes of will continued to grow to a global scale, the number of assassinations concurrently multiplied. In Russia alone, five emperors were assassinated within less than 200 years - Ivan VI, Peter III, Paul I, Alexander II and Nicholas II. The most notable assassination victim within early U.S. history was President Abraham Lincoln. Three other U.S. Presidents have been assassinated: James Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy. An assassination plot against Jefferson Davis, known as the Dahlgren Affair, may have been initiated during the American Civil War. In Europe the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered World War I. However, the 20th century likely marks the first time nation-states began training assassins to be specifically used against so-called enemies of the state. During World War II, for example, MI6 trained a group of Czechoslovakian operatives to kill the Nazi general Reinhard Heydrich (who did later perish by their efforts - see Operation Anthropoid), and repeated attempts were made by both the British MI6, the American Office of Strategic Services (later the Central Intelligence Agency) and the Soviet SMERSH to kill Adolf Hitler. The Cold War saw a dramatic increase in the number of political assassinations, likely in large part due to the ideological polarization of most of the First and Second worlds, whose adherents were more than willing to both justify and finance such killings. During the Kennedy era Fidel Castro narrowly escaped death on several occasions at the hands of the CIA (a function of the agency's "executive action" program) and CIA-backed rebels (there are accounts that exploding clams and poisoned shoes were employed); some allege that Salvador Allende of Chile was another example, though specific proof is lacking. At the same time, the KGB made creative use of assassination to deal with high-profile defectors such as Georgi Markov, and Israel's Mossad made use of such tactics to eliminate Palestinian guerrillas, politicians and revolutionaries, though some Israelis argue that the targeted often crossed the line between one or another or were even all three. Most major powers were not long in repudiating such tactics, for example during the presidency of Gerald Ford in the United States in 1976 (Executive Order 12333). Many allege, however, that this is merely a smoke screen for political and moral benefit and that the covert and illegal training of assassins by major intelligence agencies continue, such as at the School of the Americas run by the United States. In fact, the debate over the use of such tactics is not closed by any means; many accuse Russia of continuing to practice it in Chechnya and against Chechens abroad, as well as Israel in Palestine and against Palestinians abroad (as well as those Mossad deems a threat to Israeli national security, as in the aftermath of the Munich Massacre) and Palestinians and other Arab nations against Jews in Israel and abroad. Proponents of assassination as a political tool point out that it can be a very effective and inexpensive way to prevent loss of life. Opponents of assassination bring up a number of objections. The first is that assassination is essentially the death penalty stripped of the normal judicial safeguards that limit its use. Second, opponents of assassination question its effectiveness. Most conventional military and political organizations are robust so that the death of the leader would not cause them to collapse. Furthermore, using assassination against a terrorist or guerilla organization may result in the complete elimination of the known leaders of that organization, but create a set of unknown leaders who cannot then be located. Finally, assassination makes a negotiation of surrender impossible. Near the end of World War II, for example, Allied forces made specific efforts not to target the political and military leadership of the Axis Powers specifically so that there would be someone to authorize a surrender.

Assassination for money

Individually, too, people have often found reasons to arrange the deaths of others through paid intermediaries. One who kills with no political motive or group loyalty who kills only for money is known as a hitman or contract killer. Note that by the definition accepted above, while such a killer is not, strictly speaking, an assassin, if the killing is ordered and financed towards a political end, then that killing must rightly be termed an assassination, and the hitman an assassin by extension (in the same way that a Manchurian Candidate-style killer would be an assassin because, though they have been brainwashed to kill and have therefore no political aims, those that brainwashed them do have such aims, and if the killing can be termed an assassination, the killer must be an assassin). Entire organizations have sometimes specialized in assassination as one of their services, to be gained for the right price. Besides the original hashshashin, the ninja clans of Japan were rumored to perform assassinations — though it can be pointed out that most of what was ever known about the ninja was rumor and hearsay. In the United States, Murder Incorporated, an organization partnered to the Mafia, was formed for the sole purpose of performing assassinations for organized crime. In Russia, the vory (thieves), their version of the Mafia, are often known to provide assassinations for the right price, as well as engaging in it themselves for their own purposes.

Assassination as military doctrine

While assassination for military purposes has long been espoused — Sun Tzu argued for such in The Art of War, as did Machiavelli in his The Prince — many modern analysts hold the belief that today such a system would not be of any significant use in a strategic way. In medieval times, for instance, an army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war. However, in modern warfare a soldier's mindset is generally considered to surround ideals far more than specific leaders. Theoretically, while the death of a soldier's leader would (and does) have a detrimental effect on morale, the comfort of the cause for which they fight is far more sustainable than such supposedly-transitive loyalty to a single person. Also, assassinating a military leader runs the risk of eliminating a later advocate of peace, as many would argue that military leaders, seeing the face of warfare and bearing a clearer sense of the war effort's effects, have more sagacity on the subject. There is the risk that the target may be an incompetent and could be replaced by a more competent leader. Not only that, but worse, there is a high chance such a killing will be treated as not only reinforcing evidence of the opponents' moral bankruptcy, but also "martyr" the leader, increasing their charisma posthumously and rallying still others to an enemy cause and hardening the enemies' resolve to fight — and resist entreaties to peace (indeed, the death in battle of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, while not an assassination, led directly to the Catholic defeat at Lützen as the infuriated Swedes rallied behind their fallen leader). Such an effect can be extremely detrimental to a group or state, but supporters might argue in return that when faced with a particularly brilliant leader, there is no choice but to take the chance and, essentially, hope for a more mediocre successor (one might use the example of the many attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the Peloponnesian War, the American shooting down of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto during World War II, or arguably Henri IV of France). Also, they might note that in a time-sensitive situation, such a killing could be useful if only to briefly buy time for a more permanent and effective plan to be set into motion or stall an army as reinforcements rush to the area. There are a number of examples from World War II, the last total war, which show how assassination can be used as an effective military tool both at a tactical and strategic level. The American's perception that Skorzeny's commandos were trying to assassinate Eisenhower during the Battle of the Bulge shows that military assassination, or the threat of it, if well timed can be a very effective tactical move. In an interview with the New York Times Skorzeny denied that he had ever intended to assassinate Eisenhower and could prove it. (page 155, Commando Extraordinary, by Charles Foley). There is also a mention in the same book (Page 35) of a British commando raid to "capture" Rommel. If he had been removed from the board, then that might well have had strategic effects. The British, too, decided not to try to assassinate Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, head of the Abwehr (German military intelligence), because to do so might have improved the service.

Moral issues

Moral equivalence is also important when examining the use of assassination. Opponents of what one American officer called "trial, judgment and execution by intelligence" argue that no state deliberately training, hiring, sanctioning or harbouring an assassin could hope to justify it in such a way that would satisfy its allies and neighbours, much less the affected countries (even though many might use the tactic themselves). In democracies this issue is particularly crucial; much of the impetus for engaging in military action in such states is the motivation of perceived righteousness fighting a brutal enemy, an opinion that is undermined if one's nation is actively and openly engaged in killings outside the laws of war. Many would argue that the negative morale effects alone would outweigh any possible benefits. Therefore a severe injustice is done if a self-proclaimed democracy calls another authority names and mount assassination plots. Supporters of assassination as a policy reply, however, that often the killing of one problematic figure can spare countless lives and years — or even decades — of warfare. An example often cited is the question of what might have come to pass had Adolf Hitler been assassinated in 1935. Countless millions, the argument goes, would have been spared had only such intervention been taken. However, it could be argued that Adolf Hitler was just one man in a Nazi Party of hundreds, and his successor may be just as brutal (not to mention vengeful). Furthermore, it can be argued that this logic would not only justify killing Hitler in 1935 but also killing Adolf in his crib as an innocent infant. However, the widespread attention paid to deeds by those branded as "dictators" such as Saddam Hussein and Idi Amin is seen by many as another persuasive argument towards the necessity of eliminating such individuals. The increasing spectre of terrorism, too, often leads many to question why, if it is "kill or be killed", there should be any delay in taking such action (an opponent would likely be quick to reply, however, that such an action alone leads to the loss of moral equivalence, proving their above argument, although a likely counter could be that moral equivalence is of little use to either a terrorist or one of their dead victims). Others point out that this point of view may create a dangerous slippery slope, to a point where assassination may be advocated, not to save millions of lives, but in order to merely accomplish a self-interested political or economic goal. For an example of this sort of possible over-reaching, see Pat Robertson's comments concerning his advocacy of the assassination of Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez.

Techniques

It's entirely likely that the first strategy used by a political or religious killer was a remarkably simple one: find the leader and stab or bludgeon them to death with whatever weapons were available. This would likely have occurred only in close-knit groups where security was not thought needed, such as amongst nomadic or early sedentary peoples in Mesopotamia where disagreements would be solved with vigilantism (however it's important to note that information from this far back is very sketchy and debatable in nature). As civilization took root, however, any leaders in groups began to have more and more a position of importance, and they would become more detached from the groups they ruled. For the first time, subterfuge would become a major factor in engaging in assassination. From ancient times, then, through to the medieval period, as the rate of technology was slow so, too, would be the changes in assassins' tactics. Infiltration was now the name of the game, and commonly a would-be killer would attempt to gain access to an official or person's guard or staff and utilize a variety of methods for exterminating them, be it the same close-contact stabbing or smothering or a more advanced method, such as using poison to induce death. This, however, must be distinguished from efforts by a person or group to remove a person in order to replace them in the power structure; for more on this, see coup d'état. With the advent of gunpowder and far more effective ranged weaponry, however, bodyguards were no longer enough to hold back determined killers, who no longer needed to directly engage or even subvert the guard to kill the leader in question; it could be done from a great distance in a crowded square or even at a church, as with the Pazzi Conspiracy, for example. Often, muskets or rifles might be used to take down a leader from a rooftop, at greater distance, dramatically increasing the chances for survival of an assassin. Also, explosives became increasingly en vogue for deeds requiring a larger touch; for an example of this, see the article on the Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament on the state opening. In whatever case, it is interesting to note that just because more modern methods of killing became available does not mean older ones were replaced; indeed, in nations like India killings by knife or sword remain quite popular, as they do in sub-Saharan Africa (for example, with the machete). In fact, since the development of gunpowder each region of the world seems to have its preferred methods of contract murder; besides those mentioned, explosives are quite popular in not only the Middle East but in most of Europe as well, save Northern Europe where shootings become more common, whereas in the Americas assassinations are almost exclusively performed by gunshot. One can make various cases for any of these, including range, detectability, concealability, likelihood of kill, etc. As the Renaissance gave way to the Industrial Revolution, assassination became more and more sophisticated, right up to today. Explosives, especially the car bomb, became far more common, and grenades and landmines were not unheard of either, especially in the Middle East and Balkans (the initial attempt on Archduke Franz Ferdinand's life was with a grenade; he was on his way to visit an aide injured in the first attack when his driver stopped to ask directions and he and his wife were shot). Also, Rocket propelled grenades (RPGs) became an especially useful tool, given the popularity of armored cars discussed below. Today, any manner of different techniques for the elimination of an enemy - popular or not - might be utilized; the sky, as it were, is the limit. One remarkable recent example involved a political figure who made the mistake of keeping to a regular route and schedule. Assassins were able to plan for his travel, and detonated an explosive charge beside the roadway, which propelled a metal plate through the target's vehicle at lethal speed, killing him. Another common option is using a sniper rifle. The only difference is that assassins and their deeds are far more public than ever before, owing not only to mass media but also far better security and control over access.

Counter-measures

It would not be a large stretch to say that, in addition to terrorism, political assassination is one of the biggest threats to any modern state and its government. As such, the measures to which a leader goes to avoid professional killers ranges from what an average person would consider to be farcical to the paranoid to the downright bizarre. Many would argue, though, that such measures are a lot more effective than they first appear, and that in the world of a new threat seemingly each week, no security is too much. One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins is without doubt the bodyguard. Essentially, the bodyguard functions as a counter-assassin, attempting to neutralize the killer before they can make contact with or inflict harm upon the "principal", or protected/targeted official. This function was often executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, to the point where a direct assassination had to be replaced with carefully-planned subterfuge, such as poison (which was answered by the food taster such as the Beefeaters protecting the English monarchs), and even then such methods were often thwarted. Notable examples of bodyguards would include the Roman Praetorian Guard or the Ottoman janissaries — although, in both cases, it should be noted that the protectors often became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the head of state a virtual hostage at their whim or eliminating threatening leaders altogether. Indeed, assassinations both then and today are most often effective when they have the support, tacit or open, of other powerful figures. This is less a concern in the West, where organizations such as the British Special Branch and American Secret Service are noted as well-trained and apolitical protective forces. Disloyal protectors continue to be a problem in developing nations, however; Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met such an end in 1984. The race was on with the Middle Ages between leaders and assassins as gunpowder became predominant, each in turn trying to develop stronger and better checks against the increasing abilities of the other. One of the first reactions was to simply increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a small army trailing every leader; another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present, to the point where entire sections of a city might be shut down. Heads of state began to cease taking their armies onto the field personally around this time as well, although this was likely as much due to the increasing skills required for generalship and division of power within the government as it was for safety concerns. As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence of assassins and their capabilities skyrocketed, and so did measures to protect against them. For the first time, armored cars or armored limousines were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions rendering them virtually invulnerable to small arms fire. Bulletproof vests were also commissioned, though not often used for political reasons. Access to famous persons, too, became more and more restrictive; potential visitors would be forced through dozens of different checks and double-checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as communication became better and information technology more prevalent, it has become next-to-impossible for a would-be killer of declared antigovernment or anarchist political affiliation to get close enough to the personage at work to effect an attempt on his or her life, especially given the common use of metal and bomb detectors. As such most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during transport, both due to weaker security and security lapses, such as with US President John F. Kennedy or as part of coups d'etat where security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with Salvador Allende or Patrice Lumumba. Some of the wilder and arguably stranger methods used for protection by famous people of both today and yesterday have evoked many reactions from different people, some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures, some comforted by the security and some lamenting the state of society that such measures are necessary. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear bulletproof glass, such as the Popemobile of Pope John Paul II (built following an extremist's attempt at his life). Frederick William I of Prussia had an entire command of soldiers above two meters of height, and would reportedly go to great lengths to obtain more. Many leaders, such as Josef Stalin or the Argentinian junta were so possessed by paranoia that they executed their opponents en masse, with the death toll ranging from hundreds to millions. Still others go into seclusion, rarely heard from or seen in public afterwards, such as writer Salman Rushdie or eccentric inventor Howard Hughes, though it is more likely that Hughes was concerned about germs than about assassination. A more exotic form of protection is the use of a body double. A body double in this case is a person who is built similar to the person he is expected to protect and made up to look like him. The body double then takes the place of the person in high risk situations. Fidel Castro, Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein are known to have used body doubles. It is important to note that, in the final analysis, it is thought by many that if a person or group is committed beyond reason or concerns for self-preservation towards the removal of a certain person or leader from not only their position but this plane of existence, then the chances are better than fair that any security measures taken will come to naught. The ninja of Japan and suicide attackers are both groups known for pursuing every avenue for however long necessary to accomplish their 'hit'. Often, such people or groups would operate without concern for their own life in order to gain the slightest chance of eliminating their mark. Certain leaders, notably Abraham Lincoln, were thought to have wrestled with this supposed inevitability during difficult times (with some, like Lincoln's, proving prophetic). In the end it comes down to will - if the will of the would-be assassins to execute their target surpasses that of their security to save them, or the will of the targeted person to survive, then success for a killer may be a matter of time.

Source for conspiracy theories

Assassinations are a classic subject of conspiracy theories. The assassination of a prominent figure is a singular event which can dramatically change the course of public affairs. Those drawn to conspiracy theory are led to ask, in the aftermath of an assassination, Who benefited from this death? Though some assassinations are committed by lone individuals, and many others by aboveboard governments (such as that of Leon Trotsky), and other assassinations are committed as the result of a provable conspiracy, there have been several assassinations whose purposes and evidence remain mysterious in the public eye — and suspicious to most people. Best-known among assassination conspiracy theories in the United States are those dealing with a rash of seemingly politically motivated deaths in the 1960s, notably those of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and civil rights leaders Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X. Investigations and scientific testing and recreations into the circumstances of John F. Kennedy's death have not settled the question of who killed him. That U.S. public opinion considers this still to be an open issue is suggested by three polls in 2003. An ABC News random telephone poll found that just 32% (plus or minus 3%) of Americans believe that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination of John F. Kennedy, while 68% do not believe Oswald acted alone. [http://abcnews.go.com/images/pdf/937a1JFKAssassination.pdf] The "Discovery Channel" poll (sampling method not given) reveals that only 21% believe Oswald acted alone, while 79% do not believe Oswald acted alone. [http://poll.discovery.com/servlet/viewsflash?jfk=6&cmd=tally&pollid=jfk&results=data%2Fdsc%2Fpackage%2Fjfk.results.html&submit.x=51&submit.y=6] The "History Channel" poll (self-selected responses) details that only 17% of respondents believe that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination of John F. Kennedy, while 83% do not believe Oswald acted alone. [http://www.historychannel.com/jfk/jfk_poll_results.jsp] It should, however, be noted that opinion polls of this type are often subject to selection and response biases. Similar theories have arisen around the assassination of Beatle John Lennon, populist Senator Huey Long of Louisiana and the attempted assassinations of George Wallace and U.S. President Ronald Reagan. In recent years conspiracy theories about the deaths of John F. Kennedy, Jr. and Diana, Princess of Wales have made headlines..

Nenê

Nenê (born Maybyner Rodney Hilario on September 13,

Hunter x hunter

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