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| 1577 |
1577
Events
- March 17 - formation of the Cathay Company to send Martin Frobisher back to the New World for more gold.
- May 28 - Publication of the Bergen Book, better known as the Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran confessional writings. The earlier version, known as the Torgau Book (1576), had been condensed into an Epitome; both documents are part of the 1580 Book of Concord.
- September 17 - Peace of Bergerac signed between Henry III of France and the Huguenots.
- December 13 - Sir Francis Drake sets out from Plymouth, England, on his round-the-world voyage.
- The church in San Pedro in the Atacama Desert in Chile was built.
Births
- February 6 - Beatrice Cenci, Italian noblewoman who conspired to kill her father (died 1599)
- February 8 - Robert Burton, English scholar (d. 1640)
- April 12 - King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway (died 1648)
- June 12 - Paul Guldin, Swiss Jesuit mathematician (died 1643)
- June 28 - Peter Paul Rubens, German painter (died 1640)
- July 9 - Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, English governor of Virginia (died 1618)
- October 17 - Cristofano Allori, Italian portrait painter (died 1621)
- November 10 - Jacob Cats, Dutch poet, jurist and politician (died 1660)
- November 25 - Piet Pieterszoon Hein, Dutch naval officer (died 1629)
- Jacopo Cavedone, Italian painter (died 1660)
- Jan Baptist van Helmont, Flemish chemist (died 1644)
- William Noy, English jurist (died 1634)
- Barnaby Potter, Bishop of Carlisle (died 1642)
- Meletius Smotrytsky, Ruthenian religious activist and author. Very important for development of Church Slavonic grammar. (Died 1633)
- William Vaughan, Welsh writer and colonial invester (died 1641)
- Gerhard Johann Vossius, German classical scholar and theologian (died 1649)
See also :Category: 1577 births.
Deaths
- February 26 - King Eric XIV of Sweden (b. 1533)
- June 11 - King John III of Portugal (born 1502)
- August 12 - Thomas Smith, English scholar and diplomat (born 1513)
- September 7 - Maria of Portugal (born 1538)
- October 7 - George Gascoigne, English poet
- November 19 - Matsunaga Hisahide, Japanese warlord (born 1510)
- November 29 - Cuthbert Mayne, English saint (born 1543)
- Richard Aertsz, Dutch painter (born 1482)
- Adam of Bodenstein, Swiss alchemist and physician (born 1528)
- Blaise de Lasseran-Massencôme, seigneur de Montluc, Marshal of France (born 1502)
- Pedro Nunez, Portuguese mathematician and geographer (born 1492)
See also :Category: 1577 deaths.
Category:1577
ko:1577년
March 17
March 17 is the 76th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (77th in Leap years). There are 289 days remaining.
Events
- 45 BC - In his last victory, Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger in the Battle of Munda.
- 1577 - The Cathay Company is formed to send Martin Frobisher back to the New World for more gold.
- 1673 - Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet begin their exploration of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi river.
- 1756 - St. Patrick's Day is celebrated in New York City for the first time (at the Crown and Thistle Tavern).
- 1776 - American Revolution: British forces evacuate Boston, Massachusetts after George Washington places artillery overlooking the city.
- 1805 - The Italian Republic, with Napoleon as president, becomes the Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as King.
- 1821 - Mani declared war on the Ottoman Empire starting the Greek War of Independence.
- 1845 - The rubber band is invented
- 1861 - The Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed.
- 1886 - Carrollton Massacre: 20 African Americans are killed in Mississippi.
- 1891 - The British steamship SS Utopia sinks off the coast of Gibraltar, killing 574.
- 1901 - A showing of 71 Vincent van Gogh paintings in Paris, 11 years after his death, creates a sensation.
- 1910 - Luther Gulick and his wife Charlotte found Camp Fire Girls (now Camp Fire USA) (formally announced in 1912).
- 1921 - The Second Republic of Poland adopts the March Constitution.
- 1931 - Nevada legalizes gambling.
- 1939 - Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945): The Battle of Nanchang between the Kuomintang and the Japanese break out.
- 1941 - In Washington, DC, the National Gallery of Art is officially opened by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
- 1948 - Benelux, France, and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Brussels, a precursor to the NATO Agreement.
- 1950 - University of California, Berkeley researchers announce the creation of element 98, which they name "Californium".
- 1958 - The United States launches the Vanguard 1 satellite.
- 1959 - Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, flees Tibet and travels to India.
- 1966 - Off the coast of Spain in the Mediterranean, the Alvin submarine finds a missing American hydrogen bomb.
- 1969 - Golda Meir of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, becomes Prime Minister of Israel.
- 1970 - My Lai massacre: The United States Army charges 14 officers with suppressing information related to the incident.
- 1985 - Serial killer Richard Ramirez, the "Night Stalker", commits his first two murders in Los Angeles, California murder spree.
- 1988 - A Colombian Boeing 727 jetliner, Avianca Flight 410, crashes into the side of the mountains near the Venezuelan border killing 143.
- 1992 - A suicide car-bomb kills 29 and injures 242 at the Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- 2003 - British Cabinet Minister, Robin Cook, resigns over government plans for war with Iraq.
- 2004 - Massive Unrest in Kosovo. Over 22 killed, 200 wounded, 35 destroyed Serb Orthodox shrines in Kosovo and two mosques in Belgrade and Nis.
Births
- 1231 - Emperor Shijo of Japan (d. 1252)
- 1473 - King James IV of Scotland (d. 1513)
- 1628 - François Girardon, French sculptor (d. 1715)
- 1676 - Thomas Boston, Scottish church leader (d. 1732)
- 1725 - Lachlan McIntosh, Scottish-born American military and political leader (d. 1806)
- 1777 - Roger Taney, Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court (d. 1864)
- 1780 - Thomas Chalmers, Scottish pastor, social reformer, author, and scientist (d. 1847)
- 1804 - Jim Bridger, American trapper and explorer (d. 1881)
- 1820 - Jean Ingelow, English poet (d. 1897)
- 1834 - Gottlieb Daimler, German engineer and inventor (d. 1900)
- 1846 - Kate Greenaway, English children's author and illustrator (d. 1901)
- 1862 - Silvio Gesell, Belgian economist (d. 1930)
- 1866 - Pierce Butler, Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (d. 1939)
- 1870 - Horace Donisthorpe, British entomologist (d. 1951)
- 1880 - Sir Patrick Hastings, British barrister (d. 1952)
- 1881 - Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- 1883 - Urmuz, Romanian writer (d. 1923)
- 1884 - Alcide Nunez, American jazz clarinetist (d. 1934)
- 1892 - Benjamin Drake Van Wissen, Australian Engineer.
- 1894 - Paul Green, American writer (d. 1981)
- 1895 - Shemp Howard, actor (d. 1955)
- 1901 - Alfred Newman, American film composer (d. 1970)
- 1902 - Bobby Jones, American golfer (d. 1971)
- 1908 - Brigitte Helm, German actress (d. 1996)
- 1912 - Bayard Rustin, American civil rights activist (d. 1987)
- 1914 - Sammy Baugh, American football player
- 1916 - Ray Ellington, British singer (d. 1985)
- 1918 - Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004)
- 1919 - Nat King Cole, American singer (d. 1965)
- 1920 - Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 1975)
- 1926 - Siegfried Lenz, German writer
- 1930 - James Irwin, astronaut (d. 1991)
- 1936 - Ladislav Kupkovic, Slovakian composer
- 1936 - Ken Mattingly, astronaut
- 1938 - Rudolf Nureyev, Russian-born dancer and choreographer (d. 1993)
- 1940 - Mark White, American politician
- 1941 - Paul Kantner, American musician (Jefferson Airplane)
- 1942 - John Wayne Gacy, American serial killer (d. 1994)
- 1944 - Pattie Boyd, British photographer and model
- 1944 - Cito Gaston, baseball player and coach
- 1944 - John Sebastian, American singer and songwriter
- 1945 - Elis Regina, Brazilian singer (d. 1982)
- 1946 - Georges J.F. Kohler, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1995)
- 1947 - James Morrow, author
- 1948 - William Gibson, American-born writer
- 1949 - Patrick Duffy, American actor
- 1950 - Patrick Adams, American record producer and songwriter
- 1951 - Kurt Russell, American actor
- 1954 - Lesley-Anne Down, English actress
- 1955 - Gary Sinise, American actor
- 1956 - Patrick McDonnell, American cartoonist
- 1957 - Michael Kelly, American journalist (d. 2003)
- 1959 - Danny Ainge, American basketball player and coach
- 1961 - Casey Siemaszko, American actor
- 1964 - Rob Lowe, American actor
- 1967 - William Patrick Corgan, Jr., American musician
- 1967 - Barry Minkow, American businessman
- 1969 - Mathew St. Patrick, American actor
- 1972 - Mia Hamm, American soccer player
- 1973 - Caroline Corr, Irish singer and musician
- 1973 - Rico Blanco, Filipino singer (Rivermaya)
- 1975 - Justin Hawkins, British singer (The Darkness)
- 1976 - Stephen Gately, Irish singer, musician, and actor (Boyzone)
- 1979 - Andrew Ference, Canadian hockey player
Deaths
- 45 BC - Titus Labienus, Roman leader (in battle)
- 45 BC - Gnaeus Pompeius, the Younger, Roman general (executed)
- 180 - Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor (b. 121)
- 461 - Saint Patrick, patron saint of Ireland
- 1040 - Harold Harefoot, King of England
- 1058 - King Lulach I of Scotland
- 1272 - Emperor Go-Saga of Japan (b. 1220)
- 1425 - Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shogun (b. 1407)
- 1516 - Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler of Florence (b. 1478)
- 1565 - Alexander Ales, Scottish theologian (b. 1500)
- 1640 - Philip Massinger, English dramatist (b. 1583)
- 1680 - François de La Rochefoucauld, French writer (b. 1613)
- 1704 - Menno van Coehoorn, Dutch military engineer (b. 1641)
- 1715 - Gilbert Burnet, Scottish Bishop of Salisbury (b. 1643)
- 1741 - Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French poet (b. 1671)
- 1764 - George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield, English astronomer
- 1782 - Daniel Bernoulli, Dutch-born mathematician (b. 1700)
- 1830 - Laurent, Marquis de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, French marshal (b. 1764)
- 1846 - Friedrich Bessel, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1784)
- 1849 - William II of the Netherlands (b. 1792)
- 1853 - Christian Doppler, Austrian physician and mathematician (b. 1803)
- 1893 - Jules Ferry, French statesman (b. 1832)
- 1917 - Franz Brentano, German philosopher and psychologist (b. 1838)
- 1937 - Austen Chamberlain, English statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1863)
- 1956 - Fred Allen, American actor and comedian (b. 1894)
- 1956 - Irene Joliot-Curie, French physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1897)
- 1957 - Ramon Magsaysay, President of the Philippines (b. 1907)
- 1965 - Amos Alonzo Stagg, baseball, basketball, and football coach and player (b. 1862)
- 1976 - Luchino Visconti, Italian director (b. 1906)
- 1983 - Haldan Keffer Hartline, American physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)
- 1987 - Santo Trafficante, Jr., American gangster (b. 1914)
- 1989 - Merritt Butrick, American actor (b. 1959)
- 1990 - Capucine, French actress (b. 1931)
- 1993 - Helen Hayes, American actress (b. 1900)
- 1995 - Ronnie Kray, British gangster (b. 1933)
- 1999 - Ernest Gold, Austrian composer (b. 1921)
- 1999 - Rod Hull, British comedian (b. 1936)
- 2002 - Rosetta LeNoire, American actress and producer (b. 1911)
- 2002 - Pat Weaver, American broadcast executive (b. 1908)
- 2004 - J.J. Jackson, American television personality (b. 1941)
- 2005 - George F. Kennan, American Cold War strategist and historian (b. 1904)
- 2005 - Andre Norton, American writer (b. 1912)
Holidays and observances
- Ancient Latvia - Kustonu Diena observed
- Boston, Massachusetts - Evacuation Day
- Feast day of St Patrick: a public holiday in Ireland and Montserrat, widely celebrated in North America (see St. Patrick's Day)
- ancient Rome - the second day of the Bacchanalia in honor of Bacchus
- ancient Rome - the Liberalia in honor of Liber
External links
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/17 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/3/17 Today in History: March 17]
----
March 16 - March 18 - February 17 - April 17 -- listing of all days
ko:3월 17일
ms:17 Mac
ja:3月17日
simple:March 17
th:17 มีนาคม
Martin FrobisherSir Martin Frobisher (c. 1535 – November 22, 1594) was a British seaman (from Yorkshire) who made several voyages to the New World to look for the Northwest Passage. He explored much of Canada in the process and claimed the land for England. Frobisher made several voyages to Frobisher Bay on China Island believing that the area held mineral wealth. He was knighted for his service in repelling the Spanish Armada in 1588.
Early life
Martin Frobisher was the 100 th child of Bernard Frobisher of Altofts in the parish of
Normanton, Yorkshire, England. The family
came originally from North Wales.
At an early age he was sent to a school
in London and placed under the care of a kinsman, Sir John York, who in
1544 placed him on board a ship belonging to a small fleet of merchantmen
sailing to Guinea. By 1565 he is referred to as Captain Martin Frobisher,
and in 1571—1572 as being in the public service at sea off the coast of
Ireland. He married in 1559.
The first voyage in search of the Northwest Passage
As early as 1560 or 1561 Frobisher had formed
a resolution to undertake a voyage in search of a Northwest Passage as a
trade-route to India and China (referred to at that time as Cathay).
It took him fifteen years to gain the necessary funding for his project.
In 1576, mainly by help of
the Earl of Warwick, he was put in command of an expedition of small ships.
It consisted of two tiny barks, the Gabriel and Michael, of about 20 to 25 tons each,
and a pinnace of 10 tons, with an aggregate crew of 35.
He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received a good word from Queen Elizabeth I of England at Greenwich, set sail on 7 June, by way of the Shetland Islands.
In a storm, the pinnace was lost and the Michael abandoned, but
on 28 July the Gabriel sighted the coast of Labrador.
Some days later the mouth of Frobisher Bay was reached, and
because ice and wind prevented further travel north,
Frobisher determined to sail westward up this passage (which he conceived to
be a strait) to see “whether he mighte carrie himself through the same
into some open sea on the backe syde.”
Butcher's Island was reached on 18 August, where the expedition met some of the local natives.
Five of Frobisher's men were decoyed and captured, and never seen again. After
vainly trying to get back his men, Frobisher turned homewards, and reached
London on 9 October.
Among the things which had been hastily
brought away by the men was some "black earth," and just as it seemed as if
nothing more was to come of this expedition, it was rumored abroad that the
apparently valueless "black earth" was really a lump of gold ore. It is
difficult to say how this rumour arose, and whether there was any truth in
it, or whether Frobisher was a party to a deception, in order to obtain
means to carry out the great idea of his life.
The second voyage
The story, at any rate, was successful. The next year a much
bigger expedition than the former was fitted out. The queen
lent the ship Aid from the royal navy and provided £1000 towards the
expenses of the expedition. A Company of Cathay was established, with a charter
from the crown, giving the company the sole right of sailing in every direction
but the east. Frobisher was appointed high admiral of all lands and waters that
might be discovered by him.
On 26 May 1577 the expedition, consisting,
besides the Aid, of the ships Gabriel and Michael, with boats, pinnaces
and an aggregate complement of 120 men, including miners, refiners, etc., left
Blackwall, and sailing by the north of Scotland reached Hall's Island at the
mouth of Frobisher Bay on 17 July. A few days later the country and the
south side of the bay was solemnly taken possession of in the queen's name.
Several weeks were now spent in collecting ore, but very little was done in the
way of discovery, Frobisher being specially directed by his commission to “defer
the further discovery of the passage until another time.” There was much
parleying and some skirmishing with the natives, and earnest but futile attempts
made to recover the men captured the previous year.
The return was begun on 23 August, and the Aid reached Milford Haven on 23 September. The Gabriel and Michael later arrived
separately at Bristol and Yarmouth.
Frobisher was received and thanked by the queen at Windsor. Great preparations
were made and considerable expense incurred for the assaying of the great
quantity of "ore" (about 200 tons) brought home. This took up much time, and
led to considerable dispute among the various parties interested.
The third voyage
Meantime the faith of the queen and others remained strong in the productiveness of the newly
discovered territory, which she herself named Meta Incognita, and it was resolved to send out a larger expedition than ever, with all necessaries for the establishment of a colony of 100 men. Frobisher was again received by the queen at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold around his neck.
On 31 May 1578 the expedition, consisting in all of fifteen vessels, left Harwich, and sailing by the English Channel on 20 June reached the south of Greenland, where Frobisher and some of his men managed to land. On 2 July the foreland of Frobisher Bay was sighted. Stormy weather and
dangerous ice prevented the rendezvous from being gained, and, besides causing
the wreck of the barque Dennis of 100 tons, drove the fleet unwittingly up a
new (Hudson) strait. After proceeding about 60 miles up this "mistaken
strait," Frobisher with apparent reluctance turned back, and after many buffetings and
separations the fleet at last came to anchor in Frobisher Bay.
Some attempt was made at founding a settlement, and a large quantity of ore was shipped. Too much dissension and discontent prevented a successful settlement. On the last day of August the fleet set out on its return to England, which was reached in the beginning of October. The ore apparently was not worth smelting. This ended Frobisher's attempts at the Northwest Passage.
Action against the Spaniards, 1580-1588
In 1580 Frobisher was employed as captain of one of the queen's ships in preventing the plans of Spain to assist the Irish in their resistance of encroaching English rule, and in the same year obtained a grant of the reversionary title of clerk of the royal navy.
In 1585 he commanded the Primrose, as vice-admiral to Sir Francis Drake in his expedition to the West Indies, and when soon afterwards the country was threatened with invasion by the Spanish Armada, Frobisher's name was one of four mentioned by the lord high admiral in a letter to the queen of "men of the greatest experience that this realm hath," and for his signal services in the "Triumph," in the dispersion of the Armada, he was knighted. He continued to cruise about in the Channel until 1590, when he was sent in command of a small fleet to the coast of Spain.
Later life
In 1591 he visited his native Altofts, and there married his second wife, a daughter of Lord Wentworth, becoming at the same time a landed proprietor in Yorkshire and Notts. He found, however, little leisure for a country life, and the following year took charge of the fleet fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh to the Spanish coast, returning with a rich prize.
In November 1594 he was engaged with a squadron in the siege and relief of Brest, when he received a wound at Fort Crozon from which he died at Plymouth on 22 November. His body was taken to London and buried at St Giles', Cripplegate.
External links
- [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34352 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]
Frobisher, Martin
Frobisher, Martin
Frobisher, Martin
Frobisher, Martin
Frobisher, Martin
Frobisher, Martin
Frobisher, Martin
Frobisher, Martin
May 28
May 28 is the 148th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (149th in leap years). There are 217 days remaining.
Events
- 585 BC - A solar eclipse occurs, as predicted by Thales, while Alyattes is battling Cyaxares, leading to a truce. This is one of the cardinal dates from which other dates can be calculated.
- 1503 - James IV of Scotland and Margaret Tudor are married by Pope Alexander VI according to Papal Bull.
- 1503 - The Treaty of Everlasting Peace between Scotland and England is signed, which would actually last 10 years.
- 1588 - The Spanish Armada, with 130 ships and 30,000 men, begins to set sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel. (It will take until May 30 for all ships to leave port).
- 1754 - French and Indian War: In the first engagement of the war, Virginia militia under 22-year-old Lieutenant Colonel George Washington defeat a French reconnaissance party at Jumonville Glen in what is now Fayette Couty in southwestern Pennsylvania.
- 1774 - American Revolutionary War: The first Continental Congress convenes.
- 1863 - American Civil War: The 54th Massachusetts, the first African American regiment, leaves Boston, Massachusetts, to fight for the Union.
- 1892 - In San Francisco, California, John Muir organizes the Sierra Club.
- 1905 - Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of Tsushima ends with the destruction of the Russian Baltic Fleet by Admiral Togo Heihachiro and the Imperial Japanese Navy.
- 1918 - The first Republic of Armenia declares its statehood.
- 1918 - Independence day in the Azerbaijan Republic.
- 1926 - Military dictatorship established in Portugal to suppress the unrest of the First Republic.
- 1930 - The Chrysler Building in New York City officially opens.
- 1934 - Near Callender, Ontario, the Dionne quintuplets are born to Olivia and Elzire Dionne, later becoming the first quintuplets to survive infancy.
- 1934 - The Glyndebourne festival in England is inaugurated.
- 1936 - Alan Turing submits On Computable Numbers for publication.
- 1937 - The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California, is officially opened by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington, DC, who pushes a button signaling the start of vehicle traffic over the span.
- 1937 - Neville Chamberlain becomes British Prime Minister.
- 1940 - World War II: Belgium surrenders to Germany.
- 1940 - World War II: Norwegian, French, Polish and British forces recapture Narvik. First allied infantry victory in WW2.
- 1942 - World War II: In retaliation for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, Nazis in Czechoslovakia kill over 1800 people.
- 1961 - Peter Benenson's article "The Forgotten Prisoners" is published in several internationally read newspapers. This will later be thought of as the founding of the human rights organization Amnesty International.
- 1964 - The Palestine Liberation Organization is formed.
- 1969 - Sound engineer Glyn Johns mixes the second of the Beatles Bootlegs.
- 1974 - Northern Ireland's power-sharing Sunningdale Agreement collapses following a general strike by loyalists.
- 1975 - Fifteen West African countries sign the Treaty of Lagos, thus creating the Economic Community of West African States.
- 1977 - In Southgate, Kentucky, the Beverly Hills Supper Club is engulfed in fire, killing 165 people inside.
- 1978 - Second round of the presidential elections in Upper Volta. Elections wonm by incumbent Sangoulé Lamizana.
- 1982 - Falklands War: British forces defeat the Argentines at the Battle of Goose Green.
- 1987 - 19-year-old West German pilot Mathias Rust evades Soviet Union air defenses and lands a private plane in Red Square in Moscow. He is immediately detained and is not released until August 3, 1988.
- 1987 - A robot probe finds the wreckage of the USS Monitor near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.
- 1991 - The capital city of Addis Ababa, falls to the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front, ending both the Derg regime in Ethiopia and the Ethiopian Civil War.
- 1995 - The Russian town of Neftegorsk is hit by a 7.6 magnitude earthquake that kills at least 2,000 people, 2/3 of total population.
- 1998 - Nuclear testing: Pakistan responds to a series of Indian nuclear tests with five of its own, prompting the United States, Japan, and other nations to impose economic sanctions.
- 1999 - In Milan, Italy, after 22 years of restoration work, Leonardo de Vinci's newly-restored masterpiece "The Last Supper" is put back on display.
- 2000 - The volcano Mount Cameroon erupts.
Births
- 1140 - Xin Qiji, Chinese poet (d. 1207)
- 1371 - John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1419)
- 1524 - Selim II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1574)
- 1582 - William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, English statesman (d. 1662)
- 1588 - Pierre Seguier, Chancellor of France (d. 1672)
- 1641 - Janez Vajkard Valvasor, Slovenian polymath (d. 1693)
- 1660 - King George I of Great Britain (d. 1727)
- 1676 - Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician (d. 1754)
- 1759 - William Pitt the Younger, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1806)
- 1779 - Thomas Moore, Irish poet (d. 1852)
- 1807 - Louis Agassiz, Swiss-born zoologist and geologist (d. 1873)
- 1818 - Pierre Beauregard, American Confederate general (d. 1893)
- 1836 - Alexander Mitscherlich, German chemist (d. 1918)
- 1853 - Carl Larsson, Swedish painter (d. 1919)
- 1858 - Carl Rickard Nyberg, Swedish inventor (d. 1939)
- 1878 - Paul Pelliot, French sinologist (d. 1945)
- 1883 - Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Indian freedom fighter (d. 1966)
- 1884 - Edvard Beneš, Czech politician (d. 1948)
- 1887 - Jim Thorpe, American athlete (d. 1953)
- 1892 - Sepp Dietrich, German SS officer (d. 1966)
- 1900 - Tommy Ladnier, American musician (d. 1939)
- 1908 - Ian Fleming, English author (d. 1964)
- 1910 - T-Bone Walker, American singer (d. 1975)
- 1910 - Lady Rachel Kempson, English actress (d. 2003)
- 1911 - Thora Hird, British actress (d. 2003)
- 1911 - Fritz Hochwälder, Austrian author (d. 1986)
- 1912 - Patrick White, Australian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990)
- 1914 - W. G. G. Duncan Smith, British World War II pilot (d. 1996)
- 1915 - Joseph Greenberg, American linguist (d. 2001)
- 1916 - Walker Percy, American author (d. 1990)
- 1917 - Papa John Creech, American musician (d. 1994)
- 1921 - Heinz G. Konsalik, German author (d. 1999)
- 1922 - Lou Duva, American boxing trainer
- 1923 - Henry Kissinger, United States Secretary of State
- 1923 - György Ligeti, Hungarian composer
- 1923 - Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao, Indian actor, director, and producer (d. 1998)
- 1925 - Bülent Ecevit, Prime Minister of Turkey
- 1925 - Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German baritone
- 1931 - Carroll Baker, American actress
- 1936 - Betty Shabazz, American civil rights leader
- 1938 - Jerry West, American basketball player
- 1942 - Stanley B. Prusiner, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1944 - Rudy Giuliani, Mayor of New York City
- 1944 - Gladys Knight, American singer
- 1944 - Billy Vera, American actor and musician
- 1945 - John Fogerty, American musician (Creedence Clearwater Revival)
- 1945 - Gary Stewart, American singer (d. 2003)
- 1946 - Satchidanandan, Indian-born poet
- 1947 - Sondra Locke, American actress
- 1947 - Zahi Hawass, Egyptologist
- 1949 - Wendy O. Williams, American musician (The Plasmatics) (d. 1998)
- 1955 - John McGeoch, Scottish musician (Siouxsie and the Banshees) (d. 2004)
- 1957 - Kirk Gibson, baseball player
- 1962 - Brandon Cruz, American actor
- 1962 - Roland Gift, English musician (Fine Young Cannibals)
- 1963 - Houman Younessi, Iranian-born scientist
- 1964 - Jeff Fenech, Australian boxer
- 1964 - Christa Miller, American actress
- 1964 - Phil Vassar, country music artist
- 1965 - Chris Ballew, American musician
- 1968 - Kylie Minogue, Australian actress and singer
- 1972 - Michael Boogerd, Dutch cyclist
- 1977 - Elisabeth Hasselbeck, American television panelist
- 1980 - Mark Feehily, Irish musician (Westlife)
Deaths
- 1357 - King Afonso IV of Portugal (b. 1291)
- 1672 - John Trevor, English politician (b. 1626)
- 1747 - Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French writer (b. 1715)
- 1750 - Emperor Sakuramachi of Japan (b. 1720)
- 1787 - Leopold Mozart, Austrian composer (b. 1719)
- 1805 - Luigi Boccherini, Italian composer (b. 1743)
- 1808 - Richard Hurd, English bishop and writer (b. 1720)
- 1811 - Henry Dundas, British minister (b. 1742)
- 1843 - Noah Webster, American author, politician, and lexicographer (b. 1758)
- 1849 - Anne Brontë, English author (b. 1820)
- 1916 - Ivan Franko, Ukrainian writer (b. 1856)
- 1937 - Alfred Adler, Austrian psychologist (b. 1870)
- 1940 - Friedrich Karl von Hessen (b. 1868)
- 1948 - Unity Mitford, English fascist sympathizer (b. 1914)
- 1971 - Audie Murphy, American actor and war hero (b. 1924)
- 1972 - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (b. 1894)
- 1978 - Arthur Brough, English actor (b. 1905)
- 1980 - Rolf Nevanlinna, Finnish mathematician (b. 1895)
- 1993 - Billy Conn, American boxer and actor (b. 1917)
- 1994 - Julius Boros, American golfer (b. 1920)
- 1994 - Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr., American writer (b. 1916)
- 1998 - Phil Hartman, Canadian actor, comedian (b. 1948)
- 2001 - Francisco Varela, Chilean biologist and philosopher (b. 1946)
- 2002 - Jean Berger, German-born composer (b. 1909)
- 2003 - Oleg Makarov, cosmonaut (b. 1933)
- 2003 - Ilya Prigogine, Russian-born physicist and chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1917)
- 2003 - Martha Scott, American actress (b. 1912)
- 2004 - Umberto Agnelli, Swiss-born automobile executive (b. 1934)
Holidays and observances
- Feast day of the following saints in the Roman Catholic Church:
- Germain
- Augustine of Canterbury
- William of Gellone
- Bernard of Menthon
- Lanfranc
- Republic Day in Azerbaijan and Armenia (both 1918)
- Sunset and sunrise occur along Manhattan's street grid centerline
External links
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/28 BBC: On This Day]
----
May 27 - May 29 - April 28 - June 28 – listing of all days
ko:5월 28일
ms:28 Mei
ja:5月28日
simple:May 28
th:28 พฤษภาคม
Lutheran
Lutheranism is a Christian tradition committed to the main theological insights of Martin Luther. It is numerically the third largest single Christian movement, with an estimated 82.6 million people belonging to the various congregations, bodies, and churches which call themselves Lutheran.
Luther's insights are generally held to have been a major foundation of the Protestant movement. The relationship between Lutheranism and the Protestant tradition is, however, ambiguous: some Lutherans consider Lutheranism to be outside the Protestant tradition, while others see it as part of this tradition.
History of Lutheranism
Early history
Lutheranism as a movement traces its origin to the work of Martin Luther, a German religious scholar who sought to reform the practices of the Roman Catholic Church in the early 16th century. The symbolic beginning of the Reformation occurred on October 31, 1517, which Lutherans and other Protestants regard as Reformation Day, when Doctor Luther posted an open invitation to debate his 95 theses concerning the teaching and practice of indulgences within the Church.
Between 1517 and 1520, Luther preached and published his scathing criticisms of the Catholic Church in books and pamphlets. His ideas were supported by many other Christian theologians, and they also had a certain populist appeal. As a result, Luther gained many supporters and followers from all levels of society, from peasants who considered him a folk hero, to knights who swore to protect him, to rulers of German lands who wanted more independence from papal interference in their domestic policies. Luther also gained some powerful enemies, including the Pope in Rome and the youthful Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
Concerned about the "problem" of Luther, the Pope and Roman officials decided to send representatives to Luther to discuss his concerns and to persuade him to retract his challenges to papal authority. The effort was largely unsuccessful. Luther continued to discover new areas in need of reform. Finally, the papal bull called the Exsurge Domine was issued in 1520, calling on Luther to condemn and abandon his ideas. Luther replied by burning the bull and volumes of canon law in a bonfire at Wittenberg. Finally, a new bull excommunicating Luther and those who agreed with him was issued.
Charles V wanted to outlaw the now excommunicated Luther and his followers, but he was warned by advisors that doing so outright would cause a revolt, since Luther had become so popular. More importantly, the ruler of Luther's land, Elector Frederick the Wise, refused to allow any of his subjects to be condemned without trial. So instead, Luther was to be summoned to appear before the Diet of Worms. Luther went to Worms, but when called upon by imperial and papal officials to retract his ideas, Luther replied: "I cannot submit my faith either to the Pope or to the Councils, because it is clear as day they have frequently erred and contradicted each other. Unless therefore, I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture ... I cannot and will not retract ..." --Martin Luther, April 16, 1521
Luther had been granted a Safe Conduct to travel to and from his trial, but remembering how a similar promise had been violated in the case of Jan Hus, Luther's supporters prevailed upon him to escape from Worms in the dark of night, before he too could be seized and executed. Luther remained in hiding for some time, all the while continuing to write and develop his ideas. Shortly after Luther escaped, Charles V issued the Edict of Worms, which outlawed Luther and his followers, declared Luther and his followers heretics, and banned Luther's writings.
Religious war
What had started as a strictly theological and academic debate had now turned into something of a social and political conflict as well, pitting Luther, his German allies and Northern European supporters against Charles V, France, the Italian Pope, their territories and other allies. The conflict would erupt into a religious war after Luther's death, fueled by the political climate of the Holy Roman Empire and strong personalities on both sides.
In 1526, at the First Diet of Speyer, it was decided that, until a General Council could meet and settle the theological issues raised by Martin Luther, the Edict of Worms would not be enforced and each Prince could decide if Lutheran teachings and worship would be allowed in his territories. In 1529, at the Second Diet of Speyer, the decision the previous Diet of Speyer was reversed — despite the strong protests of the Lutheran princes, free cities and some Zwinglian territories. These states quickly became known as Protestants. At first, this term Protestant was used politically for the states that resisted the Edict of Worms. Over time, however, this term came to be used for the religious movements that opposed the Roman Catholic tradition in the sixteenth century.
Lutheranism would become known as a separate movement after the 1530 Diet of Augsburg, which was convened by Charles V to try to stop the growing Protestant movement. At the Diet, Philipp Melanchthon presented a written summary of Lutheran beliefs called the Augsburg Confession. Several of the German princes (and later, kings and princes of other countries) signed the document to define "Lutheran" territories. These princes would ally to create the Schmalkaldic League in 1531, which lead to the Schmalkald War that pitted the Lutheran princes of the Schmalkaldic League against the Catholic forces of Charles V.
After the conclusion of the Schmalkald War, Charles V attempted to impose Catholic religious doctrine on the territories that he had defeated. However, the Lutheran movement was far from defeated. In 1577, the next generation of Lutheran theologians gathered the work of the previous generation to define the doctrine of the persisting Lutheran church. This document is known as the Formula of Concord. In 1580, it was published with the Augsburg Confession, the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, the Large and Small Catechisms of Martin Luther, the Schmalcald Articles and the Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope. Together they were distributed in a volume titled The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. This book is still used today, and is referred to as the Book of Concord.
Results of the Lutheran Reformation
Luther and his followers began a large exodus from the Catholic Church known as the Protestant Reformation. In the years and decades following Luther's posting of the 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg church, large numbers of Europeans left the Roman Church, including the majority of German speakers (the only German speaking areas where the population remained mostly in the Catholic church were those under the domain or influence of Catholic Austria and Bavaria or the electoral archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier). Because Luther sparked this mass movement, he is known as the father of the Protestant Reformation, and the father of Protestantism in general.
Today, approximately 1 out every 4 Christians in the world is a Protestant, and 1 out of every 5 Protestants in the world is a Lutheran. Thus, approximately 1 out of every 20 Christians in the world is a Lutheran.
Lutheran doctrine
German speakers
The Holy Scripture and the Lutheran Confessions
The formal principle of Lutheranism and one of the signature teachings of the Lutheran Reformation is the teaching named Sola scriptura -- "Scripture alone." Lutherans believe that the Bible is divinely inspired and is the final authority for all matters of faith and doctrine. Lutherans also hold that the Holy Scripture is explained and interpreted by the Book of Concord -- a series of Confessions of faith composed by Lutherans in the 16th Century. Traditionally, Lutheran pastors, congregations and church bodies agree to teach in harmony with the Book of Concord because it teaches and faithfully explains the Word of God. For this reason, Lutherans who follow the Book of Concord closely, especially conservative Lutherans, often refer to themselves as Confessional Lutherans. Other Lutherans, who agree with the main teachings of the Lutheran Confessions, but may take exception to some of its doctrine, subscribe to the Book of Concord in so far as they are in harmony with Holy Scripture.
Some Lutheran church bodies, such as the Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod, also teach Biblical inerrancy. Others adopt the viewpoint that the Bible contains God's Word, but is essentially a human document, subject to error in non-spiritual matters. Those who hold to the former reject modern liberal scholarship, while those that hold to the latter embrace it.
Central doctrines
The material principle of Lutheranism is the doctrine of salvation by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith alone (Sola Fide) for the sake of Christ's merit alone (Solus Christus). Lutherans believe God made the world, humanity included, perfect, holy and sinless. However, Adam and Eve chose to disobey God, trusting in their own strength, knowledge and wisdom. Because of this Original Sin -- the sin from which all other sins come -- all descendents of Adam and Eve (thus, all humans) are born in sin and are sinners. For Lutherans, original sin could be characterized as the "chief sin, a root and fountainhead of all actual sins" (Formula of Concord).
Lutherans teach that sinners cannot do anything (i.e. "good works") to satisfy God's justice. Every human thought and deed is colored by sin and sinful motives. God has intervened in this world because He loves sinners and does not want them to be damned to Hell, and, by His grace alone -- His free gift of mercy -- a person is forgiven, adopted as a child of God, and given eternal salvation.
For this reason, Lutherans teach that salvation is possible only because of the birth, perfect life of obedience, sufferings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In the person of Jesus Christ, Lutherans believe God and Man meet. Because He is God, He is sinless and so a worthy sacrifice, without spot or blemish. Because He is a man, He could die. In His death, death is destroyed, our debt paid for and our sins forgiven.
Lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation by faith alone -- a full and complete trust in God's promises to forgive and to save. Even faith itself is seen as a gift of God, created in the hearts of Christians by the work of the Holy Spirit when they hear God's Word proclaimed, and when they are baptized.
Lutherans believe that all who trust in Jesus alone can be sure of their salvation, for it is in Christ's work and his promises in which their surety lies. They teach that, at death, Christians are immediately taken into the presence of God in Heaven, where they await the resurrection of the body at the second coming of Christ.
Although Lutherans believe good works do not satisfy God's justice, this is not to say that good works play no role in the Christian life. Good works always and in every instance spring spontaneously from true faith, and have their true origin in God, not in the fallen human heart or in human striving; their complete absence would demonstrate that faith, too, is absent.
With the whole Christian community, Lutherans believe that there is one God, existing in three persons. (see Trinity)
Most Lutherans also teach:
- The distinction between Law and Gospel
- Single Predestination: God chose to save His children before the world was created, but does not predestine the lost to be damned. Unlike Calvin, who explained how the reprobate come to be damned (double predestination), Luther said it was a mystery -- something which humanity cannot, and probably should not, try to comprehend.
- Infant Baptism
- Baptismal Regeneration
- The Real Presence of Christ's Body and Blood "in, with and under" the Bread and wine of the Lord's Supper.
- Amillennialism
For an overview of Lutheran theology, see:
ELCA Perspective: Braaten, Carl E., Principles of Lutheran Theology Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983.
LCMS Perspective: Pieper, Franz. Christian Dogmatics. Saint Louis, Mo. : Concordia Pub. House, 1950-1957.
Lutheran religious practices
Lutherans generally place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services; however, many Lutheran churches today also hold contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelical outreach. Music forms a large part of a traditional Lutheran service. Lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales, and Luther himself composed hymns and hymn tunes, the most famous of which is "A Mighty Fortress is Our God" ("Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott"). Many Lutheran churches have active music ministries, including choirs, hand-bell choirs, children's choirs and sometimes carillon societies (to ring bells in a bell tower). Johann Sebastian Bach, a devout Lutheran, composed music for the Lutheran church.
Children's ministries are considered fundamental in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain Sunday Schools, and many host or maintain private nursery-schools, primary schools, regional high schools and universities. Lutheran pastors and staff are repeatedly reminded that most evangelism occurs within the church, with children.
Pastors usually teach in the common language of the parish. In the U.S., some congregations and synods traditionally taught in German or Norwegian, but this custom has been in significant decline since the early/middle 20th century.
Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including Greek and Hebrew so that they can refer directly to the canonical Christian scriptures in the original language. Lutheran pastors may marry and have families.
Lutheran Churches in the United States use a number of hymnals. The most widely uses are: Christian Worship (WELS), The Lutheran Book of Worship (ELCA and ELCIC), The Lutheran Hymnal (LCMS, WELS & CLC)and Lutheran Worship (LCMS). The Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod recently approved a new hymnal, Lutheran Service Book, which will be available in the fall of 2006. The Evangelical Lutheran Church has also approved a new hymnal, Evangelical Lutheran Worship, which will be available in October 2006.
Lutheran ecumenism
Lutherans believe in ecumenism the idea that there is a single Christian church, and a single Christian faith. This belief is ingrained in the Lutheran confessions, and reflects the history of Lutheranism as a reform movement rather than a separatist movement.
For that reason, a number of modern Lutheran denominations, now largely separated from state control, are reaching out to other Lutheran denominations as well as other Christian denominations. However, more conservative varieties of Lutheran strive to maintain historical distinctiveness, emphasizing doctrinal purity over ecumenical outreach.
The largest organizations of Lutheran churches around the world are the Lutheran World Federation and the International Lutheran Council, which include the great majority of Lutheran denominations around the globe.
Lutheranism in North America
In the U.S., congregations are grouped into over 20 different denominations. The three largest Lutheran bodies in the United States are, in order of size: the more liberal Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), the more conservative Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS), and the most conservative of the three, the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS). These denominations provide seminaries, pastoral care, and Sunday School and liturgical materials. Local congregations contribute funds to support them and receive services and materials. Denominations help to start new congregations affiliated with them.
In Canada, the two largest Lutheran denominations are the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) and the Lutheran Church - Canada (LCC). The ELCIC was formed in 1986 when the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada (former congregations of the American Lutheran Church) absorbed the Canada Section of the Lutheran Church in America. The LCC was formed in 1988 when Canadian congregations of the LCMS formed their own denomination.
Denominational organization
The ELCA is divided into 64 geographical and one non-geographical synods (the Slovak Zion Synod). The ELCA has established relationships of full communion with The Episcopal Church, the Moravian Church, the United Church of Christ, the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Reformed Church in America and an interim agreement with the United Methodist Church. The ELCA ordains both men and women to the pastoral office. It does not bless clergy in active same-sex relationships nor bless same-sex marriages; however such persons resigned to celibacy can be ordained.
The LCMS is divided into 35 districts, including 2 non-geographical districts. It permits only qualified men to serve as pastors. It encourages women to be active in the church and has affirmed women's suffrage within congregations since 1969. In 2004, the synod decided that women may also "serve in humanly established offices" such as congregation president, reader, or usher. The LCMS does not permit active homosexuals to serve in the ministry, and it has affirmed an exclusively heterosexual definition of marriage. The LCMS practices closed communion (also called "close" communion), and has undergone recent internal struggles regarding participation of its clergy in interfaith "events." Particularly controversial was the post-9/11 event "A Prayer for America", held at Yankee Stadium, in which the church's Atlantic District President David Benke offered a Christian prayer alongside representatives of various non-Lutheran Christian, and non-Christian faiths.
The WELS is also divided into districts. As with the LCMS, it permits only qualified men to serve as pastors and adopts similar positions on homosexuality and marriage. WELS does not support women's suffrage in the church. WELS teaches the "Unit Concept" of fellowship. Strict adherence to this requires members to refrain from all worship, including prayer, with those not in fellowship with WELS.
One historic difference between the ELCA and the LCMS that can be seen today are the ethnic origins of both synods. The synods that merged into the ELCA came from a mix of German, Scandinavian, and Baltic congregations, while the LCMS has a primarily German background. Often one can walk into an ELCA church and decifer the ethnicity of its founders by examining the church architecture or the names on the roster. Not all Lutherans have German, Scandinavian, or Baltic backgrouds, however, and both the ELCA and LCMS openly welcome people of all ethnicities.
In Canada, the ELCIC is divided into five synods and is in full communion with the Anglican Church of Canada. The LCC, based out of Winnipeg, Manitoba, is divided into three districts and maintains strong ties to the LCMS.
There are at least 20 smaller Lutheran Denominations in the U.S., with many of them being cultural or doctrinal offshoots of the main three.
Inter-denomination relations
U.S. denominations differ on doctrine and practice. Doctrinally, the differences are primarily based on the degree of authority denominations place on the written text of Scripture. The ELCA subscribes to the "Historical-Critical Method" of Scripture interpretation, which attempts to interpret the text while taking account of the historical, cultural, and scientific limitations or biases imposed by the original writers. Many members of the ELCA believe that such higher criticism represents the best efforts of modern scholarship.
The LCMS and WELS follow the traditional "historical-grammatical" method of interpreting the Scripture text, which seeks to understand the text as it is written within the context of history, culture, and language. Many members of these denominations feel this approach best reflects the original meaning of the text.
A detailed discussion of differences between the denominations
can be found at their respective pages
(ELCA,
LCMS,
WELS).
As a result of doctrinal differences, cooperation between different denominations varies: there is collaboration on some forms of outreach (for example, Lutheran World Relief); in worship practice, however, the conservative denominations typically practice closed communion, limiting celebration of the Eucharist (Lord's Supper) to those within their own denominations out of concern for doctrinal differences.
Lutheran publishers
English-language publishers of books on Luther and Lutheran theology
# [http://www.cph.org/ Concordia Publishing House] (LCMS)
# [http://www.augsburgfortress.com/ Augsburg Fortress] and [http://www.fortresspress.com/ Fortress Press] (ELCA)
# [http://www.nph.net/ Northwestern Publishing House] (WELS)
# [http://CLCbookhouse.org/ Church of the Lutheran Confession Bookhouse] (CLC)
# [http://www.openbook.com.au/ Openbook Publishers] (Lutheran Church of Australia)
# [http://www.aflconline.org/parish-ed/index.html Ambassador Publications] (AFLC)
Modern Lutheranism in Europe
Lutheranism is the state religion in most of the Nordic countries: Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland. In these countries, the churches are supported directly by taxes. The church tax, an income tax of about 1–2%, is collected only from the members of the church, but the church also gets its share from other taxes such as the municipal corporation tax. Priests are educated at the Faculties of Theology of the state universities. With the extension of the European Union, the status of state churches is largely revised; they remain a State Church but win greater autonomy. In Sweden, Lutheranism was the state religion up until the year 2000. The church is no longer supported by taxes, but the fees are collected along with taxes.
Lutheranism is also prominent in Estonia and Latvia. Members of the predominant churches in Germany, whether Lutheran, Reformed, or Catholic are also required by the state to pay a church tax in addition to their normal income tax. Certain parts of Germany are traditionally Lutheran (generally towards the north and east) while others are historically Catholic (especially Bavaria and areas along the Rhine). Modern mobility and a decrease in religiosity have, however, been instrumental in shifting the demographic situation, as did the movements of German refugees from areas lost to Poland and Russia as a result of World War II.
Notably, the European churches have very low attending memberships at the offices; due to the history of those European churches, most parts of them knew persecution during the 17th and 18th centuries. The church attendance on Sunday is not decisive and houses offices are still perennial, particularly in southern Europe. Most people feel it is more important to attend to the lot of conference and training and Biblical studies. So, in northern Europe many attend religious services only for baptisms, Confirmation (sacrament)confirmations, weddings, funerals, and possibly at Christmas. Confirmation is treated seriously and is usually delayed until the end of the high school courses. The Lutheran confirmation training usually constitutes the largest exposure of Northern Europeans to Christian doctrines.
Recently, the Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands merged with two Reformed churches (the Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk and the Gereformeerde Kerken), creating the 2,000,000 strong Protestant Church of the Netherlands. The 'PKN' claims to be both Reformed and Lutheran and is a member of both the WARC and the Lutheran World Federation]. The Lutheran congregations in the Netherlands have remained largely autonomous.
Except in Northern Europe (see above), very few seminaries are state-supported. Due to large agreements like the Concorde de Leuenberg (1962), involving many churches raising from the Reformation the training for students in theology embraces a wide range of theologies including modern and contemporary movements in biblical criticism and theology.
Many major seaports contain the outposts of the respective Nordic Lutheran churches (e.g. Norwegian and Finnish) to provide aid, social opportunities, and pastoral care for visiting seamen — in their own language. A few Lutheran pastors work in foreign countries such as France.
ja:ルーテル教会
1576
Events
- May 5 - Peace of Beaulieu or Peace of Monsieur (after Monsieur, the Duc d'Anjou, brother of the King, who negotiated it). End of the Fifth War of Religion Once again, the Protestants are granted freedom of worship.
- August 11 - English navigator Martin Frobisher, on his search for the Northwest Passage, enters the bay now named after him.
- October 3 - The Spanish Fury. Mutinous Spanish troops capture and sack Antwerp.
- November 2 - Rudolf II becomes Holy Roman Emperor.
- November 4 - Eighty Years' War: In Belgium, Spain captures Antwerp (after three days the city was nearly destroyed).
- November 8 - Eighty Years' War: Pacification of Ghent - The States-General of the Netherlands meet and unite to oppose Spanish occupation.
- The city Fredrikstad of Norway founded by king Frederick II of Denmark and Norway.
- Beginning of the Seventh War of Religion in France.
- First known Autobiography is written by Thomas Wythorne.
Births
- January 12 - Petrus Scriverius, Dutch writer and scholar (died 1660)
- May 27 - Caspar Schoppe, German controversialist and scholar (died 1649)
- June 6 - Giovanni Diodati, Swiss Protestant divine (died 1649)
- October 7 - John Marston, English writer (died 1634)
- October 12 - Thomas Dudley, Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony (died 1652)
- November 17 - Roque Gonzales, Paraguayan missionary (d. 1628)
- November 27 - Shimazu Tadatsune, Japanese ruler of Satsuma (died 1638)
- William Ames, English protestant philosopher (died 1633)
- Scipione Borghese, Italian art collector (died 1633)
- John Carver, first governor of Plymouth Colony (died 1621)
- Jesper Mattson Cruus af Edeby, Swedish soldier and politician (died 1622)
- Enrico Caterino Davila, Italian historian (died 1631)
- Giulio Cesare la Galla, professor of philosophy at the Collegio Romano in Italy (died 1624)
- Santino Solari, Swiss architect and sculptor (died 1646)
- Thomas Weelkes, English composer and organist (died 1626)
See also :Category: 1576 births.
Deaths
- January 19 - Hans Sachs, German Meistersinger (born 1494)
- February 10 - Guilielmus Xylander, German classical scholar (born 1532)
- May 30 - Harada Naomasa, Japanese samurai
- August 15 - Bálint Bakfark, Hungarian composer and lutenist (born 1507)
- August 27 - Titian, Italian painter
- September 21 - Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler (b. 1502)
- October 12 - Emperor Maximilian II (born 1527)
- Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex (born 1541)
- Aloysius Lilius, Italian physician (born 1510)
- Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (born 1527)
- Anthony More, Dutch portrait painter (born 1512)
- Mizuno Nobumoto, Japanese shogun
- Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens, Spanish governor of the Netherlands
- Josias Simmler, Swiss theologian and classicist (born 1530)
- Johann Stumpf, Swiss historian (born 1500)
- Tahmasp I, Shah of Persia
- Nicola Vicentino, Italian music theorist and composer (born 1511)
See also :Category: 1576 deaths.
Category:1576
ko:1576년
1580
Events
- March 1 - Michel de Montaigne signs the preface to his most significant work, Essays. They are published later the same year.
- June 25 - Publication of the Book of Concord, a collection of Lutheran confessional documents.
- September 26 - Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe
- 1580-1764 First session of Jewish Waad ( | | |
