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1927

1927

1927 (MCMXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January-March

- January 1 - Cristero War erupts in Mexico when pro-Church rebels attack secular-minded government
- January 7 - First transatlantic telephone call - New York City to London
- January 9 - Military rebellion crushed in Lisbon
- January 14 - Paul Doumer elected president of France
- January 19 - Britain sends troops to China
- January 30 - Right-wing veterans and the Republican Schutzbund clash in Schattendorf, Burgenland, Austria. One man and a child are killed by gunshots. See July 15.
- February 12 - First British troops land in Shanghai
- February 14 - Earthquake in Yugoslavia - 700 dead
- February 19 - General strike in Shanghai in protest of the presence of the British troops
- February 23 - The Federal Radio Commission (later renamed the Federal Communications Commission) begins to regulate the use of radio frequencies.
- March 4 - A diamond rush in South Africa includes trained athletes that have been hired by major companies to stake claims
- March 6 - In Britain, a 1000 people a week die from influenza epidemic
- March 10 - Albania mobilizes in case of an attack of Yugoslavia
- March 11 - In New York City, the Roxy Theatre is opened by Samuel Roxy Rothafel.

April-June

- April 1 - First female police officers in Dresden
- April 5 - In Britain, Trade Disputes Act forbids strikes of support
- April 7 - Bell Telephone Co. transmits an image of Commerce Secretary Hoover which becomes the first successful long distance demonstration of television.
- April 12 - The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 renames the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The change acknowledges that the Irish Free State is no longer part of the Kingdom.
- April 12 - Kuomintang troops kill number of communist-supporting workers in Shanghai
- April 18 - Nanking government of China, Kuomintang
- April 21 - Banking crisis in Japan
- April 22 - May 5 - The Great Mississippi Flood affects 700,000 people in the greatest national disaster in US history.
- May - Philo Farnsworth transmits first experimental electronic television pictures
- May 7 - Civil war ends in Nicaragua
- May 9 - The Australian Parliament first convenes in Canberra.
- May 11 - The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the "Academy" in "Academy Awards," is founded.
- May 12 - British police raids the office of Soviet trade delegation
- May 13 - George V proclaims the change of his style from King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to King of Great Britain and Ireland.
- May 14 - Cap Arcona's launching, Blohm & Voss shipyard, in Hamburg.
- May 20 - Saudi Arabia becomes independent of the United Kingdom (Treaty of Jedda).
- May 20-21 first solo non-stop Trans-Atlantic flight from New York to Paris by Charles Lindbergh.
- May 22 - 8.6 richter scale earthquake in Xining, China kills 200,000
- May 23 - The first demonstration of television before a live audience. Nearly 600 members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Institute of Radio Engineers view the demonstration at the Bell Telephone Building in New York.
- May 24 - Britain severs diplomatic relations with Soviet Union because of revelations of espionage and underground agitation
- May 27 - Ford Motor Company ceases manufacturing Ford Model Ts and begins to retool plants to make Ford Model As.
- June 4 - Yugoslavia severs diplomatic relations to Albania
- June 7 - Peter Voikov, Soviet ambassador to Warsaw, assassinated
- June 9 - Soviet Union executes 20 British for alleged espionage
- June 13 - Leon Daudet, leader of French monarchists, is arrested in France
- June 13 - A ticker-tape parade is held for aviator Charles Lindbergh down 5th Avenue in New York City.

July-September

- July 10 - Kevin O'Higgins, vice president of the Irish Free State, assassinated in Dublin
- July 15 - 85 protesters and 5 policemen are dead after left-wing protesters and the Austrian police clash in Vienna. More than 600 people are injured. See Massacre of July 15, 1927.
- July 24 - The Menin Gate war memorial is unveiled at Ypres.
- August 1 - Formation of the People's Liberation Army during the Nanchang Uprising
- August 7 - Peace Bridge opens between Fort Erie, Ontario and Buffalo, New York.
- August 22 - In Hyde Park, London, 200 people demonstrate against the sentence of Sacco and Vanzetti
- August 23 - Sacco and Vanzetti executed.
- August 24-25 - Hurricane hits Atlantic shore of Canada causing massive damage - at least 56 dead
- September 7 - The University of Minas Gerais is founded in Brazil.
- September 14 - underwater earthquake in Japan - over 100 dead

October-December

- October 6 - The Jazz Singer opens and becomes a huge success, marking the end of the silent film era.
- October 7 - Mercedes Gleitze is the first Englishwoman to swim the English Channel
- October 9 - Mexican government crushes a rebellion in Vera Cruz
- October 27 - Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands opens Meuse-Waal Canal in Nijmegen
- October 28 - Pan American Airways first flight took off from Key West to Havana.
- November 10 - Unexplained explosions in Canton, Ohio
- November 12 - Mahatma Gandhi made his first and last visit to Ceylon.
- November 12 - Leon Trotsky is expelled from the Soviet Communist Party, leaving Joseph Stalin with undisputed control of the Soviet Union
- November 12 - The Holland Tunnel opens to traffic as the first Hudson River vehicular tunnel linking New Jersey to New York City.
- November 24 - Total solar eclipse over Northern England and Wales
- December 2 - Following 19 years of Ford Model T production, the Ford Motor Company unveils the Ford Model A as its new automobile.
- December 12 - 1600 people hospitalized in London when they had hurt themselves on the icy streets
- December 30 - Japan's first subway line, the Ginza Line in Tokyo, opens.

Unknown dates

- The British Broadcasting Corporation is granted a Royal Charter of Incorporation.
- The Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System (later known as CBS) is formed.
- Harold Stephen Black invents the feedback amplifier.
- Voluntary Committee of Lawyers founded to bring about repeal of prohibition of alcohol in United States.

Births

January

- January 1 - Vernon L. Smith, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- January 1 - Doak Walker, American Footballer (d.1998)
- January 10 - Gisele MacKenzie, Canadian-born singer (d. 2003)
- January 10 - Johnnie Ray, American singer (d. 1990)
- January 13 - Brock Adams, American politician (d. 2004)
- January 13 - Sydney Brenner, British biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 17 - Eartha Kitt, American actress and singer
- January 26 - José Azcona del Hoyo, President of Honduras (d. 2005)
- January 28 - Hiroshi Teshigahara, Japanese director
- January 29 - Edward Abbey, American environmentalist (d. 1989)
- January 29 - Lewis Urry, Canadian inventor (d. 2004)
- January 30 - Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1986)

February

- February 2 - Stan Getz, American musician (d. 1991)
- February 3 - Val Doonican, Irish singer and entertainer
- February 7 - Juliette Greco, French singer and actor
- February 7 - Vladimir Kuts, Russian runner (d. 1975)
- February 10 - Leontyne Price, American soprano
- February 15 - Harvey Korman, American actor and comedian
- February 16 - June Brown, British actor
- February 16 - Tom Kennedy, American game show host
- February 20 - Roy Cohn, American lawyer and anti-Communist (d. 1986)
- February 20 - Sidney Poitier, American actor
- February 21 - Erma Bombeck, American writer and humorist (d. 1996)
- February 21 - Hubert de Givenchy, French fashion designer
- February 27 - Lynn Cartwright, American actress (d. 2004)

March

- March 1 - Harry Belafonte, American musician and actor
- March 1 - Robert Bork, American law professor
- March 6 - Gordon Cooper, astronaut (d. 2004)
- March 6 - Wes Montgomery, American musician (d. 1968)
- March 11 - Ron Todd, TGWU General Secretary (1985-1992) (d. 2005)
- March 13 - Robert Denning, American interior designer (d. 2005

Common year starting on Saturday

This is the calendar for any common year starting on Saturday (dominical letter B) e.g. 2005. (A common year is a year with 365 days -- in other words, not a leap year.)

Millennium	Century	Year
2nd Millennium:	19th century:	1803	1814	1825	1831	1842	1853	1859	1870	1881	1887	1898
2nd Millennium:	20th century:	1910	1921	1927	1938	1949	1955	1966	1977	1983	1994
3rd Millennium:	21st century:	2005	2011	2022	2033	2039	2050	2061	2067	2078	2089	2095
3rd Millennium:	22nd century:	2101	2107	2118	2129	2135	2146	2157	2163	2174	2185	2191

Other years

Category:Saturday Category:Weeks ko:토요일로 시작하는 평년 th:ปีปกติสุรทินที่วันแรกเป็นวันเสาร์

Cristero War

The struggle between church and state in Mexico broke out in armed conflict during the Cristero War (also known as the Cristiada) of 1926 to 1929. This was a popular uprising against the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. After a period of peaceful resistance, a number of skirmishes took place in 1926. The formal rebellion began on January 1, 1927 with the rebels calling themselves Cristeros because they felt they were fighting for Christ himself. Just as the Cristeros began to hold their own against the federal forces, the rebellion was ended by diplomatic means, in large part due to the efforts of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Whitney Morrow. Dwight Whitney Morrow]

The 1917 Constitution

Five articles of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico were particularly aimed at reducing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexican life. Article 3 demanded secular education in schools. Article 5 outlawed monastic religious orders. Article 24 forbade public worship outside of church buildings, while Article 27 restricted religious organizations' rights to own property. Finally, Article 130 took away basic civil rights of members of the clergy: priests and religious leaders were prevented from wearing their habits, were denied the right to vote, and were not permitted to comment on public affairs in the press. The anticlerical mindset of the government extended also to superficial changes made to place names to "laicize" them. For instance, the state of "Vera Cruz" (literally "True Cross") was renamed Veracruz.

Background to rebellion

When the anti-Catholic measures were enacted in 1917, the President of Mexico was Venustiano Carranza. Carranza was overthrown by the machinations of his one-time ally Álvaro Obregón in 1919, who succeeded to the presidency in late 1920. While sharing the anti-clerical sentiments of Carranza, he applied the measures selectively, only in areas where Catholic sentiment was weakest. This uneasy "truce" between the government and the Church ended with the election of Plutarco Elías Calles in 1924. Calles applied the anti-Catholic laws stringently throughout the country and added his own anti-Catholic legislation. In June 1926, he signed the "Law for Reforming the Penal Code", known unofficially as the "Calles Law". This provided specific penalties for priests and religious who dared to violate the provisions of the 1917 Constitution. For instance, wearing clerical garb earned a fine of 500 pesos (approximately 250 U.S. dollars at the time); a priest who criticized the government could be imprisoned for five years.

Peaceful resistance

In response to these measures, Catholic organizations began to intensify their resistance. The most important of these groups was the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty, founded in 1924. This was joined by the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth (founded 1913) and the Popular Union, a Catholic political party founded in 1925. On July 11, 1926, the Mexican bishops voted to suspend all public worship in Mexico in response to the Calles Law. This suspension was to take place on August 1. On July 14, they endorsed plans for an economic boycott against the government, which was particularly effective in west-central Mexico (the states of Jalisco, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas). Catholics in these areas stopped attending movies and plays and using public transportation and Catholic teachers stopped teaching in secular schools. However, this boycott collapsed by October 1926, in large part due to lack of support among wealthy Catholics, who were themselves losing money due to the boycott. The wealthy were generally disliked because of this, and the reputation was worsened when they paid the federal army for protection and called on the police to break the picket lines. The Catholic bishops meanwhile worked to have the offending articles of the Constitution amended. The Pope explicitly approved this means of resistance. However, the Calles government considered this seditious behavior and had many churches closed. In September the episcopate submitted a proposal for the amendment of the constitution, but this was rejected by Congress on September 22, 1926.

Escalation of violence

In Guadalajara, Jalisco, on August 3, 1926, some 400 armed Catholics shut themselves up in the Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe in that city. They were involved in a shootout with federal troops from there, and surrendered only when they ran out of ammunition. According to U.S. consular sources, this battle resulted in 18 dead and 40 injured. The following day, in Sahuayo, Michoacán, 240 government soldiers stormed the parish church. The parish priest and his vicar were killed in the ensuing violence. On August 14, government agents staged a purge of the Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, chapter of the Association of Catholic Youth and executed their spiritual advisor, Father Luis Bátiz Sainz. From here actions begin to move very rapidly. A band of ranchers under the leadership of Pedro Quintanar, upon hearing that Father Bátiz had been killed, seized the local treasury and declared themselves in rebellion. At the height of their rebellion, they held a region including the entire northern part of Jalisco. Another uprising was led by the mayor of Pénjamo, Guanajuato, Luis Navarro Origel, beginning on September 28. His men were defeated by federal troops in the open land around the town, but retreated into the mountains, where they continued as guerrillas. This was followed by an uprising in Durango led by Trinidad Mora on September 29 and an October 4 rebellion in southern Guanajuato, led by former general Rodolfo Gallegos. Both of these rebel leaders were forced to adopt guerrilla tactics, as they were no match for the federal troops on open ground. Meanwhile, the rebels in Jalisco (particularly the region northeast of Guadalajara) quietly began gathering forces. This region became the main focal point of the rebellion lead by 27-year-old René Capistran Garza, leader of the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth. The rebellion began on January 1, 1927.

The Cristero war

The formal rebellion began with a manifesto sent by Garza on New Year's Day, titled A la Nación (To the Nation). This declared that "the hour of battle has sounded" and "the hour of victory belongs to God". With the declaration, the state of Jalisco, which had seemed to be quiet since the Guadalajara church uprising, exploded. Bands of rebels moving in the "Los Altos" region northeast of Guadalajara began seizing villages, often armed with only ancient muskets and clubs. The Cristeros' battle cry was ¡Viva Cristo Rey! ¡Viva la Virgen de Guadalupe! ("Long live Christ the King! Long live the Virgin of Guadalupe!") The Calles government did not take the threat very seriously at first. The rebels did well against the agraristas (a rural militia recruited throughout Mexico) and the Social Defense forces (local militia), but were always defeated by the federal troops who guarded the important cities. At this time, the federal army numbered 79,759 men. When Jalisco federal commander General Jesús Ferreira moved on the rebels, he calmly stated that "it will be less a campaign than a hunt." However, these rebels, who had had no previous military experience for the most part, planned their battles well. The most successful rebel leaders were Jesús Degollado (a druggist), Victoriano Ramírez (a ranch hand), and two priests, Aristeo Pedroza and José Reyes Vega. In total, five priests took up arms. Recent scholarship suggests that for many Cristeros, religious motivations for rebellion were reinforced by other political and material concerns. Participants in the uprising often came from rural communities that had suffered from the government's land reform policies since 1920, or otherwise felt threatened by recent political and economic changes. Many agraristas and other government supporters were also fervent Catholics. Whether the Cristeros' actions were or were not supported by the episcopate or the Pope has been a subject of controversy. Officially, the Mexican episcopate never supported the rebellion, but by several accounts, the rebels had the episcopate's acknowledgement that their cause was legitimate. The episcopate did not, in any event, condemn the rebels. Bishop José Francisco Orozco y Jiménez of Guadalajara remained with the rebels; while formally rejecting armed rebellion, he was unwilling to leave his flock. Many modern historians consider him to have been the real head of the movement. On February 23, 1927, the Cristeros defeated federal troops for the first time at San Francisco del Rincón, Guanajuato, followed by another victory at San Julián, Jalisco. The rebellion was almost extinguished, however, on April 19, when Father Vega led a raid against a train thought to be carrying a shipment of money. In the shootout, his brother was killed, and Father Vega had the train cars doused in gasoline and set afire, killing 51 civilians. This atrocity turned public opinion against the Cristeros. The government began moving the civilians back into the population centers and prevented them from providing supplies to the rebels. By the summer, the rebellion was almost completely quelled. Garza resigned from his position at the head of the rebellion in July, after a failed attempt to raise funds in the United States of America. The rebellion was given new life by the efforts of Victoriano Ramírez, generally known as "El Catorce" (the fourteen). Legend has it the nickname originated because during jailbreak he killed all fourteen members of the posse sent after him. He then sent a message to the mayor—his uncle—telling him that in the future he had better not send so few men after him. El Catorce was illiterate, but a natural guerrilla leader. He brought the rebellion back to life, enabling the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty to select a general, a mercenary who demanded twice the salary of a federal general. Enrique Gorostieta was so alienated from Catholicism that he made fun of his own troops' religion. Despite his lack of piety, he trained the rebel troops well, producing disciplined units and officers. Gradually, the Cristeros began to gain the upper hand. Both priest-commanders, Father Vega and Father Pedroza, were born soldiers. Father Vega was not a typical priest, and was reputed to drink heavily and routinely ignore his vow of celibacy. Father Pedroza, by contrast, was rigidly moral and faithful to his priestly vows. However, the fact that the two took up arms at all is problematic from the point of view of Catholic sacramental theology. On June 21, 1927, the first brigade of female Cristeros was formed in Zapopan. They named themselves for Saint Joan of Arc. The brigade began with 17 women, but soon grew to 135 members. Its mission was to obtain money, weapons, provisions, and information for the combatant men; they also cared for the wounded. By March 1928, there were some 10,000 women involved. Many smuggled weapons into the combat zones by carrying them in carts filled with grain or cement. By the end of the war, they numbered some 25,000. The Cristeros maintained the upper hand throughout 1928, and in 1929, the federal government faced a new crisis: a revolt within Army ranks, led by Arnulfo R. Gómez in Veracruz. The Cristeros tried to take advantage of this with an attack on Guadalajara in late March. This failed, but the rebels did manage to take Tepatitlán on April 19. Father Vega was killed in that battle. However, the military rebellion was quickly put down, and the Cristeros were soon facing divisions within their own ranks. Mario Valdés, widely believed by historians to have been a federal spy, managed to stir up sentiment against El Catorce leading to his execution before a rigged court-martial. On June 2, Gorostieta was killed when he was ambushed by a federal patrol. However the rebels had some 50,000 men under arms by this point and seemed poised to draw out the rebellion for a long time.

Diplomacy and the uprising

Before and after the successes had by the rebels and the support of Bishop Orozco y Jiménez, the Mexican bishops supported the Cristeros. The bishops were expelled from Mexico after Father Vega's savage attack on the train, but continued to try and influence the war's outcome from outside the country The U.S. ambassador to Mexico, in October 1927, was Dwight Whitney Morrow. He initiated a series of breakfast meetings with Calles where the two would discuss a whole range of problems, from the religious uprising, to oil and irrigation. This earned him the nickname "ham and eggs diplomat" in U.S. papers. Morrow wanted the conflict to come to an end both for humanitarian reasons, and to help find a solution to the oil problem in the U.S. He was aided in his efforts by Father John Burke of the National Catholic Welfare Conference. The Vatican was also actively suing for peace. Calles' term as president was coming to an end and president-elect Álvaro Obregón was scheduled to take office on December 1. However, he was assassinated by a Catholic radical two weeks before he was to take office, gravely damaging the peace process. Congress named Emilio Portes Gil interim president in September, with an election to be held in November 1929. Portes Gil was more open to the Church than Calles had been, allowing Morrow and Burke to reinitiate their peace initiative. Portes Gil told a foreign correspondent on May 1 that "the Catholic clergy, when they wish, may renew the exercise of their rites with only one obligation, that they respect the laws of the land." The next day, exiled Archbishop Leopoldo Ruíz y Flores issued a statement that the hierarchy had elected to suspend worship because it "was not able to accept laws that are enforced in my country." That is, the bishops would not demand the repeal of the laws, only their more lenient application. Morrow managed to bring the parties to agreement on June 21, 1929. The pact he drafted, called the arreglos (arrangements) would allow worship to resume in Mexico and granted three concessions to the Catholics: only priests who were named by hierarchical superiors would be required to register, religious instruction in the churches (but not in the schools) would be permitted, and all citizens, including the clergy, would be allowed to make petitions to reform the laws. But the most important part of it was that the church would recover the right to use its properties, and priests recovered their rights to live on such property. Legally speaking, the church was not allowed to own real estate, and its former facilities remained federal property. However, the church took control over them, and the goverment never again tried to take these properties back. It was a convenient arrangement for both parties and Church support for the rebels ended. The arreglos led to an unusual end to the war. In the last two years, many more anticlerical officers who were hostile to the federal government for other reasons had joined the rebels. When the arreglos were made known, only a minority of the rebels went home, those who felt their battle had been won. As the rebels themselves were not consulted in these talks, most of them felt betrayed and some continued to fight. The church then threathened rebels with excommunication, and gradually the rebellion died out. The officers, fearing that they would be tried as traitors, tried to keep the rebellion alive. This attempt failed and many were captured and shot, while others escaped to San Luis Potosí, where General Saturnino Cedillo gave them refuge. On June 27, the church bells rang in Mexico for the first time in almost three years. The war had claimed the lives of some 90,000: 56,882 on the federal side, 30,000 Cristeros, and numerous civilians and Cristeros who were killed in anticlerical raids after the war's end. As promised by Portes Gil, the Calles Law remained on the books, but no organized federal attempts to enforce it were put into action. Nonetheless, in several localities, persecution of Catholic priests continued based on local officials' interpretations of the law. The anticlerical provisions of the Constitution remain in place as of 2005, though they are no longer enforced.

Cristero War saints

Main Article: Saints of the Cristero War Saints of the Cristero War The Catholic Church has recognized several of those killed in connection with the Cristero rebellion as martyrs. Perhaps the best-known is Blessed Miguel Pro, SJ. This Jesuit priest was executed by firing squad on November 23, 1927, without benefit of a trial, on the grounds that his priestly activities were in defiance of the government. The Calles government hoped to use images of the execution to scare the rebels into surrender, but the photos had the opposite effect. Upon seeing the photos, which the government had printed in all the newspapers, the Cristeros were inspired with a desire to follow Father Pro into martyrdom for Christ. His beatification occurred in 1988. On May 21, 2000, Pope John Paul II canonized a group of 25 martyrs from this period. (They had been beatified on November 22, 1992.) For the most part, these were priests who did not take up arms, but refused to leave their flocks, and were executed by federal forces. To cite just one example (mentioned above in the history), Father Luis Bátiz Sainz was the parish priest in Chalchihuites and a member of the Knights of Columbus. He was known for his devotion to the Eucharist and for his prayer for martyrdom: "Lord, I want to be a martyr; even though I am your unworthy servant, I want to pour out my blood, drop by drop, for your name." In 1926, shortly before the closing of the churches, he was denounced as a conspirator against the government because of his connections with the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty, which was preparing an armed uprising. A squad of soldiers raided the private house he was staying in on August 14, taking him captive. He was executed without trial together with three youths of the Mexican Association of Catholic Youths. Thirteen additional victims of the anti-Catholic regime have been declared martyrs by the Catholic Church, paving the way to their beatification. These are primarily lay people, including the 14-year-old José Sánchez del Río. The requirement that they did not take up arms, which was applied to the priest martyrs, does not apply to the lay people, though it had to be shown that they were taking up arms in self-defense. On November 20th, 2005 on Jalisco Stadium in Guadalajara, Mexico, those martyrs had been beatificated by the Cardinal Jose Saraiva Martins.

References and external links

- [http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/history/jtuck/jtcristero1.html The Cristero Rebellion, by Jim Tuck]
- [http://www.beliefnet.com/story/25/story_2585_1.html AP article on the 2000 canonizations]
- [http://puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/pro/pro_bio.html Biography of Miguel Pro]
- [http://www.cegs.itesm.mx/hdem/reconstruccion/g_cristera.htm Spanish article on the war]
- [http://www.aciprensa.com/testigosdefe/cristera.htm Spanish biographies of the saints canonized in 2000]
- Meyer, Jean. The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State, 1926-1929. Cambridge, 1976.
- Tuck, Jim. The Holy War in Los Altos: A Regional Analysis of Mexico's Cristero Rebellion. University of Arizona Press, 1982. ISBN 0816507791
- Groppe, Lothar. P. Michael Pro SJ: Ein mexikanischer Schlingel wird Priester und Martyrer. Freundeskreis Maria Goretti, e.V., Munich, 1988.
- Purnell, Jenny. Popular Movements and State Formation in Revolutionary Mexico: The Agraristas and Cristeros of Michoacan. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999. Category:Modern Mexico Category:Roman Catholic Church history Category:Catholicism in Mexico

Catholic Church

Catholic (literally meaning: according to (kata-) the whole (holos) or more generally "universal" in Greek) is a Christian religious term with a number of meanings:
- The term can refer to the notion that all Christians are part of one Church, regardless of denominational divisions. This "universal" interpretation is often used to understand the phrase "one holy catholic and apostolic Church" in the Nicene Creed, the phrase "the catholic faith" in the Athanasian Creed, and the phrase "holy catholic church" in the Apostles' Creed.
- It can refer to the members, beliefs, and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Though many identify Roman Catholicism exclusively with the Latin Rite, its variety is seen in its more than twenty particular Churches or Rites, all in full communion with the Pope, and also in its liturgical rites, of which the Roman Rite is only one.
- It can be used to refer to those Christian Churches which maintain that their Episcopate can be traced directly back to the Apostles, and that they are therefore part of a broad catholic (or universal) body of believers. Among those who regard themselves as Catholic but not Roman Catholic are members of the various Eastern Orthodox Churches (such as the Greek Orthodox and Russian Orthodox), the Oriental Orthodox, Anglo-Catholics (also known as High Anglicans), the Old, Ancient and Liberal Catholic Churches, and the Lutherans (though the latter prefer the lower-case "c"). The various Churches that regard themselves as part of a broad Catholic Church are distinguished by their use of the Nicene Creed, in which believers acknowledge the "one holy catholic and apostolic Church." The Nicene Creed is of course also used by the Roman Catholic Church.
- It can mean the one Church founded by Christ through Peter the Apostle, according to Matthew 16:18-19: "And I tell you, you are Cephas (which means rock), and on this rock I will build my Church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.’" Early Christians, such as Saint Ignatius of Antioch (who was martyred in about 110, used the term to describe the whole Church - the word's literal meaning is universal or whole - as opposed to the local Church, and excluding adherents of sects or heretical groups. Methodists and Presbyterians believe their denominations owe their origins to the Apostles and the early Church, but do not claim descent from ancient Church structures such as the episcopate. Neither of these Churches, however, denies that they are a part of the catholic (meaning universal) Church.

Present-day usage

While the term is usually associated with the Roman Catholic Church, whose over one billion adherents are about half of the estimated 2.1 billion Christians, other Christian denominations also lay claim to the term "catholic", including the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Protestant Churches possessing an episcopate (bishops). In countries that have been traditionally Protestant, Catholic will often be included in the official name of a particular parish church, school, hospice or other institution belonging to the Roman Catholic Church, to distinguish it from those of other denominations. For example, the name "St. Mark's Catholic Church" makes it clear that it is not an Episcopal or Lutheran church. This usage of the term "Catholic" has a long history. A millennium before the Protestant Reformation, Saint Augustine wrote: :"In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. :"And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house. :"Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church." : — St. Augustine (AD 354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=] Earlier still, St Cyril of Jerusalem (circa 315-386) urged those he was instructing in the Christian faith: "If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God" (Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310118.htm] Those who apply the term "Catholic Church" to all Christians indiscriminately find it objectionable that a term that they see as designating the whole Church as an invisible entity should be used to refer to one communion only. However, the Roman Catholic Church, which normally refers to itself simply as the Catholic Church, publishing in 1992 a "Catechism of the Catholic Church", can basically be traced historically to the original Catholic or universal Church, from which various groups broke away over the centuries. It holds that there can be no such thing as the Church as an "invisible entity" only. Since the Reformation in the sixteenth century, Protestants (those who protest) have sought to restore a more primitive expression of the Church, with goals and beliefs that they believe to be more consonant with the early Church, based primarily on Scriptural texts. However, there was a more than a millennium between the "early Church" and the "Reformation", during which both Scripture and Christian teaching were maintained. As well as the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Oriental Orthodox Churches all see themselves as the "one holy catholic and apostolic Church" of the Nicene Creed. Others too who do not recognize the primacy of the Bishop of Rome and rank him only as an equal among Patriarchs, such as the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch, use the term Catholic to distinguish their own position from a Calvinist or Puritan form of Protestantism. They include "High Church" Anglicans, known also as "Anglo-Catholics". Although the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Churches in general do not view the Anglican Churches as truly "Catholic", Anglicans themselves claim to have all the qualifications needed to be Catholic.

Catholic Epistles

"Catholic Epistles" is another term for the General Epistles of the Christian New Testament in the Bible, which were addressed not to a particular city but to all in general. It is thus, strictly speaking, not an ecclesiastical term, being employed in the original broad sense of the Greek word from which "catholic" is derived. The epistles in question are [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#james James]; [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#1peter First] and [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#2peter Second Peter]; [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm#1john First], [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/2john/2john.htm Second], and [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/3john/3john.htm Third John]and [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/jude/jude.htm Jude].

Capitalization

Capitalization is no sure guide to denominational affiliation. It may indicate formal affiliation with the Roman Catholic Church or it may not. Capitalization may merely indicate a wish to stress the holy and solemn nature of the spiritual body of believers and a desire for all Christians to be one. It would be anachronistic to attribute significance to capitalization or lack of capitalization in printings of texts dating from before the last few centuries or in translations of those texts, since the originals were written in unmixed majuscule or minuscule letters. Translations even of modern texts into English often follow the usage of the original language. For instance, since French normally capitalizes only the first word of the title of an entity, the adjective "catholique", following the noun "Église", has a lower-case initial. Texts in Latin generally follow this usage, not the English practice.

Avoidance of usage

Some Protestant Christian Churches avoid using the term completely. The Orthodox Churches share some of the concerns about Roman Catholic claims, but disagree with Protestants about the nature of the Church as one body. For some, to use the word "Catholic" at all is to appear to give credence to papal claims.

External links

- [http://www.vatican.va The Holy See] the official Vatican web site
- [http://www.catholicfiles.com/ Catholic Files] free Catholic downloads
- [http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers] Catholics Answers
- [http://www.thecatholicguide.com TheCatholic Guide] The Catholic Guide
- [http://www.catholicity.com CatholiCity] free catholic CDs and books
- [http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America]
- [http://www.catholicexchange.com/ Catholic Exchange] non-profit charity
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/ Summa Theologica]
- [http://www.fisheaters.com Fish Eaters: The Whys and Hows of Traditional Catholicism]
- [http://www.malach.org Polish Catholic service Malach - service of Głogów city]
- [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/ Scripture Catholic; Defending Roman Catholicism with its Sacred Scriptures]
- [http://www.mycatholic.com myCatholic.com] — A customizable Catholic web portal.
- [http://www.americancatholic.org/UpdateYourFaith/default.asp Catholic Church FAQs from American Catholic]
- [http://www.stblogsparish.com/bloglist.html Catholic Blogs & Resources] Category:Roman Catholic Church Category:Christianity Category:Anglicanism ko:카톨릭 ja:カトリック教会

Telephone

The telephone or phone (Greek: tele = far away and phone = voice) is a telecommunications device which is used to transmit and receive sound (most commonly voice and speech) across distance. Most telephones operate through transmission of electric signals over a complex telephone network which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other. telephone network

Introduction

telephone network]] There are four principal means by which an end user using a telephone handset may connect to a telephone network: a traditional fixed phone "landline", which uses dedicated physical wire connections connected to a single location; wireless and radio telephones, which use either analog or digital radio signals; satellite telephones, which utilize telecommunications satellites; and voice over internet protocol (VoIP) telephones, which use broadband internet connections. Between end users, transmissions across a network may be carried by fiber optic cable, point to point microwave or satellite relay. Until relatively recently, a "telephone" generally referred only to landlines. Cordless and mobile phones are now common in many places around the world, with mobile phones expected to gradually displace the conventional landline telephone. Unlike a mobile phone, a cordless telephone is considered to be landline because it is only useable within a short distance of a small personal or domestic base station connected to a fixed phone line. The identity of the inventor of the electric telephone remains in dispute. Antonio Meucci, Philip Reis, and Alexander Graham Bell, amongst others, have all been credited with the invention.

History

invention] The very early history of the telephone is a confusing morass of claim and counterclaim, which was not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits which hoped to resolve the patent claims of individuals. There was a lot of money involved, particularly in the Bell Telephone companies, and the aggressive defense of the Bell patents resulted in much confusion. Additionally, the earliest investigators preferred publication in the popular press and demonstration to investors instead of scientific publication and demonstration to fellow scientists. It is important to note that there is probably no single "inventor of the telephone". The modern telephone is the result of work done by many hands, all worthy of recognition of their addition to the field.

Early development

The following is a brief summary of the history of the invention of the telephone:
- 1849 Antonio Meucci, an Italian living in Havana, demonstrates a device later called a telephone. (The demonstration involves direct electrical connections to people. See Physiophony)
- 1854 Charles Bourseul publishes a description of a make-break telephone transmitter and receiver but does not construct a working instrument.
- 1854 Meucci demonstrates an electric telephone in New York. [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html]
- 1860 Johann Philipp Reis demonstrates a make-break transmitter after the design of Bourseul.
- 1860 Meucci supposedly demonstrates his telephone on Staten Island.
- 1861 Reis manages to transfer voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet, see Reis' telephone.
- 1871 Meucci files a patent caveat (a statement of intention to patent).
- 1872 Elisha Gray founds Western Electric Manufacturing Company.
- July 1873 Thomas Alva Edison notes variable resistance in carbon grains due to pressure, but shelves the discovery.
- 1874 Gray demonstrates his liquid transmitter telephone at the Highland Park Presbyterian Church.
- 2 June 1875 Alexander Graham Bell first transmits voice.
- 1 July 1875 Bell first uses a bi-directional capable telephone (Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane instruments.)
- 14 February 1876 Bell files his first patent on the telephone.
- Two hours later Gray files his patent caveat.
- 30 January 1877 Bell patents the electro-dynamic transmitter, receiver telephone telephone

Later history

1877 The history of additional inventions and improvements of the electrical telephone includes the carbon microphone (later replaced by the electret microphone now used in almost all telephone transmitters), the manual switchboard, the rotary dial, the automatic telephone exchange, the computerized telephone switch, Touch Tone® dialing (DTMF), and the digitization of sound using different coding techniques including pulse code modulation or PCM (which is also used for .WAV files and compact discs). Newer systems include IP telephony, ISDN, DSL, mobile cellular phone systems, cordless telephones, and the third generation cell phone systems that promise to include high-speed packet data transfer. The industry has divided into telephone equipment manufacturers and telephone network operators (telcos). Operating companies often hold a national monopoly. In the United States, the Bell System was vertically integrated. It fully or partially owned the telephone companies that provided service to about 80% of the telephones in the country and also owned Western Electric, which manufactured or purchased virtually all the equipment and supplies used by the local telephone companies. The Bell System divested itself of the local telephone companies in 1984 in order to settle an antitrust suit brought against it by the United States Department of Justice. In 1926 Bell Labs and the British Post Office engineered the first two-way conversation across the Atlantic. The first commercial transatlantic telephone call was between New York City and London and occurred on January 7, 1927.

Digital Telephony

The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) has gradually evolved towards digital telephony which has improved the capacity and quality of the network. End-to-end analog telephone networks were first modified in the 1970s by upgrading long-haul transmission networks with SONET technology and fiber optic transmission methods. Digital transmission made it possible to carry multiple digitized switched circuits on a single transmission medium (known as multiplexing). While today the end instrument remains analog, the analog signals reaching the aggregation point (Serving Area Interface (SAI) or the central office (CO) ) are typically converted to digital signals. Digital loop carriers (DLC) are often used, placing the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog local loop to legacy status.

Wireless phone systems

While the term "wireless" means radio and can refer to any telephone that uses radio waves it is primarily used for cell phones. In the United States wireless companies tend to use the term wireless to refer to a wide range of services while the cell phone itself is called a mobile phone, mobile, cell phone or simply cell with the trend now moving towards mobile. The changes in terminology is partially due to providers using different terms in marketing to differentiate newer digital services from older analog systems and services of one company from another.

Cordless telephone

marketing Cordless telephones, first invented by Teri Pall in 1965, consist of a base unit that connects to the land-line system and also communicates with remote handsets by low power radio. This permits use of the handset from any location within range of the base. Because of the power required to transmit to the handset, the base station is powered with an electronic power supply. Thus, cordless phones typically do not function during power outages. Initially, cordless phones used the 1.7 MHz frequency range to communicate between base and handset. Because of quality and range problems, these units were soon superseded by systems that used frequency modulation (FM) at higher frequency ranges (49 MHz, 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz). The 2.4 GHz cordless phones can interfere with certain wireless LAN protocols (802.11b/g) due to the usage of the same frequencies. On the 2.4 GHz band, several "channels" are utilized in an attempt to guard against degradation in the quality of the voice signal due to crowding. The range of modern cordless phones is normally on the order of a few hundred meters.

Cellular phone

Modern mobile phone systems are cell-structured. Radio is used to communicate between a handset and nearby cell sites. When a handset gets too far from a cell site, a computer system commands the handset and a closer cell site to take up the communications on a different channel without interrupting the call. Radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. The higher frequencies used by cell phones have advantages over short distances. Connection distance is somewhat predictable and can be controlled by adjusting the power level. By only using enough power to connect to the "nearest" cell site phones using one cell site will cause almost no interference with phones using the same frequencies on another cell site. The higher frequencies also work well with various forms of multiplexing which allows more than one phone to connect to the same tower with the same set of frequencies.

Cordless/mobile phone

There are phones that work as a cordless phone when near their corresponding base station (and sometimes other base stations) and work as a wireless phone when in other locations but for a variety of reasons did not become popular. Some kinds of cordless phones work like cellular phones but only within a small private network covering a building or group of buildings. These kinds of systems using VoIP are popular in hospitals and factories where the same wireless network can be used for both data and voice.

VoIP Telephony

VoIP phone]] Also known as Internet telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP), digital telephony is a disruptive technology that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone networks. In Japan and Korea up to 10% of subscribers, as of January 2005, have switched from analog to digital telephone service. A recent Newsweek article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing." [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6831938/site/newsweek/] Digital telephones use a broadband Internet connection to transmit conversations as data packets. In addition to replacing the PSTN, digital telephony is also competing with mobile phone networks by offering free or lower cost connections via WiFi hotspots. As mentioned above VoIP is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network.

Telephone equipment research labs

Bell Labs is a noted telephone equipment research laboratory, amongst its other research fields.

Telephone operating companies

In some countries, many telephone operating companies (commonly abbreviated to telco) are in competition to provide telephone services. Some of them include those in the following list. However, the list only includes providers of copper wires from the exchange to the user, not those who only supply "Voice over IP" or only transport voice signals between exchanges. See also: List of telephone operating companies

Trivia

- The modern handset came into existence when a Swedish lineman tied a microphone and earphone to a stick so he could keep a hand free.
- The folding portable phone was an intentional copy of the fictional futuristic communicators (which in use actually more closely resembled walkie-talkies, Nextel-style) used in the television show Star Trek.

Patents

- [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=174465.WKU.&OS=PN/174465&RS=PN/174465 US1744

1927

Events

January-March

April-June

July-September

October-December

Unknown dates

Births

January

February

March

Common year starting on Saturday

Other years

Cristero War

The 1917 Constitution

Background to rebellion

Peaceful resistance

Escalation of violence

The Cristero war

Diplomacy and the uprising

Cristero War saints

See also

References and external links

Catholic Church

Present-day usage

Catholic Epistles

Capitalization

Avoidance of usage

See also

External links

Telephone

Introduction

History

Early development

Later history

Digital Telephony

Wireless phone systems

Cordless telephone

Cellular phone

Cordless/mobile phone

VoIP Telephony

Telephone equipment research labs

Telephone operating companies

Trivia

See also

Telephone equipment

Telephone equipment manufacturers

Telephone technology

Telephone system, organization, and structure

Telephone hacking and exploitation

US-specific terminology

Telephone terminology

Telephone Standards

Wired Standards

Wireless Standards

Patents