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1960
1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar).
Events
January-February
- January - State of emergency is lifted in Kenya - Mau Mau Rebellion is officially over
- January 1 - Independence of Cameroon
- January 9-11 - Aswan High Dam construction begins in Egypt
- January 14 - Reserve bank and Commonwealth Bank are created
- January 21 - Mine collapses at Coalbrook, South Africa - 437 dead
- January 22 - In France, president Charles de Gaulle fires Jacques Massun, commander-in-chief for the French troops in Algeria
- January 22-23 - Jacques Piccard and Donald Walsh descend into the Marianas Trench in the bathyscape Trieste, reaching the depth of 10.916 meters
- January 23 - Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh in the bathyscaphe USS Trieste break a depth record when they descend to the bottom of Challenger Deep 35,820 feet (10,750 meters) below sea level in the Pacific Ocean
- January 24 - A major insurrection in Algiers against French colonial policy
- January 25 - The National Association of Broadcasters reacts to the Payola scandal by threatening fines for any disc jockeys who accepted money for playing particular records
- February 1 - In Greensboro, N.C., four black students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College begin a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter. Although they are refused service, they are allowed to stay at the counter. The event triggers many similar nonviolent protests throughout the South, and six months later the original four protesters are served lunch at the same counter.
- February 5 - Particle accelerator of CERN inaugurated in Geneve, Switzerland
- February 8-February 9 - Adolph Coors II killed during an attempt to kidnap him in Colorado. Joseph Corbett Jr is arrested next October
- February 9 - Joanne Woodward receives the first star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
- February 9 - Adolph Coors III, chairman of the board of the Coors Brewing Company, is kidnapped and captors demand $500,000. Coors is later found dead and Joseph Corbett Jr is indicted.
- February 10 - In Brussels, conference about Congo independence begins
- February 11 - 12 Indian soldiers die in clashes with Chinese troops at the border
- February 11 - The airship ZPG-3W is destroyed in a storm in Massachusetts
- February 13 - Nuclear testing: France tests its first atomic bomb in Sahara
- February 18 - 1960 Winter Olympics open in Squaw Valley, California.
- February 29-March 1 night - Earthquake totally destroys Agadir, Morocco.
March-April
Morocco
- March 6 - Vietnam War: The United States announces that 3,500 American soldiers are going to be sent to Vietnam
- March 6 - Canton of Geneve in Switzerland gives women the right to vote
- March 21 - Apartheid: Massacre in Sharpeville, South Africa: Afrikaner police open fire on a group of unarmed black South African demonstrators, killing 69 and wounding 180.
- March 22 - Arthur Leonard Schawlow & Charles Hard Townes receive the first patent for a laser.
- April 1 - Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni Almarhum Tuanku Muhammad, 1st Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia dies in office. He is replaced by Hisamuddin Alam Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah, Sultan of Selangor.
- April 1 - The United States launches the first weather satellite, TIROS-1
- April 4 - First three female priests ordained in Sweden
- April 9 - Gunman attacks South African Prime Minister Verwoerd in Johannesburg and wounds him seriously
- April 12 - Eric Peugeot, youngest son of founder of Peugeot is kidnapped in Paris. Kidnappers release him April 15 in exchange for $300,000 ransom
- April 13 - USA launches navigation satellite Transat I-b
- April 21 - In Brazil, The Country's capital (Federal District) is shifted from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília. The Estado da Guanabara (State of Guanabara) is founded to succeed Rio de Janeiro as the Brazilian Federal District.
- April 27 - Togo gains independence from French-administered UN trusteeship
May
- May 1 - Soviet missile shoots down the US U2 spy plane; the pilot Gary Powers is captured
- May 4 - West German refugee minister Theodor Oberländer is fired because of his nazi past
- May 9 - Reproductive rights: The Food and Drug Administration approves sale of the birth control pill
- May 10 - The nuclear submarine USS Nautilus completes the first under water circumnavigation of the Earth
- May 11 - In Buenos Aires four Mossad agents abduct fugitive Nazi Adolf Eichmann who was using the assumed name "Ricardo Klement"
- May 13 - First ascent of Dhaulagiri, world's 7th highest mountain
- May 14 - Kenyan African National Congress party is founded in Kenya when three political parties join forces
- May 15 - Sputnik 4 is launched into Earth orbit
- May 16 - Nikita Khrushchev demands an apology from US President Dwight D. Eisenhower for U-2 spy plane flights over the Soviet Union thus ending a Big Four summit in Paris
- May 16 - Theodore Maiman operates the first laser.
- May 20 - In Japan, police carries away socialist members of the diet. Parliament then approves a security treaty with the USA
- May 22 - Great Chilean Earthquake: Chile's subduction fault ruptures from Talcahuano to Península de Taitao, loosing a tsunami and one of the greatest earthquakes on record
- May 23 - Prime Minister of Israel David Ben-Gurion announces that Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann has been captured
- May 27 - In Turkey, a bloodless military coup d'état removes President Celal Bayar and the government and invites General Cemal Gürsel as the head of state.
June-July
- June 4 - Lake Bodom murders in Finland.
- June 9 - Typhoon Mary kills 1600 in Fukien province of China
- June 15 - Violent demonstrations in Tokyo University - police arrests 182, 589 are injured
- June 15 - BC Ferries, the second largest ferry operator in the world starts service between Tsawwassen and Swartz Bay.
- June 20 - Independence of Mali and Senegal
- June 22 - Erin Brockovich is born.
- June 23 - Japanese prime minister Kishi announces his resignation
- June 24 - Joseph Kasavubu elected the first president of independent Congo
- June 24 - Avro 748 first flight at Woodford, UK
- June 26 - British Somaliland gains independence from UK - 5 days later it united with the former Italian Somaliland to create modern Somali Republic
- June 30 - Belgian Congo gains independence from Belgium - civil war follows
- June 30 - The Mali Federation between Senegal and Sudanese Republic (modern-day Mali) gains independence from France
- July 1 - A Soviet MiG fighter north of Murmansk in the Barents Sea shot down a six-man RB-47. Two United States Air Force officers survived and were imprisoned in Moscow's dreaded Lubyanka prison. (see RB-47H shot down)
- July 4 - Following the admission of Hawaii as the 50th U.S. state the previous year, the 50-star flag of the United States debuts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- July 10 - The Soviet Union beat Yugoslavia 2-1 to win the first European Football Championship
- July 11 - Moise Tshombe declares the Congolese province of Katanga independent; he receives Belgian help
- July 12 - Orlyonok, the main Young Pioneer camp of the Russian SFSR, is founded
- July 14 - United Nations decides to send troops to Katanga to oversee Belgian troops withdrawal
- July 20 - Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) elects Sirimavo Bandaranaike Prime Minister, the world's first female head of government.
- July 21 - Francis Chichester, English navigator and yachtsman, arrives in New York aboard Gypsy Moth II - he has made a record solo Atlantic crossing in 40 days
- July 27 - OECD founded
August
- August - Stanley Clifford Weyman, US impostor, is killed when he tries to prevent a robbery
- August 5 - Burkina Faso declares independence from France
- August 6 - Cuban Revolution: In response to a United States embargo, Cuba nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation.
- August 6 - In Congo, Albert Kalonji declares independence of Autonomous State of South Kasai
- August 7 - Côte d'Ivoire becomes independent.
- August 11 - Chad becomes independent.
- August 16 - Joseph Kittinger parachutes from a balloon over New Mexico at 102,800 feet (31,333 m). He sets unbeaten (as of 2005) world records for: high-altitude jump; free-fall by falling 16 miles (25.7 km) before opening his parachute; and fastest speed by a human without motorized assistance, 982 km/h (614 mi/h).
- August 16 - Cyprus gains its independence from the United Kingdom
- August 17 - Gabon gains independence from France
- August 17 - Trial of U-2 pilot Gary Powers begins in Moscow
- August 18 - Enovid, the first commercially produced oral contraceptive, is launched in Skokie, Illinois
- August 19 - Cold War: In Moscow, downed American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the Soviet Union for espionage
- August 19 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 5 with the dogs Belka and Strelka (Russian for "Squirrel" and "Little Arrow"), 40 mice, 2 rats and a variety of plants. The spacecraft return to earth the next day and all animals are recovered safely.
- August 20 - Senegal breaks from the Mali federation, declaring independence.
- August 25 - 1960 Summer Olympics open in Rome. USS Seadragon (SSN-584) surfaces at the north pole where the crew plays softball.
- August 29 - September 13 - Hurricane Donna kills 50 in Florida-New England area
September-October
- September 1 - Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah, Sultan of Selangor and 2nd Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, dies in office. He is replaced by Tuanku Syed Putra, Raja of Perlis.
- September 1 - Disgruntled railroad workers effectively halt operations of the Pennsylvania Railroad, marking the first shutdown in the history of the company (event lasted 2 days)
- September 5 - Cassius Clay wins the gold medal in boxing at the Rome Olympic Games.
- September 5 - Congo president Joseph Kasavubu fires Patrice Lumumba's government and places him under house arrest
- September 8 - In Huntsville, Alabama, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower formally dedicates the Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA had already activated the facility on July 1)
- September 14 - Colonel Joseph Mobutu takes power in Congo in a military coup
- September 14 - Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela form OPEC
- September 26 - The two leading US presidential candidates, Richard M. Nixon and John F. Kennedy, participate in the first televised presidential debate.
- October 1 - Nigeria gains independence - Nnamdi Azikiwe is the first native Governor General
- October 3 - Jânio Quadros, elected president of Brazil, for a five-year term.
- October 5 - White South Africans vote to make country a republic.
- October 7 - Second notable flood in Horncastle
- October 12 - Cold War: Nikita Khrushchev pounds his shoe on a table at a General Assembly of the United Nations meeting to protest discussion of Soviet Union policy toward Eastern Europe.
- October 12 - Otoya Yamaguchi asassinates Inejiro Asanuma, chairman of Japanese Socialist Party
- October 14 - US presidential candidate John F. Kennedy first suggests the idea for the Peace Corps
- October 24 - Rocket explodes in Baikonur space center during fueling - 91 dead
- October 29 - In Louisville, Kentucky, Cassius Clay (who later took the name Muhammad Ali) wins his first professional fight
November
Muhammad Ali
- November 1 - While campaigning for President of the United States, John F. Kennedy announces his idea of the Peace Corps.
- November 2 - Penguin Books is found not guilty of obscenity in the Lady Chatterley's Lover case.
- November 8 - U.S. presidential election, 1960: In a close race, John F. Kennedy is elected over Richard M. Nixon, becoming the youngest man elected to that office.
- November 13 - Sammy Davis, Jr. marries Swedish actress May Britt. Interracial marriage is still illegal in 31 US states out of 50.
- November 15 - The Polaris missile is test launched
- November 22 - United Nations supports government of Joseph Kasa Vubu and Joseph Mobutu in Congo
- November 28 - Mauritania becomes independent of France
- November 30 - Production of the De Soto automobile brand ceases
December
- December 1 - Patrice Lumumba, the deposed premier of the Congo was arrested by troops of Col. Joseph Mobutu.
- December 1 - A 5-ton Soviet space ship containing animals, insects and plants was launched into orbit. The spacecraft burned up upon re-entry.
- December 2 - The Archbishop of Canterbury, the Most Rev. Geoffrey Francis Fisher, talked with Pope John XXIII for about an hour in the Vatican. It was the first time in more than 500 years that a head of the Anglican church had visited the Pope.
- December 2 - U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorizes the use of $1M for the relief and resettlement of Cuban refugees in Florida. Cuban refugees have been arriving in Florida at the rate of 1,000 a week.
- December 2 - Congolese soldiers arrest Patrice Lumumba.
- December 4 - Admission to the United Nations of Mauritania was vetoed by the USSR.
- December 5 - Pierre Lagaillarde, who led 1958 and 1960 insurrections in Algeria, failed to appear in a Paris court. He was reported to have fled with 4 fellow defendants to Spain en route to Algeria.
- December 7 - The United Nations Security Council was called into session by the USSR to consider the Soviet demands that the U.N. seek the immediate release of former Congolese Premier Patrice Lumumba.
- December 9 - French President Charles de Gaulle's visit to Algeria was marked by bloody riots by European and Muslim mobs in Algeria's largest cities, killing 127 people.
- December 12 - A Federal Court ruling that Louisiana's anti-integration laws were unconstitutional was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court.
- December 13 - While the Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia was on a visit to Brazil, an unsuccessful revolt against his rule is carried out by his Imperial Guard. The rebels proclaim the emperor's son, Crown Prince Asfa Wossen.
- December 13 - Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras found the Central American Common Market.
- December 14 - Antione Gizenga proclaims in Stanleyville in the Congo that he has assumed the premiership.
- December 14 - OECD formed in Paris.
- December 15 - King Mahendra of Nepal deposes the government and takes power into his own hands.
- December 15 - Royal wedding in Belgium: King Baudouin of Belgium marries Doña Fabiola de Mora y Aragon.
- December 16 - U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter announced that the United States would commit five atomic submarines and 80 Polaris missiles to NATO by the end of 1963.
- December 16 - The midair collision between a United Airlines DC-8 and a TWA Super-Constellation over New York City kills all 128 on both planes and 6 persons on the ground.
- December 17 - Troops loyal to Haile Selassie I in Ethiopia suppress the revolt that started on December 13 and give power back to their leader upon his return from Brazil. Haile Selassie absolves his son of any guilt.
- December 19 - Fire sweeps through the USS Constellation, the U.S.'s largest aircraft carrier, while it is under construction at a Brooklyn Navy Yard pier, injuring 150 and killing 50.
- December 20 - Discoverer XIX is launched into polar orbit from Vandenberg Air Force Base, to measure radiation.
- December 27 - France sets off its third nuclear test blast at its atomic proving grounds at Reggane, Algeria.
Births
January-February
- January 2 - Christian Bartolf, German political scientist and writer
- January 4 - Michael Stipe, American singer (R.E.M.)
- January 6 - Nigella Lawson, British chef and writer
- January 6 - Howie Long, American football player
- January 12 - Oliver Platt, Canadian actor
- January 13 - Kevin Anderson, American actor
- January 22 - Michael Hutchence, Australian musician (INXS) (d. 1997)
- January 28 - Robert von Dassanowsky, American cultural historian, writer, and producer
- January 29 - Greg Louganis, American diver
- January 29 - Gia Carangi, American model (d. 1986)
- January 29 - Sean Kerly, British field hockey player
- February 4 - Adrienne King, American actress
- February 7 - James Spader, American actor
- February 10 - Robert Addie, British actor (d. 2003)
- February 11 - Richard Mastracchio, astronaut
- February 13 - Pierluigi Collina, Italian football referee
- February 14 - Jim Kelly, American football player
- February 19 - Prince Andrew, Duke of York
- February 25 - Stefan Blöcher, German field hockey player
- February 27 - Kara Kennedy, daughter of Edward Kennedy and Virginia Joan Bennett
- February 29 - Tony Robbins, American motivational speaker and writer
March-May
- March 4 - Mykelti Williamson, American actor
- March 7 - Joe Carter, baseball player
- March 7 - Ivan Lendl, Czech tennis player
- March 13 - Adam Clayton, Irish bassist (U2)
- March 18 - Richard Biggs, American actor (d. 2004)
- March 21 - Ayrton Senna, Brazilian race car driver (d. 1994)
- March 23 - Nicol Stephen, Deputy First Minister of Scotland
- March 24 - Nena Kerner, German singer
- March 26 - Marcus Allen, American football player
- March 29 - Marina Sirtis, British actress
- April 2 - Linford Christie, British athlete
- April 3 - Elizabeth Gracen, American beauty queen, actress, and model
- April 4 - Jane Eaglin, English soprano
- April 4 - Hugo Weaving, Australian actor
- April 11 - Jeremy Clarkson, English television show host
- April 14 - Brad Garrett, American actor
- April 18 - Neo Rauch, German painter
- April 19 - Frank Viola, baseball player
- April 26 - Roger Taylor, English musician (Duran Duran)
- April 28 - John Cerutti, baseball player and announcer (d. 2004)
- May 6 - John Flansburgh, American musician (They Might Be Giants)
- May 10 - Bono, Irish singer U2
- May 18 - Jari Kurri, Finnish hockey player
- May 18 - Yannick Noah, French tennis player
- May 20 - John Billingsley, American actor
- May 21 - Jeffrey Dahmer, American serial killer and murder victim (d. 1994)
June-December
- June 6 - Gary Graham, American actor
- June 6 - Steve Vai, American guitarist
- June 8 - Mick Hucknall English singer and songwriter (Simply Red)
- June 17 - Michael Monroe, Finnish singer (Hanoi Rocks)
- June 20 - John Taylor, English musician (Duran Duran)
- June 28 - John Elway, American football player
- June 29 - Paul Degner, Canadian Tax Reformer
- July 3 - Vince Clarke, English songwriter (Depeche Mode, Yazoo, and Erasure)
- July 5 - Pruitt Taylor Vince, American actor
- July 17 - Jan Wouters, Dutch football player and manager
- July 18 - Anne-Marie Johnson, American actress
- July 21 - Ezequiel Viñao, Argentine-born composer
- August 4 - José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Prime Minister of Spain
- August 7 - David Duchovny, American actor
- August 10 - Antonio Banderas, Spanish actor
- August 14-Sarah Brightman, English soprano singer and actress
- August 17 - Sean Penn, American actor
- August 19 - Morten Andersen, American football player
- August 24 - Cal Ripken, Jr., baseball player
- August 26 - Branford Marsalis, American musician
- September 4 - William Kennedy Smith son of Jean Kennedy Smith and nephew of John F Kennedy and Robert F Kennedy and Edward M Kennedy
- September 6 - Bob Stoops, American football coach
- September 6 - Michael Winslow, American actor and comedian
- September 9 - Hugh Grant, English actor
- September 10 - Colin Firth, English actor
- September 16 - John Franco, baseball player
- September 17 - Damon Hill, English race car driver
- October 5 - Daniel Baldwin, American actor
- October 7 - Kyosuke Himuro, Japanese singer
- October 24 - Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and comedian (d. 1999)
- October 30 - Diego Maradona, Argentine footballer
- November 3 - Karch Kiraly, American volleyball player
- November 10 - Neil Gaiman, English author
- November 11 - Peter Parros, American actor
- November 11 - Stanley Tucci, American actor and film director
- November 25 - Amy Grant, American musician
- November 25 - John F. Kennedy, Jr., American lawyer and journalist and son of President John F. Kennedy (d. 1999)
- November 26 - Harold Reynolds, Major League Baseball player and ESPN analyst
- November 27 - Yulia Tymoshenko, Prime Minister of Ukraine
- December 2 - Rick Savage, English bassist (Def Leppard)
- December 4 - Glynis Nunn, Australian athlete
- December 10 - Kenneth Branagh, Irish-born actor and film director
- December 18 - Kazuhide Uekusa, Japanese economist
- December 19 - Mike Lookinland, American actor
- December 27 - Maryam d'Abo, British actress
- December 31 - John Allen Muhammad, American serial killer
Deaths
- January 4 - Albert Camus, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (automobile accident) (b. 1913)
- January 12 - Nevil Shute, English writer (b. 1899)
- January 24 - Edwin Fischer, Swiss pianist and conductor (b. 1886)
- February 3 - Fred Buscaglione, Italian singer and actor (b. 1921)
- February 10 - Aloysius Stepinac, Catholic prelate (b. 1898)
- February 11 - Ernö Dohnányi, Hungarian conductor (b. 1877)
- February 29 - Walter Yust, American encyclopædia editor (b.1894)
- March 2 - Stanisław Taczak, Polish general (b. 1874)
- April 1 - Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni Almarhum Tuanku Muhammad, King of Malaysia (b. 1895)
- April 17 - Eddie Cochran American Singer (b. 1938)
- April 24 - Max von Laue, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1879)
- May 8 - J. H. C. Whitehead, British mathematician (b. 1904)
- May 30 - Boris Pasternak, Russian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (declined) (b. 1890)
- May 31 - Walther Funk, German Nazi politician (b. 1890)
- calendar for any leap year starting on Friday (dominical letter CB).
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Mau-Mau:This article is about the Kenyan anti-colonial rebellion. For the card game, see Mau Mau (game).
The Mau Mau Uprising was an insurgency by Kenyan rebels against the British colonial administration from 1952 to 1960. While the uprising did not succeed militarily, it created a rift between the white settler community in Kenya and Home Office in London that set the stage for Kenyan independence in 1963. It is sometimes referred to as the Mau Mau Rebellion or the Mau Mau Revolt.
Mau Mau is a term of uncertain origin. There is disagreement among sources as to whether it is an actual word, while some claim that it is the name of a range of hills and others claim that it was created by British settlers to demean the rebels and simplify the complicated organizational structure of the insurgents. Mau Mau may be an acronym of sorts: Mzungu Aende Ulaya — Mwafrika Apate Uhuru. This Swahili phrase translates in English to, "Let the white man go back abroad so the African can get his independence." Members of the Kikuyu tribe formed the core of the resistance along with smaller numbers of Embu and Meru, but the Kikuyu did not call the rebel movement Mau Mau. It was known to them variously as "Muingi/The Movement", "Muigwithania/The Unifier", "Muma wa Uiguano/The Oath of Unity" or simply "The KCA", after the Kikuyu Central Association that created the impetus for the insurgency.
Origins of the Mau Mau uprising
The Uprising occurred as a result of long simmering economic tensions coupled with the apparent lack of peaceful political solutions.
Economic deprivation of the Kikuyu
For several decades prior to the eruption of conflict the occupation of land by European settlers had been an increasingly bitter point of contention. Most of the land appropriated was in the central highlands of Kenya, which had a cool climate compared to the rest of the country but was also inhabited primarily by the Kikuyu tribe. By 1948, one and a quarter million Kikuyu were restricted to 2000 square miles (5,200 km²), while 30,000 settlers occupied 12,000 square miles (31,000 km²). The most desirable agricultural land was almost entirely in the hands of settlers.
During the course of the colonial period, settlers allowed about 120,000 Kikuyu to farm a patch of land on European farms in exchange for their labour. They were, in effect, tenant farmers who had no actual rights to the land they had squatted and worked. Between 1938 and 1946, settlers steadily demanded more days of labour for access to less land. It has been estimated that the real income of Kikuyu squatters fell by 30 to 40 percent during this period, and fell even more sharply during the late 1940s. This effort by settlers, which was essentially an attempt to turn the tenant farmers into agricultural labourers, engendered a bitter hatred of the white settlers among the squatters, who would later form the core of the highland Uprising.
As a result of the miserable situation in the highlands thousands of Kikuyu migrated into cities in search of work, contributing to the doubling of Nairobi's population between 1938 and 1952. At the same time, a class of Kikuyu landowners who consolidated Kikuyu lands and forged strong ties with the colonial administration was growing, leading to an economic rift within the Kikuyu. By 1953, almost half of all Kikuyus had no land claims at all. The result of this process was worsening poverty and unemployment, coupled with overpopulation. The economic bifurcation of the Kikuyu set the stage for what was essentially a civil war within the Kikuyu during the Mau Mau Revolt.
The KCA begins to organize the central highlands
While historical details remain elusive, sometime in the late 1940s the General Council of the banned Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) began to make preparations for a campaign of civil disobedience involving all of the Kikuyu in order to protest the land issue. The members of this initiative were bound together through oath rituals that were traditional among the Kikuyu and neighboring tribes. Those taking such oaths often believed that breaking them would result in death by supernatural forces.
The binding oaths were the focus of much speculation and gossip by settlers. There were stories about ritual cannibalism, zoophilia and necrophilia with goats, sexual orgies, ritual places that were decorated with intestines and goat eyes, and that oaths included promise to kill, dismember and burn settlers. While many of these stories were certainly wild exaggerations that helped convince the British government to send assistance to the settlers, the oath rituals often included animal sacrifice or the ingestion of blood and would certainly have seemed bizarre to the settlers. While later rituals obliged the oath taker to fight and kill Europeans, the original KCA oaths limited themselves to civil disobedience.
The East African Trades Union Congress and the "Forty Group"
While the KCA continued its oath rituals and creation of secret committees throughout the so-called White Highlands, the center of the resistance moved towards the still-forming trade union movement in Nairobi. On 1 May 1949, six trade unions formed the East African Trades Union Congress (EATUC). In early 1950 the EATUC ran a campaign to boycott the celebrations over the granting of a Royal Charter to Nairobi, because of the undemocratic white-controlled council that ran the city. The campaign proved a great embarrassment to the colonial government. It also led to violent clashes between African radicals and loyalists.
Following a demand for Kenyan independence on 1 May 1950, the leadership of the EATUC was arrested. On 16 May, the remaining EATUC officers called for a general strike that paralyzed Nairobi for nine days and was broken only after 300 workers had been arrested and the British authorities made a show of overwhelming military force. The strike spread to other cities and may have involved 100,000 workers; Mombasa was paralyzed for two days. Nevertheless, the strike ultimately failed and the EATUC soon collapsed after its senior leadership was imprisoned.
Following this setback, the remaining union leaders focused their efforts on the KCA oath campaign to set the basis for further action. They joined with the "Forty Group", which was a roughly cohesive group mostly comprised of African ex-servicemen circumcised in 1940 that included a broad spectrum of Nairobi from petty crooks to trade unionists. In contrast to the oaths used in the highlands, the oaths given by the Forty Group clearly foresaw a revolutionary movement dedicated to the violent overthrow of colonial rule. Sympathizers collected funds and even acquired ammunition and guns by various means.
The closing of political options and the Central Committee
In May 1951, the British Colonial Secretary, James Griffith, visited Kenya, where the Kenya Africa Union (KAU) presented him with a list of demands ranging from the removal of discriminatory legislation to the inclusion of 12 elected black representatives on the Legislative Council that governed the colony's affairs. It appears that the settlers were not willing to give in completely, but expected Westminster to force some concessions. Instead, Griffith ignored the KAU's demands and proposed a Legislative Council in which the 30,000 white settlers received 14 representatives, the 100,000 Asians (mostly from South Asia) got six, the 24,000 Arabs one, and the five million Africans five representatives to be nominated by the government. This proposal removed the last African hopes that a fair and peaceful solution to their grievances was possible.
In June 1951, the urban radicals captured control of the formerly loyalist Nairobi KAU by packing KAU meetings with trade union members. They then created a secret Central Committee to organize the oath campaign throughout Nairobi. The Central Committee quickly formed armed squads to enforce its policies, protect members from the police, and kill informers and collaborators.
In November 1951 the Nairobi radicals attempted to take control of the national KAU at a countrywide conference, but were outmaneuvered by Jomo Kenyatta, who secured the election for himself. Nevertheless, pressure from the radicals forced the KAU to adopt a pro-independence position for the first time.
The Central Committee also began to extend its oath campaign outside of Nairobi. Their stance of active resistance won them many adherents in committees throughout the White Highlands and the Kikuyu reserves. As a result, the KCA's influence steadily fell until by the start of the actual Uprising it had authority only in Kiambu District. Central Committee activists grew bolder - often killing opponents in broad daylight. The houses of Europeans were set on fire and their livestock hamstrung. These warning signs were ignored by the Governor, Sir Philip Mitchell, who was only months away from retirement, and Mau Mau activities were not checked.
The first reaction against the resistance
In June 1952, Henry Potter replaced Sir Mitchell as Acting Governor. A month later he was informed by the colonial police that a Mau Mau plan for rebellion was in the works. Collective fines and punishments were levied on particularly unstable areas, oath givers were arrested and loyalist Kikuyu were encouraged to denounce the resistance. Several times in mid-1952 Jomo Kenyatta, who would go on to become the Kenya's first President, gave in to the pressure and gave speeches attacking the Mau Mau. This prompted the creation of at least two plots within the Nairobi Central Committee to assassinate Kenyatta as a British collaborator before he was saved through his eventual arrest by the colonial authorities, who believed that Kenyatta was the head of the resistance.
On 17 August 1952, the Colonial Office in London received its first indication of the seriousness of the rebellion in a report from Acting Governor Potter. On 6 October, Sir Evelyn Baring arrived in Kenya to take over the post of Governor. Quickly realizing that he had a serious problem, on 20 October 1952 Governor Baring declared a State of Emergency. For the remainder of the revolt, members of the security forces would use torture not only to extract information but to terrorize the population.
State of Emergency
On the same day as the Emergency was declared, troops and police arrested nearly 100 leaders, including Jomo Kenyatta, in an operation named Jock Scott. Up to 8,000 people were arrested during the first 25 days of the operation. It was thought that Operation Jock Scott would decapitate the rebel leadership and that the Emergency would be lifted in several weeks. The amount of violence increased, however; two weeks after the declaration of the Emergency the first European was killed.
While much of the senior leadership of the Nairobi Central Committee was arrested, the organization was already too well entrenched to be uprooted by the mass arrests. Local rebel committees took uncoordinated decisions to strike back over the next few weeks and there was an abrupt rise in the destruction of European property and attacks on loyalists. Also, a section of settlers had treated the declaration of Emergency as a license to carry out beatings, forced confessions and summary executions against Kikuyu, inspiring both fear and hatred.
British military presence
One battalion of the Lancashire Fusiliers was flown from the Middle East to Nairobi the first day of Operation Jock Scott. The 2nd Battalion of the King's African Rifles, already in Kenya, was reinforced with one battalion from Uganda and two companies from Tanganyika, part of current day Tanzania. The Royal Air Force sent pilots and Handley Page Hastings aircraft. The cruiser Kenya came to Mombasa harbor carrying Royal Marines. During the course of the conflict other British units such as the Royal Highland Regiment served for a short time. The British fielded 55,000 troops in total over the course of the conflict.
Initially British forces had little reliable intelligence on the strength and structure of the Mau Mau resistance. Senior British officers thought that the Mau Mau Uprising was a sideshow compared to the Malayan Emergency. Over the course of the conflict some soldiers either could not or would not differentiate between Mau Mau and non-combatants, and reportedly shot innocent Kenyans. Many soldiers were reported to have collected severed rebel hands for an unofficial 5-shilling bounty.
The Council of Freedom declares war
By January 1953, the Nairobi Central Committee had reconstituted its senior ranks and renamed itself the Council of Freedom. In a meeting it was decided to launch a war of liberation. In contrast to other liberation movements of the time, the urban Kenyan revolt was dominated by the blue collar class and lacked a socialist element. The network of secret committees was to be reorganized into the Passive Wing, and tasked with supplying weapons, ammunition, food, money, intelligence and recruits to the Active Wing, also known as the Land and Freedom Armies or, less accurately, the Land Army. The Land and Freedom Armies, named after the two issues that the Kikuyu felt were most important, were mostly equipped with spears, simis (longswords), kibokos (rhino hide whips) and pangas (a type of machete made of soft iron). The panga, a common agricultural tool, was most widely used. Some rebels also tried to make their own guns, to add to the 460 they already possessed, but many of the homemade guns exploded when fired.
machete]
This declaration may be seen as a strategic mistake that the Council of Freedom was pushed into by its more aggressive members. The resistance did not have a national strategy for victory, had no cadres trained in guerrilla warfare, had few modern weapons and no arrangements to get more, and had not spread beyond the tribes of the central highlands most affected by the settler presence. Nevertheless, the lack of large numbers of initial British troops, a high degree of popular support, and the low quality of colonial intelligence gave the Land and Freedom Armies the upper hand for the first half of 1953. Large bands were able to move around their bases in the highland forests of the Aberdare mountain range and Mount Kenya killing collaborators and attacking isolated police and Home Guard posts. Purportedly over 2000 loyalist Kikuyu, often wealthy landowners, were killed. Mau Mau attacked in darkness. They attacked isolated farms, but occasionally also households in suburbs of Nairobi. Only the lack of firearms prevented the rebels from inflicting severe casualties on the police and settler community, which may have altered the eventual outcome of the Uprising.
The Land and Freedom Armies had lookouts and stashes for clothes, weapons and even an armoury. Still they were short of equipment. They used pit traps to defend their hideouts in Mount Kenya forests. The rebels organized themselves with a cell structure but many armed bands also used British military ranks and organizations. They also had their own judges that could hand out fines and other penalties. Associating with non-Mau Mau was punishable by a fine or worse. An average Mau Mau band was about 100 strong. The different leaders of the Land and Freedom Armies rarely coordinated actions, reflecting the lack of cohesion to the entire rebellion. Three of the dominant Active Wing leaders were Stanley Mathenge; Waruhiu Itote (known as General China), leader of Mount Kenya Mau Mau; and Dedan Kimathi, leader of Mau Mau of Aberdari forest.
Response of the settlers and government
On 24 January 1953 Mau Mau, possibly former servants, killed settlers Mr. and Mrs. Ruck, as well as their 6-year-old son, on their farm with pangas. White settlers reacted drastically to the insecurity. Many of them were upper middle class, and dismissed all of their Kikuyu servants because of the fear that they could be Mau Mau sympathizers. Settlers, including women, armed themselves with any weapon they could find or smuggle in, and in some cases built full-scale forts on their farms. Many white settlers also joined auxiliary units like the Kenya Police Reserve (which included an active air wing), and the Kenya Regiment, a territorial army militia regiment.
British colonial officials were also suspicious of the Kikuyu and took measures. They apparently initially thought the Kikuyu Central Association was the political wing of the resistance. They made carrying a gun and associating with Mau Mau capital offences. In May 1953 the Kikuyu Home Guard became an official part of the security forces. It became the significant part of the anti-Mau Mau effort. Many were members of allied tribes or Africans converted to Christianity. They organized their own espionage network and made punitive raids to areas that were suspected of harboring or supporting Mau Mau.
On 25 March–26 March, 1953 nearly 3000 rebels attacked the loyalist village of Lari, where about seventy non-combatants were hacked to death. Most of them were the wives and children of Kikuyu Home Guards serving elsewhere. This raid was widely reported in the British media, contributing greatly to the stereotype of the Mau Mau as bloodthirsty savages. In the weeks that followed, hundreds of suspected rebels were summarily executed by police and loyalist Home Guards.
The urban resistance spreads
In April 1953, a Kamba Central Committee was formed. The Kamba rebels were all railwaymen and effectively controlled the railway workforce, and the Kamba were also the core of African units in the Army and Police. At the same time rebel Masai bands became active in Narok district before being crushed by soldiers and police who were tasked with preventing a further spread of the rebellion.
Despite a police roundup in April 1953, the Nairobi committees organized by the Council of Freedom continued to provide badly needed supplies and recruits to the Land and Freedom Armies operating in the central highlands.
Realizing that the blue collar unions were a hotbed of rebel activity, the colonial government created the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU) for white collar unions as a moderating influence. By the end of 1953, it had gained a Luo general secretary who was a nationalist, but also opposed the revolt. Early in 1954 the KFRTU undermined a general strike that was called by the Central Committee.
The British gain the initiative
In June 1953 General Sir George Erskine arrived and took up the post of Director of Operations, where he revitalized the British effort. A military draft brought in 20,000 troops who were used aggressively. The Kikuyu reserves were designated "Special Areas", where anyone failing to halt when challenged could be shot. This was often used as an excuse for the shooting of suspects. The Aberdares Range and Mount Kenya were declared "Prohibited Areas", within which Africans would be shot on sight. The colonial government created so-called pseudo-gangs composed of de-oathed and turned ex-Mau Mau and allied Africans headed by white officers. They tried to infiltrate Mau Mau ranks and made search and destroy missions. Pseudo-gangs also included white settler volunteers who even tried to disguise themselves as Africans. In late 1953 security forces swept the Aberdare forest in the Operation Blitz and captured and killed 125 guerrillas. Despite such large-scale offensive operations, the British found themselves unable to stem the tide of insurgency.
It was not until the British realized the extent of the rebel organization, and the importance of the urban rebel committees and unions, that they gained a strategic success. On 24 April 1954, the Army launched "Operation Anvil" in Nairobi and the city was put under military control. Security forces screened 30,000 Africans and arrested 17,000 on suspicion of complicity, including many people that were later revealed to be innocent. The city remained under military control for the rest of the year. About 15,000 Kikuyu were detained without trial and thousands more were deported to the Kikuyu reserves in the highland. However, the heaviest weight fell on the unions. While the sweep was very inefficient, the sheer number was overwhelming. Entire rebel Passive Wing leadership structures, including the Council for Freedom, were swept away to detention camps and the most important source of supplies and recruits for the resistance evaporated.
Having cleared Nairobi, the authorities repeated the exercise in other areas so that by the end of 1954 there were 77,000 Kikuyu in detention camps. About 100,000 Kikuyu squatters were deported back to the reserves. In June 1954, a policy of compulsory villagization was started in the reserves to allow more effective control and surveillance. When the program reached completion in October 1955, 1,077,500 Kikuyu had been resettled in 854 villages.
The beginning of the end
The inability of the rebels to protect their supply sources marked the beginning of the end. The Passive Wing in the cities had disintegrated under the roundups and the rural Passive Wing was in state of siege on the central highlands and reserves. Forced to spend all their energy to survive, and cut off from sources of new recruits, the Land and Freedom Armies withered.
In 1953 some 15,000 Mau Mau guerrillas were at large. In January 1954 the King's African Rifles began Operation Hammer. They combed the forests of Aberdare mountains but met very little resistance; most guerrillas had already left. Eventually the operation was moved to the Mount Kenya area. There they captured 5,500 guerrillas and killed 24 of 51 band leaders. The Mau Mau were forced deeper into forest. By September 1956, only about 500 rebels remained.
Later in 1955, an amnesty was declared. It both absolved Home Guard members from prosecution and gave rebel soldiers a chance to surrender. Peace talks with the rebels collapsed on May 20, 1955 and the Army begun its final offensive against Aberdare. Pseudo-gangs were used heavily in the operation, though by this time Mau Mau were practically out of ammunition.
The last Mau Mau leader, Dedan Kimathi, was captured by Kikuyu pseudo-gang police on October 21, 1956 in Nyeri with 13 remaining guerrillas, and was subsequently hanged in early 1957. His capture marked the effective end of the Uprising, though the Emergency remained in effect until January 1960.
Political and social concessions by the British
Despite the fact that the British military had won a clear victory, Kenyans had been granted nearly all of the demands made by the KAU in 1951 as the carrot to the military's stick. In June 1956, a program of land reform consolidated the land holdings of the Kikuyu with the aim of dividing the Kikuyu into middle-class land owners and landless laborers, thereby expanding the number of Kikuyu allied with the colonial government. This was coupled with an relaxation of the ban on Africans growing coffee, a primary cash crop, leading to a drastic rise in the income of small farmers over the next ten years.
In the cities the colonial authorities decided to dispel tensions after Operation Anvil by raising urban wages, thereby strengthening the hand of moderate union organizations like the KFRTU. By 1956, the British had granted direct election of African members of the Legislative Assembly, followed shortly thereafter by an increase in the number of African seats to fourteen. A Parliamentary conference in January 1960 indicated that the British would accept "one person-one vote" majority rule.
These political measures were taken to end the instability of the Uprising by appeasing Africans both in the cities and country and encouraging the creation of a stable African middle class, but also required the abandonment of settler interests. This was possible because while the settlers dominated the colony politically, they owned less than 20% of the assets invested in Kenya. The remainder belonged to various corporations who were willing to deal with an African majority government as long as the security situation stabilized. The choice that the authorities in London faced was between an unstable colony, which was costing a fortune in military expenses, run by settlers who contributed little to the economic growth of the Empire, or a stable colony run by Africans that contributed to the coffers of the Empire. The latter option was the one, in effect, taken.
Casualties
The official number of rebels killed is 11,503 but estimates of the actual number, which include those that died of their wounds or were killed extralegally by security forces or settlers, go as high as 50,000. 63 British soldiers and police, 3 Asians and 524 loyalist Africans were killed. Despite the predominant image of primitive rebels savaging defenseless white settlers during the Uprising, a total of 32 settlers were killed, less than the number of settlers who died in traffic accidents in Nairobi over the same period.
Of particular note is the number of executions authorized by the courts. In the first eight months of the Emergency only 35 rebels were hanged, but by November 1954 756 had been hanged, 508 for offenses less than murder. By the end of 1954 over 900 rebels and rebel sympathizers had been hanged, and by the end of the Emergency the total was over 1,000. In comparison, during the Zionist rebellion in Palestine the British had hanged a total of eight guerrillas.
References
- Anderson, David, "Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire", ISBN 0393059863
- Elkins, Caroline, "Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of the End of Empire in Kenya", ISBN 0805076530 (in Britain published as "Britain's Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya", ISBN 022407363X)
- Maloba, Wunyabari O., "Mau-Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Rebellion", ISBN 0253211662
See also
- British military history
External links
- [http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/feneric/maumau.html The Early Days Of The Mau Mau Insurrection]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,836653,00.html British brutality in Mau Mau conflict]
- [http://www.multiline.com.au/~markw/maumau.html Mau Mau - Messengers of Misery]
- [http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/info/histo13.html The Mau-Mau and the end of the Colony]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4115917.stm Churchill death threat revealed]
- [http://www.economist.com/books/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3518628 Economist review of the Elkins and Anderson books]
- [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2102-1426736,00.html Sunday Times review of the Elkins and Anderson books]
- [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,923-1428389,00.html Second Times review of the Elkins and Anderson books]
- [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4462900 Interview with Caroline Elkins about her book Imperial Reckoning]
- [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=7736513 Scholars unearth Britain's dirty war in Kenya], on Elkins and Anderson, 25 February 2005
Category:British Empire
Category:History of Kenya
Category:Rebellions in Africa
ja:マウマウ団の乱
CameroonThe Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central Africa. It borders Nigeria, Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and the Gulf of Guinea. Originally a German colony, it was split after World War I among the French and British. In 1960, French Cameroun became an independent republic, merging with the southern part of British Cameroons in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. It was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972, and the Republic of Cameroon or République du Cameroun in 1984 (its official languages are English and French). Cameroon has generally enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry. Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy. The capital is Yaoundé.
History
Main article: History of Cameroon
The first inhabitants of Cameroon were the pygmy Baka tribes. The Bantu language originated in the highlands of Cameroon, but many of its speakers moved out before foreign invaders came into the nation.
The first European contact was in the 16th century with the Portuguese, but they did not stay. The first permanent colonial settlements were started in the late 1870s, with the German Empire emerging as the major European Power. With the defeat of Germany in World War I, Cameroon became a League of Nations Mandate territory split between French Cameroun and British Cameroons in 1919. These mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946.
In 1960, French Cameroun gained its independence and became The Cameroon Republic. It was joined in 1961 by the southern part of the British Cameroons. The remainder of the British Cameroons became part of Nigeria at the same time. The new coalition government was led by Ahmadou Ahidjo who led a crack down on rebel groups who had remained since before independence.
Ahidjo stepped down in 1982 and was succeeded by the current president, Paul Biya. Biya has won numerous elections, but the fairness of these elections has been questioned. The last elections were held on October 11, 2004.
Politics
2004
The President of Cameroon holds executive power in the government of Cameroon. This provision was part of the reforms instituted in 1996 to the Constitution, that had been originally written in 1972. The President is given a broad range of powers, and is able to carry them out without consulting the National Assembly.
The National Assembly consists of 180 delegates and meets three times a year. The main responsibility of the Assembly is to pass laws, but rarely has it changed any laws or blocked the passage of legislation.
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Court may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.
Provinces
Supreme Court
Main article: Provinces of Cameroon
Cameroon is divided into 10 provinces:
- Adamawa Province (Adamaoua)
- Centre Province
- East Province (Est)
- Extreme North Province (Extreme-Nord)
- Littoral Province
- North Province (Nord)
- Northwest Province (Nord-Ouest)
- West Province (Ouest)
- South Province (Sud)
- Southwest Province (Sud-Ouest)
Geography
Southwest Province
Southwest Province
Main article: Geography of Cameroon
Location: Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
Geographic coordinates: 6° N 12° E
Map references: Africa
Area:
total: 475,440 km²
land: 469,440 km²
water: 6,000 km²
- List of cities in Cameroon
Economy
List of cities in Cameroon
Main article: Economy of Cameroon
For a quarter-century following independence, Cameroon was one of the most prosperous countries in Africa. The drop in commodity prices for its principal exports —petroleum, cocoa, coffee, and cotton — in the mid-1980s, combined with an overvalued currency and economic mismanagement, led to a decade-long recession. Real per capita GDP fell by more than 60% from 1986 to 1994. The current account and fiscal deficits widened, and foreign debt grew. Yet because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon still has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa.
Despite rapid urbanisation, the single largest economic activity in Cameroon is subsistence agriculture, in which virtually all of the rural population is employed.
Demographics
Economy of Cameroon
Economy of Cameroon
Economy of Cameroon, West Province]]
Main article: Demographics of Cameroon
Cameroon's demographic profile is comprised of an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups, which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions:
- western highlanders (Semi-Bantu or grassfielders), including the Bamileke, Bamun (or Bamoun), and many smaller Tikar groups in the Northwest (est. 38% of total population);
- coastal tropical forest peoples, including the Bassa, Duala (or Douala), and many smaller groups in the Southwest (12%);
- southern tropical forest peoples, including the Beti-Pahuin, Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Maka-Njem, and Baka pygmies (18%);
- predominantly Islamic peoples of the northern semi-arid regions (the Sahel) and central highlands, including the Fulani (or Peuhl in French) (14%); and
- the "Kirdi", non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).
Culture
Main article: Culture of Cameroon
In addition, movable holidays include:
Christian: Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Easter Monday
Muslim: 'Id al-Fitr and 'Id al-Adha
See also: Music of Cameroon, List of writers from Cameroon
Education
Main article: Education in Cameroon
Cameroon is known for having one of the best educational systems in Africa. Primary school is both free of charge and obligatory. Statistics say that 70% of all children in ages between 6-12 years go to school. 79% of the Cameroon population can read.There has been an increasing trend of the smartest students leaving the country in recent years to study abroad and end up settling there, the so-called "brain drain".
Miscellaneous topics
Education in Cameroon
Education in Cameroon
Education in Cameroon
- Catholic Church in Cameroon
- Communications in Cameroon
- Foreign relations of Cameroon
- List of Cameroon-related topics
- List of cities in Cameroon
- Military of Cameroon
- Transportation in Cameroon
External links
Education
- [http://www.vkii.org The Cameroonian Association of Engineers and Computer Scientists]Web site of the Association of Cameroonian Engineers in Germany
Government
- [http://www.camnet.cm/celcom/homepr.htm Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon] official government site
- [http://www.cm.refer.org/assnat-cm/ National Assembly of Cameroon] official site
News
- [http://allafrica.com/cameroon/ allAfrica - Cameroon] news headline links
- [http://www.crtv.cm/ CRTV - Cameroon Radio Television] state-run
- [http://www.postnewsline.com/ The Post] - leading newspaper in English, published in Buea
- [http://www.wagne.net/messager/ Le Messager] privately-owned newspaper (in French)
Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1042937.stm BBC News - Country Profile: Cameroon]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cm.html CIA World Factbook - Cameroon]
Ethnic Groups
- [http://www.pygmies.info/ Baka Pygmies of Cameroon] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Cameroon
- [http://www.maurocampagnoli.com/ Anthropological researches in Cameroon] Fieldwork among Cameroonian populations
- [http://www.bamileke.com/ The Bamileke people of Cameroon]
- [http://www.bakweri.org/ The Bakweri People of the former British Cameroons]
Directories
- [http://www.cmclick.com CMCLICK Online! Cameroon Portal - Cameroon] Cameroon Internet Community. Cameroon Business Directory. Cameroon Information. Cameroon Culture.
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559907 LookSmart - Cameroon] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Cameroon/ Open Directory Project - Cameroon] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/camer.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Cameroon] directory category
- [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Cameroon.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Cameroon] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Cameroon/ Yahoo! - Cameroon] directory category
Tourism
-
- [http://www.kamerun-tourismus.de/index_e.html Cameroon tourism] Information and pictures
- [http://www.cameroonincolour.com Cameroon In Colour] Cameroon pictures. Largest Online picture collection of Cameroon. Images of Cameroon. Cameroon Photos.
Category:African Union member states
Category:Peace and Security Council
zh-min-nan:Cameroon
ko:카메룬
ms:Cameroon
ja:カメルーン
January 9
January 9 is the 9th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 356 days remaining (357 in leap years).
Events
- 1431 - The trial of Joan of Arc begins in Rouen, the seat of the English occupation government.
- 1760 - Afghans defeat Marathas in Battle of Barari Ghat.
- 1768 - Philip Astley stages the first modern circus (London).
- 1788 - Connecticut becomes the fifth state to join the United States.
- 1793 - Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first to fly in a balloon in the United States.
- 1806 - Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson is buried in St. Paul's Cathedral.
- 1839 - The French Academy of Sciences announces the Daguerreotype photography process.
- 1857 - Fort Tejon earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 7.9
- 1858 - Anson Jones, final President of the Republic of Texas commits suicide.
- 1861 - Mississippi be | | |
