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586 BCE

586 BCE

Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 620s BC - 610s BC - 600s BC - 590s BC - 580s BC - 570s BC - 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC ----

Events and trends


- 589 BC - Apries succeeds Psammetichus II as king of Egypt
- 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon begins siege of Jerusalem
- 587/586 BC - Jerusalem falls to the Babylonians, ending the Kingdom of Judah. The conquerors destroy the Temple of Jerusalem and exile the land's remaining inhabitants.
- 586 BC - Death of Zhou ding wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 585 BC - May 28 - A solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Thales, while Alyattes II is battling Cyaxares. This leads to a truce. This is one of the cardinal dates from which other dates can be calculated.
- 585/584 BC - Astyages succeeds Cyaxares as King of the Medes.
- 585 BC - Zhou jian wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 582 BC - Pythian Games founded at Delphi. (traditional date)
- 580 BC - Cambyses I succeeds Cyrus I as king of Anshan and head of the Achaemenid dynasty. (approximate date)
- 580 BC - Isthmian Games founded at Corinth. (traditional date)

Significant people


- Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Babylon
- 585 BC - Birth of Anaximenes of Miletus, Greek philosopher († 525 BC).
- 582 BC - Birth of Pythagoras in Samos, Greek philosopher and mathematician († 496 BC).
- 580 BC - Death of Cyrus I of Anshan (approximate date). Category:580s BC

Centuries

These pages contain the trends of millennia and centuries. The individual century pages contain lists of decades and years. See history for different organizations of historical events. See calendar and list of calendars for other groupings of years. For earlier time periods, see cosmological timeline, geologic timescale, evolutionary timeline, pleistocene, and logarithmic timeline.
- Paleolithic
- 10th millennium BC | 9th millennium BC | 8th millennium BC
- 7th millennium BC | 6th millennium BC | 5th millennium BC
- 5th millennium | 6th millennium | 7th millennium
- 8th millennium | 9th millennium | 10th millennium
- 11th millennium and beyond
- ja:年表 th:คริสต์ศตวรรษ simple:Centuries

6th century BC

(2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) ----

Overview

The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time of learning and philosophy.
- Mediterranean: Beginning of Greek philosophy, flourishes during the 5th century BC
- East Asia: Chinese philosophy become the "religion" of China. Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism, and Moism flourish.
- Middle East: During the Persian empire, Zoroaster, aka Zarathustra, founded Zoroastrianism, a dualistic philosophy
- India: The Buddha and Mahavira found Buddhism and Jainism, challenging Hinduism and the caste system

Events


- Ruin of the Kingdom of Judah and the destruction of the First Temple (586 BC) marking the beginning of the full Babylonian Captivity for the Jews
- Cyrus the Great conquered many countries and created the Persian Empire.
  - Persians conquer Ancient Egypt, dominate eastern Mediterranean.
  - Return of some Jews from Babylonian exile about (538 BC) who build the Second Temple about seventy years after the destruction of the First Temple, from 520–516 BC.
  - Fall of the Babylonian Empire (539 BC) to Cyrus the Great of Persia, marking also an end of the Babylonian Captivity for the Jews.
  - The Persians under Darius I and later Cyrus invade Transoxiana.
- Carthage's merchant empire slowly dominates the western Mediterranean
- Roman Republic founded
- Gautama Buddha founds Buddhism in India. It becomes a major world religion.
- Tao Te Ching written (traditional date)
- Confucius formulates his ethical system of Confucianism, which proves highly influential in China
- The Sinhalese emigrate to Sri Lanka
- Apparent writing of the Book of Psalms
- The prophet Lehi, according to the Book of Mormon, leaves Jerusalem and settles in North America.
- Abkhazia is colonized by the Greeks.
- The celtic Bruthin or Priteni, invade Britain and Ireland the British Isles some time before the 5th century BC.
- emergence of the Proto-Germanic Jastorf culture

Significant persons


- Stesichorus of Sicily, lyric poet (c. 640–555 BC).
- Thales, Greek mathematician ( 635–543 BC). Predicts solar eclipse in 585 BC.
- Solon of Athens, one of the Seven Sages of Greece (638–558 BC).
- Mahavira of Vaishali (599–527).
- Pisistratus, Tyrant of Athens in 561, 559–556 and 546–528 BC.
- Pythagoras of Samos, Greek mathematician. See Pythagorean theorem. (582–496 BC).
- Cyrus the Great, king of Persia ( 576–529 BC, reigned 559–529 BC).
- Gautama Buddha, founding figure of Buddhism (c. 563–483 BC).
- Confucius, founding figure of Confucianism (551–479 BC).
- Aeschylus of Athens, playwright (525–456 BC).
- Darius I, King of Persia (reigned 521–485 BC).
- Lehi, legendary figure, first prophet recorded in the Book of Mormon
- Sun Tzu, author of The Art of War.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions


- First archaeological surveys of the Arabian peninsula by Babylonian king Nabonidus. Category:6th century BC ko:기원전 6세기 ja:紀元前6世紀

Decades

:For other uses of the term, see decade (disambiguation). This is a list of decades which have articles with more information about them. See also centuries and history. During the 20th Century and continuing today it became popular to look at that century's decades as historical entities in themselves. Particular trends, styles, and attitudes would be associated with and define different decades of the century, and thus the names of the decades themselves have come to be synonymous with them. Some commentators suggest that this phenomenon will not continue into the 21st Century with its decades.
17th century BC 1690s BC 1680s BC 1670s BC 1660s BC 1650s BC 1640s BC 1630s BC 1620s BC 1610s BC 1600s BC
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3rd century 200s 210s 220s 230s 240s 250s 260s 270s 280s 290s
4th century 300s 310s 320s 330s 340s 350s 360s 370s 380s 390s
5th century 400s 410s 420s 430s 440s 450s 460s 470s 480s 490s
6th century 500s 510s 520s 530s 540s 550s 560s 570s 580s 590s
7th century 600s 610s 620s 630s 640s 650s 660s 670s 680s 690s
8th century 700s 710s 720s 730s 740s 750s 760s 770s 780s 790s
9th century 800s 810s 820s 830s 840s 850s 860s 870s 880s 890s
10th century 900s 910s 920s 930s 940s 950s 960s 970s 980s 990s
11th century 1000s 1010s 1020s 1030s 1040s 1050s 1060s 1070s 1080s 1090s
12th century 1100s 1110s 1120s 1130s 1140s 1150s 1160s 1170s 1180s 1190s
13th century 1200s 1210s 1220s 1230s 1240s 1250s 1260s 1270s 1280s 1290s
14th century 1300s 1310s 1320s 1330s 1340s 1350s 1360s 1370s 1380s 1390s
15th century 1400s 1410s 1420s 1430s 1440s 1450s 1460s 1470s 1480s 1490s
16th century 1500s 1510s 1520s 1530s 1540s 1550s 1560s 1570s 1580s 1590s
17th century 1600s 1610s 1620s 1630s 1640s 1650s 1660s 1670s 1680s 1690s
18th century 1700s 1710s 1720s 1730s 1740s 1750s 1760s 1770s 1780s 1790s
19th century 1800s 1810s 1820s 1830s 1840s 1850s 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s
20th century 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s
21st century 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s 2050s 2060s 2070s 2080s 2090s
ja:10年紀 simple:Decade Category:Decades

620s BC

Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 670s BC 660s BC 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC - 620s BC - 610s BC 600s BC 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC ----

Events and trends


- 627 BC - Death of Assurbanipal, king of Assyria; he is succeeded by Assur-etel-ilani (approximate date)
- 626 BC - Nabopolassar revolts against Assyria, founds the Neo-Babylonian Empire.
- 625 BC - Medes and Babylonians assert their independence from Assyria and attack Nineveh (approximate date)
- 623 BC - Sin-shar-ishkun succeeds his brother Assur-etel-ilani as king of Assyria (approximate date)
- 622 BC or 621 BC - Text of Deuteronomy found in the Temple in Jerusalem

Significant people

Category:620s BC

610s BC

Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 660s BC 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC - 610s BC - 600s BC 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC ----

Events and trends


- 619 BC - Alyattes becomes king of Lydia
- 619 BC - Death of Zhou xiang wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 618 BC - Zhou qing wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 616 BC - Lucius Tarquinius Priscus becomes king of Rome
- 614 BC - Sack of Asshur by the Medes and Babylonians.
- 613 BC - Death of Zhou qing wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 612 BC - Zhou kuang wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 612 BC - An alliance of Medes, Babylonians and Susianians besiege and conquer Nineveh. King Sin-shar-ishkun of Assyria is killed in the sack.
- 612 BC - Ashur-uballit II attempts to keep the Assyrian empire alive by establishing himself as king at Harran.
- 610 BC - Necho II succeeds Psammetichus I as king of Egypt

Significant people


- 610 BC - Death of Psammetichus I, king of Egypt Category:610s BC

600s BC

Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC - 600s BC - 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC ----

Events and trends


- Fall of the Assyrian Empire and Rise of Babylon
- 609 BC - King Josiah of Judah dies in the Battle of Megiddo against Pharaoh Necho II of Egypt, who is on his way north to aid the rump Assyrian state of Ashur-uballit II.
- 609 BC - The Babylonians defeat the Assyrian army of Ashur-uballit II and capture Harran. Ashur-uballit, the last Assyrian king, disappears from history.
- 609 BC - Jehoahaz succeeds his father Josiah as King of Judah, but is quickly deposed by Necho, who installs Jehoahaz's brother Jehoiakim in his place.
- 607 BC - Death of Zhou kuang wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China
- 606 BC - Zhou ding wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China
- 605 BC - Battle of Carchemish, Crown Prince Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon defeats the army of Necho II of Egypt, securing the Babylonian conquest of Assyria. The Babylonians pursue through Syria and Palestine.
- 605 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II succeeds his father Nabopolassar as King of Babylon
- 600 BC - Foundation of Capua
- 600 BC - Foundation of Milan by Celts (approximate date)
- 600 BC - Foundation of Marseille by Phoceans (traditionial date)
- 600 BC - Smyrna sacked and destroyed
- 600 BC - Nebuchadrezzar builds the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
- 600 BC - Lehi and his family set out for the Americas as recorded in the Book of Mormon (approximate date)

Significant people


- 600 BC - Birth of King Cambyses I of Anshan, head of the Achaemenid dynasty (approximate date) Category:600s BC

570s BC

Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 620s BC 610s BC 600s BC 590s BC 580s BC - 570s BC - 560s BC 550s BC 540s BC 530s BC 520s BC ----

Events and trends


- 579 BC - Servius Tullius succeeds the assassinated Lucius Tarquinius Priscus as king of Rome. (traditional date)
- 573 BC - Nemean Games founded at Nemea. (traditional date)
- 572 BC - Death of Zhou jian wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 571 BC - Zhou ling wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 570 BC - Amasis II succeeds Apries as king of Egypt.

Significant people


- 576 BC - Cyrus the Great, later King of Anshan and Persia (approximate date) Category:570s BC

560s BC

Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 610s BC 600s BC 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC - 560s BC - 550s BC 540s BC 530s BC 520s BC 510s BC ----

Events and trends


- 568 BC - Amtalqa succeeds his brother Aspelta as king of Kush
- 562 BC - Amel-Marduk succeeds Nebuchadnezzar as king of Babylon
- 560 BC - Neriglissar succeeds Amel-Marduk as king of Babylon
- 560/561 BC - Croesus becomes king of Lydia
- 560 BC - Pisistratus seizes the Acropolis of Athens and declares himself tyrant. He is deposed in the same year.

Significant people


- May, 563 BC - Birth of Siddhartha Gautama, later known as Gautama Buddha in Lumbini, India.
- 562 BC - Death of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (approximate date).
- 560 BC - Birth of Nabu-rimanni in Babylonia, Chaldean astronomer and mathematician (+ 480 BC) (approximate date).
- 569 BC - Birth of Pythagoras on the Island of Samos, visionary mathematician (+ 475 BC) (approximate date). Category:560s BC

540s BC

Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 590s BC - 580s BC - 570s BC - 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC ----

Events and trends


- 547 BC -- Croesus, Lydian king, is defeated by Cyrus of Persia near the River Halys.
- 546 BC -- Cyrus of Persia completes his conquest of Lydia, and makes Pasargadae his capital.
- 544 BC -- People of Teos migrate to Abdera, Thrace to escape the yoke of Persia.
- 544 BC -- Zhou Jing Wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 543 BC -- North Indian Prince Vijaya invades Ceylon and establishes a Sinhalese dynasty.
- 543 BC -- Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, purifies the island of Delos (approximate date).
- 540 BC -- Greek city of Elea of sothern Italy founded (approximate date).

Significant people


- 549 BC -- Birth of Darius I.
- 547 BC -- Death of Croesus.
- 546 BC -- Death of Anaximander, Greek philosopher (approximate date)
- 545 BC -- Death of Zhou ling wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 543 BC -- Death of Gautama Buddha (traditional in Thailand and elsewhere - basis of the Thai solar calendar).
- 543 BC -- Death of Thales, Greek philosopher.
- 540 BC -- Amyntas I becomes king of Macedonia (approximate date) Category:540s BC

Apries

Apries (Απριης) is the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161) and Diodorus (i. 68) designate Wahibre, Ουαφρης (Pharaoh-Hophra), a pharaoh of Egypt (589 BC-570 BC), the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I) of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt. He was equated with the Waphres of Manetho, who records he reigned 19 years. He is called Hophra in Jeremiah 44:30. Apries inherited the throne from his father, the undistingished Psammetichus II and continued his poor military record. Unsuccessful attempts to intervene in the kingdom of Judah were followed by a mutiny of soldiers at Aswan. An attempt to protect Libya from incursions by Greek forces was also unsuccessful and the returning troops squabbled with the existing order. Apries was killed in a conflict with his eventual successor Amasis II, a former general who had declared himself pharaoh. Eusebius placed the eclipse of Thales in 585 BC in the eighth or twelfth year of his reign.

See also


- Egypt
- Amasis

References


- Category:570 BC deaths Category:Pharaohs

Psammetichus II

Psammetichus II (also spelled Psammeticus, Psammetich, and Psamtik II) was a king of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt (595 BC-589 BC). Psammetichus marched into the Kingdom of Judah, Philistia, and Phoenicia in about 592 BC in response to moves made by Babylon, and attempted to generate anti-Babylonian sentiment among their leaders. Wahibre (Apries) succeeded him. Category:589 BC deaths Category:Pharaohs

History of Ancient Egypt

The history of ancient Egypt begins around 3300 BC when Egypt became a unified Egyptian state. It survived as an independent state until about 343 BC, but archeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society existed for a much longer period.

Egyptian chronology

Egyptian history is broken into several different periods according to the dynasty of the ruling pharaoh. The dating of events in Egyptian history is still a subject of research. The conservative dates are not supported by any reliable absolute date for a span of about three millennia. The following is the list according to conventional Egyptian chronology.
- Predynastic Period (Prior to 3100 BC)
- Protodynastic Period (Approximately 3100 - 3000 BC)
- Early Dynastic Period (1st–2nd Dynasties)
- Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties)
- First Intermediate Period (7th–11th Dynasties)
- Middle Kingdom (12th–13th Dynasties)
- Second Intermediate Period (14th–17th Dynasties)
- New Kingdom (18th–20th Dynasties)
- Third Intermediate Period (21st–25th Dynasties) (also known as the Libyan Period)
- Late Period (26th–31st Dynasties) Note: There is a recommended revision of the chronology of Egypt. See Egyptian chronology.

Protodynastic Period

Along the Nile, in the 10th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had become replaced by another culture of hunters, fishers and gathering peoples using stone tools. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c. 2500 BC). Early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society (see Nile: History). Evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara dates to the 7th millennium BC. Ongoing excavation in Egypt continually reshapes scholars' views about the origins of Egyptian civilization. In the late 20th century archaeologists discovered evidence of human habitation before 8000 BC in an area in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the border with Sudan. Nomadic peoples may have been attracted to this southern area of Egypt because of the hospitable climate and environment. Now exceptionally dry, that area once had grassy plains and temporary lakes that resulted from seasonal rains. The people who settled there must have realized the benefits of a more sedentary life. Scientific analysis of the remains of their culture indicates that by 6000 BC they were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. The descendants of these people may well have begun Egyptian civilization in the Nile Valley. A recent genetic study linked the maternal lineage of a traditional population from Upper Egypt to Eastern Africa [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14748828]. A separate study further narrows the genetic lineage to Northeast Africa ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12495079]; reveals also that modern day Egyptians "reflect a mixture of European, Middle Eastern, and African").

Early Dynastic Period

The origins of the unified Egyptian state are unclear, and there are no contemporary sources, and later sources are unclear and contradictory. Around 3100 BC a king unified the whole of the Nile Valley between the Delta and the First Cataract at Aswan, with the centre of power in Memphis. Traditionally (according to Manetho), this king was known as Menes. This king may be identified as one the individuals known to historians as Narmer or Hor-Aha, or another person entirely. The unified state seems to have arrived at the same time as the development of writing, the start of large scale construction and the venturing out from the Nile Valley to trade (or prehaps campaign) in Nubia and Syria/Palestine.

Old Kingdom

Egyptologists consider the Old Kingdom as beginning with the Third Dynasty, and around the time of the Fourth Dynasty, the art of embalming began.

Embalming, mummification and preservation

A cautionary note about embalming, mummification and preservation: To embalm and to mummify essentially mean the same thing. To embalm (from Latin in balsamum, meaning to "put into balsam," a mixture of aromatic resins) and the process of mummification are very similar in that corpses were anointed with ointments, oils, and resins. The word mummy comes from a misinterpretation of the process. Poorly embalmed bodies (from the Late Period) are often black and very brittle. It was believed these had been preserved by dipping them in bitumen, the Arabic word for bitumen being mumiya. There are many modern techniques for preserving a body, however, these were not available to the ancient Egyptians (freezing, pickling etc). The only method they were aware of was drying the body out in the hot sand. This left the body looking most un-lifelike, and not a very suitable home for the Ka. It also wasn't a very reverent way to treat your Pharaoh. The answer came from the Nile. The Nile floods every year. Without it Egypt would be no more than a desert with a river going through it. The flooding brought with it essential silt which made the land fertile. When the waters subsided, it left pools of water behind which dried out in the sun. Once the water had evaporated it left behind a white crystalline substance called natron. The most notable thing about this substance is that it is highly hygroscopic: it will draw and absorb moisture. During the Old Kingdom, Queen Hetepheres' internal organs were removed and placed in a solution of natron (about 3%). When the box was opened it contained just sludge, which was apparently all that remained of the Queen. Early attempts at mummification were total failures. This was recognized by the embalmers, so they took to preserving the shape of the body. They did this by wrapping the body in resin soaked bandages. They became so good at this that one example from the Fifth Dynasty of a court musician called Waty, still holds details of warts, calluses, wrinkles and facial details. The embalming process took 70 days.

Upper and Lower Egypt

A word about Upper and Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt is to the north and is that part where the Nile Delta flows into the Mediterranean Sea and Upper Egypt is to the South from the Libyan Desert down to just past Abu Simbel. The reason for this apparent upside-down naming is that Egypt is the 'Gift of the Nile' and as such everything is measured in relation to it. The Nile enters Egypt at the top, winding its way down until exiting via the fertile delta into the Mediterranean Sea in Lower Egypt. It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes, ruled solely by the pharaoh. Subsequently the former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Ancient Egyptians in this era emphatically believed that their pharaoh could assure the annual flooding of the Nile for their crops. They also perceived themselves as a specially selected people, "as the only true human beings on earth" ([http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/history/herlin/textsup.htm#_ftn18]). There is some evidence that around 2675 BC, Egypt started to import timber from Lebanon.

Pyramids

Several Egyptian pyramids were built and some abandoned before they were finished. Around 2575 BCE, Pharaoh Khufu (aka. Cheops) made his mark on the landscape. For him, the greatest and most famous pyramid of all was constructed, the Great Pyramid of Giza. When looking at the pyramid group on the Giza plateau, it does not seem to be the largest. This is because the tallest looking one was built on higher ground, but is 10 metres smaller. One notable example is the Bent Pyramid—about halfway up it appears that the builders feared they would not be able to maintain the angle they were already building and decided to change it to a less steep angle. This resulted in an odd looking pyramid, whose top sloped in suddenly. The Pharaoh Khufu was also responsible for sending expeditions into Nubia for slaves and anything else of value. It is unlikely that these people would have been used for the building of the monuments, at least not at first, as there would not have been enough of them. One popular and convincing theory is that the peasant farmers of Egypt built all of the temples and monuments during the floods. This is an attractive theory for many reasons. When the Nile flooded, the people of Egypt would have had nowhere to live. The Nile floods up to the edge of the desert and would have covered all of the farming and living areas. If there was work to be had building monuments during the flooding season, then the peasant farmers would have had the chance to feed and house their family. Of course, all of this would have been paid out of the taxes the farmers would have paid during the harvest season, but that is the nature of government. This would also account for how the country had become, and stayed, so stable for several hundred years. Pyramid building continued for some time, in fact there are 80 known pyramid sites; although not all of them are still standing.

First Intermediate Period

This era includes the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties and into the First Intermediate Period. The Old Kingdom became weakened by famine and weak leadership. One theory holds that a sudden, unanticipated, catastrophic reduction in the Nile floods over two or three decades, caused by a global climatic cooling, reduced the amount of rainfall in Egypt, Ethiopia, and East Africa, contributing to the great famine and subsequent downfall of the Old Kingdom. The last pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty was Pepi II, who was believed to have reigned for 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. He was 6 when he ascended the throne and 100 years old when he died. The latter years of his reign were marked by ineffeciency because of Pepi's advanced age. When he died the Old Kingdom collapsed. A dark time, marked by unrest, followed. The Union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the famine. Around 2160 BCE, a new line of pharaohs tried to reunite Lower Egypt from their capital in Herakleopolis Magna. In the meantime, however, a rival line based in Thebes was reuniting Upper Egypt, and a clash between the two rival dynasties was inevitable. The pharaohs from Herakleopolis descended from a pharaoh named Akhtoy and the first four pharaohs from Thebes were named Inyotef or Antef.

Middle Kingdom

Around 2055 BCE, Mentuhotep II from Thebes ended this period of unrest and united the country again. He installed a new administration and started a royal scale builing programme. There is also good evidence for military campaigns against foreigns countries. Amenemhat I moved the capital to North Egypt (Lower Egypt). His son, Senusret I, co-reigned with him until Amenemhat was assassinated. Senusret I was able to take control immediately without the country degenerating into unrest again. Senusret I continued to wage war on Nubia. In 1878 BCE, the Pharaoh Senusret III became king. He continued the military campaigns in Nubia and was the first to try to extend Egypt's power into Syria. Later, Amenemhat III came to power. He is regarded as being the greatest monarch of the Middle Kingdom and did much to benefit Egypt. He ruled for 45 years. During the Middle Kingdom, the next phase in tomb design was the rock-cut tomb. The best examples of these can be seen in the Valley of the Kings. They still had grand temples built in more visible areas. Much of the greater activities done by the Twelfth Dynasty kings took place outside the valley of the Nile. As before, there were many expeditions into Nubia, Syria, and the Eastern Desert, searching for valuable minerals and timber. Also, trade was established with Minoan Crete. The Thirteenth Dynasty is often considered part of the Middle Kingdom, although the period seems to be a time of confusion and of migration into Egypt by a mysterious people known as the Hyksos, who took advantage of the political instabilities of the Nile Delta to take control of it and later extend their powers south. They brought with them the horse-drawn war chariot. It didn't take the Egyptians long to realize the power of the war chariot and use it themselves. This breakdown of central control marks the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period.

Second Intermediate Period

New Kingdom

The Eighteenth Dynasty marks the beginning of the New Kingdom. Various pharaohs extended the control of Egypt further than ever before, retaking control of Nubia and extending power northwards into the Upper Euphrates, the lands of the Hittites, and Mitanni.

Eighteenth Dynasty

Mitanni] This was a time of great wealth and power for Egypt. By the time of Amenophis III (1417 BC–1379 BC), Egypt had become so wealthy that he did nothing to further extend its powers and instead rested upon his throne gilded with Nubian gold. He was succeeded by his son Amenophis IV, who changed his name to Akhenaton. He moved the capital to a new city he built and called it Akhetaten. Here with his new wife Nefertiti, he concentrated on building his new religion and ignored the world outside of Egypt. This allowed various underground factions to build that were not happy with his new world. The new religion was something that had never happened before in Egypt. Previously, new gods came along and were absorbed into the culture, but no god was allowed to push out any old ones. Akhenaten, however, formed a monotheistic religion around Aten, the sun disc. Worship of all other gods was banned, and this move is what caused the majority of the internal unrest. The relationship between Akhenaten's introduction of monotheism, and the biblical character of Moses, who is located in Egypt at a similar (although not necessarily simultaneous) period, is both unclear and controversial. A new culture of art was introduced during this time that was more naturalistic and a complete turnabout from the stylised frieze that had ruled Egyptian art for the last 1700 years. Concerning art and Akhenaton, an area of interest to many Egyptologists is the peculiarity of Akenatons' physical features. Many pharaohs are portayed in a stylized manner however, Akenhaten is shown in paintings and carvings with unusually feminine features, specifically wide hips and elongated, delicate facial features. Some theories assume that the depiction is accurate and not stylized, suggesting that Akenhaton suffered from birth defects which were common among the royal families. Towards the end of his 17-year reign, Akenhaton took a co-regent, Smenkhkare, who is sometimes considered to be his brother. Their co-reign lasted only 2 years. When Akhenaton died, worship of the old gods was revived. In truth, their worship had never ended, but had instead gone underground. Smenkhkare died after a few months of sole reign, and in his place was crowned a young boy. He was not ready for the pressure of ruling this great country, and the advisors that surrounded him made the decisions for him. His given name was Tutankhaton, but with the resurgence of Amun, he was re-named Tutankhamun. One of the most influential advisors was General Horemheb. Tutankhamun died while he was still a teenager and was succeeded by Ay, who probably married Tutankhamun's widow to strengthen his claim to the throne. It is possible that Horemheb made Ay a monarch to act as a transitional king until he was ready to take over. In any case, when Ay died, Horemheb became ruler, and a new period of positive rule began. He set about securing internal stability and re-establishing the prestige that the country had before the reign of Akhenaton.

Nineteenth Dynasty

The Nineteenth Dynasty was founded by Rameses I. He only reigned for a short time and was followed by Seti I (or Sethos I). Sethos I carried on the good work of Horemheb in restoring power, control, and respect to Egypt. He also was responsible for creating the fantastic temple at Abydos. Seti I and his son Rameses II are the only two pharaohs known to have been circumcised, although quite why they had this performed is somewhat of a mystery. Rameses II carried on his father's work and created many more splendid temples. Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote a poem about him called Ozymandias. The time frame for the reign of Rameses II is often believed to have coincided with the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. There are no obvious records in Egyptian history of any of the events described in the Bible, nor any archaeological evidence. Indeed, even though there are records so detailed as to describe the escape of a pair of minor convicts from Egyptian territory, there is no such record for hundreds of thousands of Israelite slaves. Linguistic studies have drawn certain potential origins for elements of biblical history, although they do conflict substantially with the biblical accounts - for example records about the Sea Peoples may indicate that various Israelite tribes attacked Egypt during a certain period, although they also indicate that these tribes were allied with the Philistines rather than against them. Rameses II was succeeded by his son Merneptah and then by Seti II. Rameses III was a pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty who, after a couple of battles, was followed by a number of short-lived reigns by pharaohs all called Rameses.

New Kingdom mummies

In this New Kingdom, coffins changed shape from the Middle Kingdom rectangle to the familiar mummy-shape with a head and rounded shoulders. At first these were decorated with carved or painted feathers, but later were painted with a representation of the deceased. They were also put together like Russian Matryoshka dolls in that a large outer coffin would contain a smaller one, which contained one that was almost moulded to the body. Each one was more elaborately decorated than the one larger than it. It is from this time that most mummies have survived. The soft tissues like the brain and internal organs were removed. The cavities were washed and then packed with natron, and the body buried in a pile of natron. The intestines, lungs, liver and stomach were preserved separately and stored in Canopic jars protected by the Four sons of Horus. Such was the perceived power of these jars that even when the Twenty-First Dynasty started to return the organs to the body after preservation instead of using the jars, the jars continued to be included in the tombs.

Third Intermediate Period

After the death of Rameses XI, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, in the person of Piankh, assumed control of Upper Egypt, ruling from Thebes, with the northern limit of his control ending at Al-Hibah. (The High Priest Herihor had died before Rameses XI, but also was an all-but-independent ruler in the latter days of the king's reign.) The country was once again split into two parts with the priesthood of Amun controlling Upper and Middle Egypt, and the kings, such as Smendes I, controlling the Delta from Tanis as the Twenty-First Dynasty. Their reign seems to be without any other distinction, and they were replaced without any apparent struggle by the Libyan kings of the Twenty-Second Dynasty. Egypt has long had ties with Libya, and the first king of the new dynasty, Shoshenq I, was a Meshwesh Libyan, who served as the commander of the armies under the last ruler of the Twenty-First Dynasty, Psusennes II. He unified the country, putting control of the Amun clergy under his own son as the High Priest of Amun, a post that was previously a hereditary appointment. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggest that it was unsettled. There appear to have been many subversive groups, which eventually led to the creation of the Twenty-Third Dynasty, which ran concurrent with the latter part of the Twenty-Second Dynasty. After the withdrawal of Egypt from Nubia at the end of the New Kingdom, a native dynasty took control of Nubia. Under king Piye, the Nubian founder of Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, the Nubians pushed north in an effort to crush his Libyan opponents ruling in the Delta. He managed to attain power as far as Memphis. His opponent Tefnakhte ultimately submitted to him, but he was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and founded the short-lived Twenty-Fourth Dynasty at Sais.

Late Period

Sais] Memphis and the Delta region became the target of many attacks from the Assyrians, until Psammetichus managed to reunite Middle and Lower Egypt under his rule forming the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty and the start of the Late Period. Eventually he extended his control over the whole of Egypt in 656 BC and felt strong enough to sever all ties with Assyria, whereby Assyrian control lapsed. The Saite period, as the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty is also known, was a century of revived splendour for Egypt. During the reign of Apries, an army was sent to help the Libyans to eliminate the Greek colony of Cyrene. The disastrous defeat of this army brought about a civil war, which resulted in Apries being replaced by Amasis II. According to contemporary Greek records, Amasis was mostly concerned with Egyptian domestic affairs and the promotion of good relations with its neighbours. He died in 526 BC, and the next year Egypt fell under Persian power and the Persian king Cambyses II became the first king of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty. The Thirtieth Dynasty was established in 380 BC and lasted until 343 BC. This was the last native house to rule Egypt. The brief restoration of Persian rule is sometimes known as the Thirty-First Dynasty.

Open problems

There are several open problems concerning ancient Egyptian history. Conclusions on the origins of the Hyksos and their first leaders are disputed. It is unclear if the "Nubian Dark Age" really occurred in the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty of Egypt. There is question if the First Intermediate Period of Egypt really was a Dark Age. It is unknown why there were Minoan paintings in Avaris. The exact relationship between the Minoan civilization and the Egyptian civilization is debated. The Battle of Kadesh is ambiguous and who was its victor is open to debate. There are several events concerning ancient Egyptian history that are questioned. The exact nature of the reign of Pharaoh Smendes I's is unknown. It is unknown if Egypt was split during his governance. The facts are obscure as to whether Ramesses II defended Egypt against the Sea People because they were invading, or if they were people fleeing to Egypt in the middle of a war. Data is either not available or not known as to if Ramesses III or Amenemhat I were assassinated. The exact causes concerning the disappearance of Nefertiti are unknown. It is debated if Necho II really sent out an expedition that sailed from the Red Sea around Africa back to the mouth of the Nile. The Tulli Papyrus is a controversial topic and it is debated if it comes from the reign of Thutmosis III. The events that Herodotus records of Egypt are suspicious to some scholars, and there is question on what he actually witnessed in Egypt. Exactly who Herodotus exchanged ideas with and had conversations with is debated. It is uncertain who Sonchis was, an Egyptian priest of Thebes, and why Plato wrote about Atlantis as described by this priest. It is questioned if Solon met Sonchis. It is unclear why Solon visited Egypt (if he really did).

See also


- Egyptian Mythology
- Season of the Emergence
- Season of the Harvest
- Season of the Inundation
- Vizier Imhotep
- Pharaoh Horus Netjerikhet Djzosèr
- Pyramid of Djzosèr
- Egypt in the European Imagination
- List of ancient Egypt mysteries

External links


- [http://www.glyphdoctors.com Glyphdoctors: Online courses in Egyptian hieroglyphics and history]
- [http://www.ancient-egypt.org/ The Ancient Egypt Site]
- [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Egyptian_History.html The History of the Ancient Near East]
- [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/nof/nilefile Nile File] — an interactive introduction to Ancient Egypt for children (and adults!)
- [http://www.sevenwondersworld.com/ Seven Wonder of the World — Ancient Times]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Ancient_Egypt_Group/ Ancient Egypt Discussion Group] Category:Ancient Egypt

Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon

Nebuchadrezzar (also Nebuchadnezzar) II (reigned 605 BC - 562 BC), perhaps the best known ruler of Babylon in the Neo-Babylonian Dynasty. He is famous (or infamous) for his conquests of Judah and Jerusalem, in addition to his monumental building within his capital of Babylon. One of the reasons he is so well known is because of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, which he made for his wife because she was homesick. He is sometimes called "Nebuchadnezzar the Great", but because of his destruction of temples in Jerusalem and the conquest of Judah, he was vilified in the Bible and the appellation of "Great" was lost. His name, in Akkadian Nabû-kudurri-uṣur, is variously interpreted as "O Nebo, defend my crown", "empire", "landmark", or "work". In an inscription he styles himself "Nebo's favourite." The Hebrew form is נבוכדנאצר , (the presence of the א (aleph) may indicate an earlier Hebrew pronunciation ), and sometimes (in Jeremiah and Ezekiel) נבוכדראצר, . The LXX and Vulgate have Ναβουχοδονοσορ, Nabuchodonosor, but the KJV re-introduces the Hebrew variants as Nebuchadnezzar vs. Nebuchadrezzar.

Biography

Nebuchadrezzar was the oldest son and successor of Nabopolassar, who delivered Babylon from its dependence on Assyria and laid Nineveh in ruins. According to Berossus, he married the daughter of Cyaxares, and thus the Median and Babylonian dynasties were united. Necho II, the king of Egypt, had gained a victory over the Assyrians at Carchemish. This secured Egypt the possession of Phoenician provinces of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, including parts of Palestine. The remaining Assyrian provinces were divided between Babylonia and Media. Nabopolassar was intent on reconquering from Necho the western provinces of Syria, however, and to this end dispatched his son with a powerful army westward. In the ensuing Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC, the Egyptian army was defeated and driven back, and Syria and Phoenicia were brought under the sway of Babylon. Nabopolassar died on August 15, 605 BC and Nebuchadrezzar quickly returned to Babylon to ascend to the throne. After the defeat of the Cimmerians and Scythians, all of Nebuchadrezzar's expeditions were directed westwards, although a powerful neighbour lay to the North; the cause of this was that a wise political marriage with Amuhia, the daughter of the Median king, had insured a lasting peace between the two empires. Nebuchadrezzar engaged in several military campaigns designed to increase Babylonian influence in Syria and Judah. An attempted invasion of Egypt in 601 BC met with setbacks, however, leading to numerous rebellions among the states of the Levant, including Judah. Nebuchadrezzar soon dealt with these rebellions, capturing Jerusalem in 597 BC, and bringing King Jehoiachin to Babylon. When Pharaoh Apries attempted an invasion of Palestine again, in 589 BC, Judah and other states ot the region once again rebelled. Another siege of Jerusalem occurred in 587/586 BC, ending in the destruction of both the city and the Temple and the deportation of many prominent citizens to Babylon. These events are described in the Bible. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebuchadrezzar engaged in a 13 year long siege of Tyre (585-572 BC), which ended in a compromise, with the Tyrians accepting Babylonian authority. It would appear that following the pacification of Tyre, Nebuchadrezzar turned again to Egypt. A clay tablet, now in the British Museum, bears the following inscription referring to his wars: "In the 37th year of Nebuchadrezzar, king of the country of Babylon, he went to Mitzraim (Egypt) to make war. Amasis, king of Egypt, collected [his army], and marched and spread abroad." Having completed the subjugation of Phoenicia, and inflicted chastisement on Egypt, Nebuchadrezzar now set himself to rebuild and adorn the city of Babylon, and constructed canals, aqueducts and reservoirs. From Nebuchadrezzar's inscriptions and from the number of temples erected or restored by this prince we gather that he was a very devout man. What we know of his history shows him to have been of a humane disposition, in striking contrast with the display of wanton cruelty of most Assyrian rulers. It was owing to this moderation that Jerusalem was spared repeatedly, and finally destroyed only when its destruction became a political necessity; rebel princes easily obtained pardon, and Sedecias himself, whose ungratefulness to the Babylonian king was particularly odious, would, had he manifested less stubbornness, have been treated with greater indulgence (Jeremiah 38:17, 18); Nebuchadrezzar showed much consideration to Jeremias, leaving him free to accompany the exiles to Babylon or to remain in Jerusalem, and appointing one of the Prophet's friends, Godolias, to the governorship of Jerusalem; he granted likewise such a share of freedom to the exiled Jews that some rose to a position of prominence at Court and Baruch thought it a duty to exhort his fellow-countrymen to have the welfare of Babylon at heart and to pray for her king. Babylonian tradition has it that towards the end of his life, Nebuchadrezzar, inspired from on high, prophesied the impending ruin to the Chaldean Empire (Berosus and Abydenus in Eusebius, Praep. Evang., 9.41). Nebuchadrezzar died in Babylon between the second and sixth months of the forty-third year of his reign.

Construction activity

Nebuchadrezzar seems to have prided himself on his constructions more than on his victories. During the last century of Niniveh's existence, Babylon had been greatly devastated, not only at the hands of Sennacherib and Assurbanipal, but also as a result of her ever renewed rebellions. Nebuchadrezzar, continuing his father's work of reconstruction, aimed at making his capital one of the world's wonders. Old temples were restored; new edifices of incredible magnificence were erected to the many gods of the Babylonian pantheon (Diodorus of Sicily, 2.95; Herodotus, 1.183) to complete the royal palace begun by Nabopolassar, nothing was spared, neither "cedar-wood, nor bronze, gold, silver, rare and precious stones"; an underground passage and a stone bridge connected the two parts of the city separated by the Euphrates; the city itself was rendered impregnable by the construction of a triple line of walls. Nor was Nebuchadrezzar's activity confined to the capital; he is credited with the restoration of the Lake of Sippar, the opening of a port on the Persian Gulf, and the building of the famous Median wall between the Tigris and the Euphrates to protect the country against incursions from the North: in fact, there is scarcely a place around Babylon where his name does not appear and where traces of his activity are not found. These gigantic undertakings required an innumerable host of workmen: from the inscription of the great temple of Marduk , we may infer that most probably captives brought from various parts of Western Asia made up a large part of the labouring force used in all his public works.

Portrayal in the Book of Daniel

Nebuchadrezzar is most widely known through his portrayal in the Bible, especially the Book of Daniel, which discusses several events of his reign in addition to his conquest of Jerusalem: In the second year of his reign (evidently counting from his conquest of the Jews), Nebuchadrezzar dreams of a huge image made of various materials (gold, copper, iron, etc). The prophet Daniel interprets it to stand for the rise and fall of world powers. (Daniel Chapter 2) During another incident, Nebuchadrezzar erects a large idol for worship during a public ceremony on the plain of Dura. When three Jews, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) refuse to take part, he has them cast into a roaring furnace. They are protected by an angel and emerge unscathed. (Daniel Chapter 3) Another dream, this time of an immense tree, is interpreted by Daniel the prophet. (Daniel Chapter 4) While boasting over his achievements, Nebuchadrezzar is humbled by the God of the Jews. The king loses his sanity and lives in the wild like an animal for seven years (by some considered as an attack of the madness called lycanthropy). After this, his sanity and position are restored. Neither the illness, nor the interregnum which it must have caused, are recorded in Babylonian annals. Many scholars believe that the Book of Daniel was written long after the events described, during the 2nd century BC, and thus are skeptical of the details of Nebuchadrezzar's portrayal by Daniel. Some scholars think that Nebuchadrezzar's portrayal by Daniel is a mixture of traditions about Nebuchadrezzar -- he was indeed who conquered Jerusalem -- and about Nabonidus (Nabuna'id), the last king of Babylon. For example, Nabonidus was the real father of Belshazzar, and the seven years of insanity could be related to Nabonidus' sojourn in Teima. For more information, see the article Belshazzar.

Successors

After his death in October, 562 BC, having reigned 43 years, he was succeeded by his son Amel-Marduk, who, after a reign of two years, was succeeded by Neriglissar (559 - 555), who was succeeded by Nabonidus (555 - 538), at the close of whose reign (less than a quarter of a century after the death of Nebuchadrezzar) Babylon fell under Cyrus at the head of the combined armies of Media and Persia.

Named after Nebuchadrezzar


- There is a type of daylily named "Nebuchadnezzar's Furnace".
- In the popular The Matrix film trilogy, the main characters' hovercraft is named the Nebuchadnezzar.
- A bottle of champagne which contains the same amount as 20 bottles (15 litres) is called a Nebuchadnezzar

References


- Chapter 23, "The Chaldaean Kings" in George Roux, Ancient Iraq (3rd ed.). London: Penguin Books, 1992. ISBN 014012523-X
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10666c.htm Nabuchodonosor] on the Catholic Encyclopedia
Category:630 BC births Category:562 BC deaths Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh people Category:Babylonian kingsCategory:Chaldeans ja:ネブカドネザル2世

Jerusalem

Jerusalem (; Hebrew: ; Yerushalayim; Arabic: al-Quds; official Israeli Arabic: أُورْشَلِيم Urshalim; see also names of Jerusalem) is an ancient Middle Eastern city of key importance to the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The State of Israel has its capital at Jerusalem. With a population of 704,900 (as of December 31, 2004 [http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2004/tab_3.pdf]), it is a richly heterogeneous city, representing a wide range of national, religious, and socioeconomic groups. The section called the "Old City" is surrounded by walls and consists of four quarters: Jewish, Christian, Armenian, and Muslim. The status of the city is hotly disputed. The 1949 cease-fire line between Israel and Jordan, also known as the Green Line, cuts through the city. Since its victory in the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel has controlled the entire city and claims sovereignty over it. According to an Israeli law from January 1950 Jerusalem is the capital of Israel. A Basic Law of Israel enacted in 1980 (the Jerusalem Law) affirmed that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel, and is the center of Jerusalem District; indeed, since 1950, it serves as the country's seat of government and its capital. The