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7 September

7 September

September 7 is the 250th day of the year (251st in leap years). There are 115 days remaining.

Events

- 70 – A Roman army under General Titus occupies and plunders Jerusalem.
- 1191 - Third Crusade: Battle of Arsuf - Richard I of England defeats Saladin at Arsuf.
- 1539 - Guru Angad Dev ji becomes the second Guru of the Sikhs
- 1776 - World's first submarine attack. The American submersible craft Turtle attempts to attach a time bomb to the hull of British Admiral Richard Howe's flagship Eagle in New York Harbor.
- 1812 - Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Borodino - Napoleon defeats the Russian army of Alexander I near the village of Borodino.
- 1818 - Carl III of Sweden-Norway is crowned king of Norway, in Trondheim.
- 1821 - The Republic of Gran Colombia (a federation covering much of presentday Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador) was established, with Simón Bolívar as the founding President and Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president.
- 1822 - Brazil declares its independence from Portugal.
- 1860 - Steamship Lady Elgin sinks on Lake Michigan, with the loss of around 400 lives.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Atlanta, Georgia, is evacuated on orders of Union General William Tecumseh Sherman.
- 1876 - In Northfield, Minnesota, Jesse James and the James-Younger Gang attempt to rob the town's bank but are surrounded by an angry mob and are nearly killed.
- 1901 - The Boxer Rebellion in China officially ends with the signing of the Peking Protocol.
- 1911 - French poet Guillaume Apollinaire is arrested and put in jail on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre museum.
- 1915 - Former cartoonist John B. Gruelle is given a patent for his Raggedy Ann doll.
- 1921 - In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant, a two-day event, is held.
- 1927 - The University of Minas Gerais is founded in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, by Governor Antônio Carlos.
- 1927 - The first fully electronic television system is achieved by Philo Taylor Farnsworth.
- 1940 - World War II: The Blitz - Nazi Germany begins to rain bombs on London. This will be the first of 57 consecutive nights of bombing.
- 1940 - Treaty of Craiova: Romania loses Southern Dobrudja to Bulgaria.
- 1943 - A fire at the Gulf Hotel in Houston, Texas, kills 55 people.
- 1950 - Coal mine collapses in New Cumnock, Scotland - 13 miners dead. 116 rescued.
- 1950 - The gameshow Truth or Consequences debuts on television.
- 1953 - Nikita Khrushchev becomes head of the Soviet Central Committee.
- 1963 - The Pro Football Hall of Fame opens in Canton, Ohio with 17 charter members.
- 1965 - China announces that it will reinforce its troops in the Indian border.
- 1965 - Vietnam War: In a follow-up to August's Operation Starlight, United States Marines and South Vietnamese forces initiate Operation Pirahna on the Batangan Peninsula.
- 1966 - The final new episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show airs (the first episode aired on October 3, 1961).
- 1970 - An anti-war rally is held at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, attended by John Kerry, Jane Fonda and Donald Sutherland.
- 1970 - Fighting between Arabic guerillas and government forces in Amman, Jordan.
- 1971 - The last new episode of The Beverly Hillbillies is aired (the first episode debuted on September 26, 1962).
- 1977 - The Torrijos-Carter Treaties between Panama and the United States on the status of the Panama Canal are signed. The US agrees to transfer control of the canal to Panama at the end of the 20th century.
- 1979 - The Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (ESPN) makes its debut.
- 1979 - The Chrysler Corporation asks the United States government for USD $1 billion to avoid bankruptcy.
- 1986 - Desmond Tutu becomes the first black to lead the Anglican Church in South Africa.
- 1986 - Gen. Augusto Pinochet, president of Chile, escapes attempted assassination.
- 1988 - Abdul Ahad Mohmand, the first Afghan in space, returns aboard the Soviet spacecraft Soyuz TM-5 after 9 days on the Mir space station
- 1991 – Ty Detmer of BrighamYoung passes for a then-NCAA Division I-A career record 11,606 yards.
- 1996 - In Las Vegas, Nevada, actor and recording artist Tupac Shakur is shot several times after attending a boxing match, he dies six days later.
- 1997 - The first test flight of the F/A-22 Raptor takes place.
- 1998 - Google Inc. is founded.
- 1999 - A major earthquake close to Athens, Greece, results to the collapse of few buildings in the area. About 150 people are killed.
- 2004 - The Serbian government backs a decision by Minister of Education and Sport Ljiljana Čolić to require the teaching of both creationism and evolution in schools.
- 2004 - The Deluxe Edition DVD of Resident Evil in released.
- 2005 - Apple Computer introduced the iPod nano, a revolutionary full-featured iPod that holds 1,000 songs yet is thinner than a standard #2 pencil and less than half the size of competitive players.
- 2005 - Apple Computer announced iTunes 5.

Births

- 1395 - Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (d. 1450)
- 1524 - Thomas Erastus, Swiss theologian (d. 1583)
- 1533 - Queen Elizabeth I of England (d. 1603)
- 1615 - Colonel John Birch, English soldier (d. 1691)
- 1707 - Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French naturalist (d. 1788)
- 1717 - Martin Dobrizhoffer, Austrian Jesuit missionary (d. 1791)
- 1816 - Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, Austrian physician (d. 1880)
- 1829 - Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, German chemist (d. 1896)
- 1860 - Grandma Moses, American painter (d. 1961)
- 1866 - Tristan Bernard, French writer (d. 1947)
- 1867 - J. P. Morgan, American financier (d. 1943)
- 1870 - Aleksandr Kuprin, Russian writer (d. 1938)
- 1885 - Elinor Wylie, American writer (d. 1928)
- 1887 - Edith Sitwell, English poet (d. 1964)
- 1870 - Jimmy Tompkins, Canadian Catholic priest (d. 1953)
- 1895 - Brian Horrocks, British general (d. 1985)
- 1900 - Taylor Caldwell, American author (d. 1985)
- 1908 - Paul Brown, American football coach (d. 1991)
- 1908 - Dr. Michael DeBakey, American heart surgeon
- 1909 - Elia Kazan, Hungarian-born film director (d. 2003)
- 1912 - David Packard, American electrical engineer and businessman (d. 1996)
- 1913 - Sir Anthony Quayle, English actor (d. 1989)
- 1913 - Miguel Rolando Covian, Brazilian physiologist (d. 1992)
- 1917 - John Cornforth, Australian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1917 - Jacob Lawrence, American painter (d. 2000)
- 1923 - Peter Lawford, English actor (d. 1984)
- 1929 - Sonny Rollins, American jazz saxophonist
- 1930 - King Baudouin I of Belgium (d. 1993)
- 1932 - Paul Getty, American-born philanthropist (d. 2003)
- 1936 - Buddy Holly, American singer (d. 1959)
- 1937 - John Phillip Law, American actor
- 1939 - Donnie Allison, American race car driver
- 1944 - Robert Laxton, English politician
- 1944 - Bora Milutinovic, Serbian football coach
- 1945 - Jacques Lemaire, Canadian hockey player
- 1946 - Willie Crawford, baseball player (d. 2004)
- 1946 - Francisco Varela, Chilean biologist (d. 2001)
- 1947 - Graham Young, British serial killer (d. 1990)
- 1949 - Lee McGeorge Durrell, American author, television presenter, and zookeeper
- 1949 - Gloria Gaynor, American singer
- 1951 - Morris Albert, Brazilian singer
- 1951 - Chrissie Hynde, American guitarist and singer
- 1951 - Julie Kavner, American voice actress
- 1952 - Susan Blakely, American actress
- 1954 - Corbin Bernsen, American actor
- 1954 - Benmont Tench, American keyboardist
- 1955 - Mira Furlan, Croatian actress
- 1958 - Danny Chan, Hong Kong singer, actor, and songwriter (d. 1993)
- 1962 - Thomas L. Beard, American musician, composer
- 1963 - Eazy-E, American rapper (d. 1995)
- 1966 - Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann, German speed skater
- 1968 - Marcel Desailly, French footballer
- 1976 - Stevie Case (Killcreek), American video game celebrity
- 1976 - Shannon Elizabeth, American actress
- 1978 - Nora Greenwald, American professional wrestler
- 1980 - Mark Prior, baseball player
- 1982 - Lorne Berfield, American actor
- 1984 - Vera Zvonareva, Russian tennis player
- 1987 - Evan Rachel Wood, American actress

Deaths

- 1151 - Geoffrey of Anjou (b. 1113)
- 1312 - King Ferdinand IV of Castile (b. 1285)
- 1496 - King Ferdinand II of Naples (b. 1469)
- 1548 - Catherine Parr, queen of Henry VIII of England
- 1552 - Guru Angad Dev, second Sikh Guru (b. 1504)
- 1559 - Robert Estienne, French printer (b. 1503)
- 1632 - Sissinios of Ethiopia
- 1644 - Guido Bentivoglio, Italian statesman and historian (b. 1579)
- 1654 - Yom-Tov Lipmann Heller, Bohemian rabbi and liturgical poet (b. 1579)
- 1655 - François Tristan l'Hermite, French dramatist (b. 1601)
- 1657 - Arvid Wittenberg, Swedish field marshal and statesman (b. 1606)
- 1719 - John Harris, English writer
- 1728 - William Burnet, British Governor of New York and New Jersey (b. 1688)
- 1777 - Tekle Haymanot I of Ethiopia
- 1799 - Louis Guillaume Lemonnier, French botanist (b. 1717)
- 1809 - Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke, King of Thailand (b. 1737)
- 1840 - Étienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre MacDonald, French marshal (b. 1765)
- 1881 - Sidney Lanier, American writer (b. 1842)
- 1892 - John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet (b. 1807)
- 1951 - Maria Montez, Dominican actress (b. 1912)
- 1962 - Kirstin Flagstad, Norwegian soprano (b. 1895)
- 1962 - Isak Dinesen, Danish author (b. 1885)
- 1969 - Everett Dirksen, U. S. Senator from Illinois (b. 1896)
- 1971 - Spring Byington, American actress (b. 1886)
- 1976 - Daniel F. Galouye, American author (b. 1920)
- 1978 - Keith Moon, English drummer (The Who) (b. 1946)
- 1982 - Ken Boyer, baseball player (b. 1931)
- 1985 - Rodney Robert Porter, English biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1917)
- 1991 - Edwin Mattison McMillan, American physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1907)
- 1994 - James Clavell, Australian-born American author (b. 1924)
- 1997 - Mobutu Sese Seko, dictator of Zaire (b. 1930)
- 2001 - Spede Pasanen, Finnish television personality (b. 1930)
- 2002 - Erma Franklin, American singer (b. 1938)
- 2003 - The Great Antonio, Canadian strongman and eccentric (b. 1925)
- 2003 - Warren Zevon, American musician and songwriter (b. 1947)
- 2004 - Bob Boyd, baseball player (b. 1925)
- 2005 - Hope Garber, Canadian actress, hostess, entertainer and singer; also mother of actor Victor Garber (b. circa 1924)

Holidays and observances

- RC Saints - Saint Regina; Saint Evurtius (Heortius), St. Cload (Clodoald) Also see September 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Brazil - Independence day (from Portugal, 1822)
- Mozambique - Victory Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/7 BBC: On This Day] ---- September 6 - September 8 - August 7 - October 7 – more historical anniversaries ko:9월 7일 ms:7 September ja:9月7日 simple:September 7 th:7 กันยายน

September 7

September 7 is the 250th day of the year (251st in leap years). There are 115 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

70

Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s - 70s - 80s 90s 100s 110s 120s Years: 65 66 67 68 69 - 70 - 71 72 73 74 75 ----

Events

- The building of the Colosseum starts (approximate date).
- Pliny the Elder served as procurator in Gallia Narbonensis.
- The Roman general and future Roman Emperor, Titus Flavius, destroys the Temple in Jerusalem, leaving erect only the famous Western Wall. Rome stations troops in Jerusalem and abolishes the Jewish high priesthood and Sanhedrin. This becomes known as the Fall of Jerusalem. Following this event, the Jewish religious leadership moves from Jerusalem to Jamnia (present day Yavne).
- Roman legions V Alaudae and XV Primigeniae are destroyed during the Batavian rebellion. Later, Potillius Cerealis puts down the Batavian rebellion of Civilis.
- Frontinus is praetor of Rome.
- Legions I and IV Macedonica are disbanded, II Audiutrix is created.
- Neapolis (Nablus) is founded in Judea.
- Avignon becomes the seat of a bishopric.
- Emperor Domitian, then an imperial prince, marries Domitia Longina
- Romans make a punitive expedition against Garamantes - they are forced to have an official relationship with the Empire

Births

Deaths

- Hero of Alexandria (approximate date). Category:70 ko:70년

1191

Events

- May 12 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre.
- September 7 - Third Crusade: Battle of Arsuf - Richard I of England defeats Saladin at Arsuf.
- The monks of Glastonbury Abbey announce that they have found the burial sites of King Arthur and his Queen Guinevere.
- The city of Berne was founded hi kane the duke Berthold V of Zähringen

Births

- February 8 - Yaroslav II of Russia (d. 1246)

Deaths

- March 20 - Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia (born 1167)
- March 27 - Pope Clement III
- William III of Montferrat, Burgundian crusader Category:1191 ko:1191년 simple:1191

Battle of Arsuf

The Battle of Arsuf was a battle of the Third Crusade in which Richard I of England defeated Saladin at Arsuf. After capturing Acre in 1191, Richard fought many minor battles with Saladin, whose main objective was to prevent Jerusalem from being recaptured. Knowing he would need to control the port of Jaffa before making an attempt on Jerusalem, Richard began to march down the coast from Acre in August of 1191. Saladin came upon Richard's army just north of Jaffa at Arsuf on September 7. The Templars defended the vanguard while the Hospitallers defended the rear. Other commanders included Hugh III of Burgundy, Guy de Lusignan, Henry II of Champagne, Robert de Sable, Andre' de Chauvigny, Roger de Lacy, Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester, and Hubert Walter. Saladin tried to lure the Crusaders out with a light cavalry charge; Richard delayed as long as possible while his Angevin crossbowmen held back Saladin's charge, although the Muslim archers were able to inflict heavy damage on the Hospitallers' horses. The Hospitallers could no longer resist a counterattack. They charged into Saladin's right flank, with Richard following them, and the Templars charging the left flank. Saladin was forced to retreat, the legend of his invincibility having been destroyed. The Crusaders could also take pride in their first victory since the Battle of Hattin in 1187. Among the light Christian casualties was Jacques d'Avesnes. On September 10, Richard took Jaffa and would begin to prepare for an assault on Jerusalem. Although Richard successfully defended Jaffa when Saladin attacked him there in 1192, he could not recapture Jerusalem. Arsuf ja:アルスフの戦い

Richard I of England

Richard I (September 8, 1157 – April 6, 1199) was King of England from 1189 to 1199. He was often referred to as Richard the Lionheart, Cœur de Lion.

Early life

The third of King Henry II's legitimate sons, Richard was never expected to ascend to the throne. He was, however, the favourite son of his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Richard was a younger maternal half-brother of Marie de Champagne and Alix of France. He was a younger brother of William, Count of Poitiers, Henry the Young King and Matilda of England. He was also an older brother of Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany, Leonora of Aquitaine , Joan Plantagenet and John of England. Although born at Beaumont Palace, Oxford, England, he soon came to know France as his home. When his parents effectively separated, he remained in Eleanor's care, and was invested with her duchy of Aquitaine in 1168, and of Poitiers in 1172. This was his consolation prize for the fact that his eldest surviving brother, Henry the Young King, was simultaneously crowned as his father's successor. Richard and his other brother, Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, thus learned how to defend their property while still teenagers. As well as being an educated man, able to compose poetry in French and Provençal, he was also very attractive; blond, blue-eyed, his height is estimated at six feet four inches (1.93 m) tall. He gloried in military activity. From an early age he appeared to have significant political and military abilities, became noted for his chivalry and courage, and soon was able to control the unruly nobles of his territory. As with all the true-born sons of Henry II, Richard had limited respect for his father and lacked foresight and a sense of responsibility. Throughout his life preachers were to thunder at him to beware the fate of Sodom, and his marriage does not seem to have ever been consummated. However, he is known to have had at least one illegitimate child. In 1170, his elder brother Henry the Young King was crowned king of England as Henry III. Historians know him as Henry "the Young King" so as not to confuse him with the later king of this name who was his nephew. In 1173, Richard joined his brothers, Henry and Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, in a revolt against their father. They were planning to dethrone their father and leave the Young King as the only king of England. Henry II invaded Aquitaine twice. At the age of seventeen, Richard was the last of the brothers to hold out against Henry; though, in the end, he refused to fight him face to face and humbly begged his pardon. In 1174, after the end of the failed revolt, Richard gave a new oath of subservience to his father. Richard had several major reasons for discontent with his father. First was Henry's refusal to allow Richard any real power or funds despite pleas by Richard for more of both. Though placated by glittering titles such as Count of Poitou, Richard wanted more and Henry seemed unwilling to entrust any of his sons with resources that could be used against him, with very good reason. Second, and more personal, was that Henry had appropriated Princess Alys (not the same Alix as Richard's half-sister), the daughter of the French king and Richard's betrothed, as his mistress. This made a marriage between Richard and Alys technically impossible – at least in the eyes of the church, but Henry, not wishing to cause a diplomatic incident, prevaricated and did not confess to his misdeed. As for Richard, he was discouraged from renouncing Alys because she was Philip's sister. After his failure to overthrow his father, Richard concentrated on putting down internal revolts by the dissatisfied nobles of Aquitaine, especially the territory of Gascony. The increasing cruelty of his reign led to a major revolt of Gascony in 1183. Richard had a terrible reputation, including reports of various rapes and murders. The rebels hoped to dethrone Richard and asked his brothers Henry and Geoffrey to help them succeed. Their father feared that the war between his three sons could lead to the destruction of his kingdom. He led the part of his army that served in his French territories in support of Richard. The Young King's death on June 11, 1183, ended the revolt, and Richard remained on his throne. Young Henry's death left Richard as the eldest surviving son and the natural heir when the old King eventually died. However, there was some uncertainty over King Henry's intentions. When Geoffrey also died, Richard was the only realistic possibility, his youngest brother, John, being too weak and inexperienced to be considered as an alternative. From the Young King's death Richard was considered – though not officially proclaimed – heir to the joint thrones of England, Normandy and Anjou. In 1188 Henry II planned to concede Aquitaine to his youngest son John Lackland, later King John of England. In opposition to his father's plans, Richard allied himself with King Philip II of France, the son of Eleanor's ex-husband Louis VII by his third wife, Adele of Champagne. In exchange for Philip's help against his father, Richard promised to concede his rights to both Normandy and Anjou to Philip. Richard gave an oath of subservience to Philip in November of the same year. In 1189 Richard attempted to take the throne of England for himself by joining Philip's expedition against his father. They were victorious. Henry, with John's consent, agreed to name Richard his heir. On July 6, 1189 Henry II died in Chinon, and Richard I succeeded him as King of England, Duke of Normandy, and Count of Anjou. He was officially crowned duke on July 20 and king in Westminster on September 3, 1189.

Reign

Richard had forbidden any Jews to make an appearance at his coronation, but some Jewish leaders showed up anyway to present gifts for the new king. According to Ralph of Diceto, Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out of court. The people of London joined in to persecute the Jews, and a massacre began. Many Jews were beaten to death, robbed, and burnt alive. At least one was forcibly baptised. Some sought sanctuary in the Tower of London, and others managed to escape half-dead. However other chroniclers such as Benedict of Peterborough tell a different story; the rioting was started by the jealous and bigoted citizens of London. Richard is said to have punished the perpetrators and allowed a forcibly converted Jew to return to Judaism. The Archbishop of Canterbury reacted by remarking "If the King is not God's man, he had better be the devil's," a reference to the supposedly infernal blood in the Angevin line. Richard has been criticised for doing little for England, siphoning the kingdom's resources by appointing Jewish moneylenders to support his journeys away on Crusade in the Holy Land. Indeed, he spent only six months of his ten year reign in England, claiming it was "cold and always raining." During the period when he was raising funds for his Crusade, Richard was heard to declare, "If I could have found a buyer I would have sold London itself." Holy Land] Leaving the country in the hands of various officials he designated (including his mother, at times), Richard spent only a small fraction of his reign in England, being far more concerned with his possessions in what is now France and his battles in Palestine. He had grown up on the Continent, and had never seen any need to learn the English language. Soon after his accession to the throne, he decided to join the Third Crusade, inspired by the loss of Jerusalem to the Muslims under the command of Saladin. Afraid that, during his absence, the French might usurp his territories, Richard tried to persuade Philip to join the Crusade as well. Philip agreed and both gave their crusader oaths on the same date. Richard did not concern himself with the future of England. He wanted to engage in an adventure that would cause the troubadours to immortalise his name, as well as guaranteeing him a place in heaven. The evidence suggests that he had deep spiritual needs, and he swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise a new English crusader army, though most of his warriors were Normans, and supplied it with weapons. He spent most of his father's treasury (filled with money raised by the Saladin tithe), raised taxes, and even agreed to free King William I of Scotland from his oath of subservience to Richard in exchange for 10,000 marks. To raise even more money he sold official positions, rights, and lands to those interested in them. He finally succeeded in raising a huge army and navy. After repositioning the part of his army he left behind so that it would guard his French possessions, Richard finally started his expedition to the Holy Land in 1190. Richard appointed as regents Hugh, Bishop of Durham, and William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex, who soon died and was replaced by Richard's chancellor William Longchamp. Richard's brother John was not satisfied by this decision and started scheming against William.

The struggle for Sicily

In September 1190 both Richard and Philip arrived in Sicily. In 1189 King William II of Sicily had died. His heir was his aunt Constance, later Queen Constance of Sicily, who was married to Emperor Henry VI. But immediately after William's death, William's cousin, Tancred, rebelled, seized control of the island and was crowned early in 1190 as King Tancred I of Sicily. He was favored by the people and Pope Clement III, but he had problems with the island's nobles. Richard's arrival caused even more problems. Tancred had imprisoned William's widow, Queen Joan, who was Richard's sister, and did not give her the money she had inherited according to William's will. Richard demanded that his sister be released and given her inheritance. Meanwhile the presence of two foreign armies caused unrest among the people. In October, the people of Messina revolted, demanding that the foreigners leave the island. Richard attacked Messina and captured it on October 4, 1190. After looting and burning the city Richard established his base in it. He remained there until March 1191 when Tancred finally agreed to sign a treaty. The treaty was signed during the same month by Richard, Philip and Tancred. According to the treaty's main terms:
- Joan was to be released, receiving her inheritance along with the dowry her father had given to the deceased William.
- Richard and Philip recognized Tancred as legal King of Sicily and vowed to keep the peace between all three of their kingdoms.
- Richard officially proclaimed his nephew, the son of Geoffrey, Arthur of Brittany, as his heir, and Tancred promised to later marry one of his daughters to Arthur when he came of age (Arthur was only four years old at the time). After signing the treaty Richard and Philip left Sicily. The treaty undermined England's relationships with the Holy Roman Empire and caused the revolt of Richard's brother John, who hoped to be proclaimed heir instead of their nephew. Although his revolt failed, John continued to scheme against his brother after this point.

Richard on the Third Crusade

In April 1191, Richard stopped on the Byzantine island of Rhodes to avoid the stormy weather. It seems that Richard had previously met his fiancée Berengaria only once, years before their marriage. He had assigned his mother to represent him and convince her father, Sancho VI of Navarre, and her other relatives to agree to the marriage, and to bring the bride to the wedding. Richard came to their rescue when they were shipwrecked on the coast of Cyprus. He left Rhodes in May but a new storm drove Richard's fleet to the island. On May 6, 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Lemesos (now Limassol). Richard captured the city. When the island's despot Isaac Dukas Comnenus arrived to stop the Crusaders he discovered he was too late, and retired to Kolossi. Richard called Isaac to negotiations but Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and started demanding Richard's departure. Richard ordered his cavalry to follow him in a battle against Isaac's army in Tremetusia. The few Roman Catholics of the island joined Richard's army and so did the island's nobles who were dissatisfied with Isaac's seven years of tyrannical rule. Though Isaac and his men fought bravely, Richard's army was bigger and better equipped, assuring his victory. Isaac continued to resist from the castles of Pentadactylos but after the siege of his castle of Kantara he finally surrendered. Richard became the new ruler of Cyprus. castle of Kantara Richard looted the island and massacred those trying to resist him. Meanwhile, Richard was finally able to marry Berengaria, first-born daughter of King Sancho VI of Navarre, whose brother Sancho (the future Sancho VII) was allegedly one of Richard's early lovers. The marriage was held in Limassol on May 12, 1191 at the Chapel of St. George. It was attended by his sister Joan, whom Richard had brought from Sicily. There were no children from the marriage; opinions vary as to whether it was ever a love match. The unfortunate Berengaria had almost as much difficulty in making the journey home as her husband did, and did not see England until after his death. From Cyprus onwards, Richard had among his friends and allies a Franco-Syrian noble, Humphrey IV of Toron, the former husband of Richard's father's first cousin Isabella, Queen of Jerusalem. The young Humphrey was the dispossessed Lord of Toron, Oultrejordain, etc. He knew the Muslim culture and spoke Arabic, whereby Richard used him as his translator and negotiator. As contemporary sources alleged, Humphrey was not suited to married life and was known as soft and effeminate. (He did not want to oppose the other lords, and therefore had consented to the forced divorce from Richard's cousin.) As contemporary sources say, Richard had a deep affection for Humphrey. Humphrey died sometime in the mid-1190s. Whether Richard's marriage with Berengaria was ever even consummated is a matter for conjecture. (Though it should be noted that when Richard married Berengaria he was still officially betrothed to Alys and that Richard pushed for the match, in order to obtain Navarre as a fief like Aquitaine for his father.) Richard had a terrible womanising reputation, but he took his new wife with him briefly on this episode of the crusade. However, they returned separately. Although, after his release from German captivity, Richard showed some degree of regret for his earlier conduct, he was not joined by his wife. The fact that the marriage was childless is inconclusive, but it is certainly true that Richard had to be ordered by a priest to reunite with and to show fidelity to Berengaria in the future, with the language he used being the main source cited for a 20th century theory that Richard had been engaged in homosexual activities. Nevertheless, when he died in 1199, she was greatly distressed, apparently having loved her husband very much. Richard and most of his army left Cyprus for the Holy Land early in June. In his absence Cyprus would be governed by Richard Camville. King Richard arrived at Acre in June 1191, in time to relieve the siege of the city by Saladin. Deserted by Philip and having fallen out with Duke Leopold V of Austria, he suddenly found himself without allies. Richard's tactics ensured success at the siege of Acre and on the subsequent march south, Saladin's men being unable to harass the Crusader army into an impulsive action which might not have gone their way. However, the desertion of the French king had been a major blow, from which they could not hope to recover. Realising that he had no hope of holding Jerusalem even if he took it, Richard sadly ordered a retreat. Despite being only a few miles from the city, he refused, thereafter, to set eyes on it, since God had ordained that he should not be the one to conquer it. He had finally realised that his return home could be postponed no longer, since both Philip and John were taking advantage of his absence to make themselves more powerful. Having planned to leave Conrad of Montferrat as "King" of Jerusalem and Cyprus in the hands of his own protégé, Guy of Lusignan, Richard was dealt another blow when Conrad was assassinated before he could be crowned. His replacement was Richard's own nephew, Henry II of Champagne.

Captivity and return

Bad luck dogged Richard on his return home. Bad weather forced his ship to put in at Corfu, the territory of the Byzantine Emperor Isaac Angelus, who was still angry at Richard for his annexation of Cyprus. Disguised as a Knight Templar, Richard sailed from Corfu with four attendants in a pirate ship, which wrecked near Aquileia, forcing Richard and his party into a dangerous land route through central Europe. On his way to the territory of Henry of Saxony, his brother-in-law, Richard was captured shortly before Christmas 1192 only a few miles from the Moravian border, near Vienna, by Leopold V of Austria, who accused Richard of ordering the death of Conrad. Richard and his retainers had been traveling disguised as pilgrims, complete with flowing beards and tattered clothes. Richard himself was dressed like a kitchen hand, but was identified because he was wearing a magnificent and costly ring no menial worker could afford. (Another tale claimed he was identified by his insistence on eating roast chicken, a great delicacy reserved for nobility.) The Duke handed him over as a prisoner to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor after being held captive at Dürnstein. Although the circumstances of his captivity were not severe, he was frustrated by his inability to travel freely. Richard once proudly declared, "I am born of a rank which recognizes no superior but God" to the emperor. His mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, worked tirelessly to raise the exorbitant ransom of 150,000 marks demanded by the German emperor, which was twice the annual income for the English Crown. Both clergy and laymen were taxed for a quarter of the value of their property, the gold and silver treasures of the churches were confiscated, and money was raised from the scutage and the carucage taxes. The emperor demanded that 100,000 marks be delivered to him before he would release the king, the same amount that had been raised by the Saladin tithe only a few years earlier. At the same time, John, Richard's brother, and King Philip offered 80,000 marks for the Emperor to hold Richard prisoner until Michaelmas 1194. The emperor turned down the offer. The money to rescue the King was transferred to Germany by the emperor's ambassadors, but "at the king's peril" (had it been lost along the way, Richard would have been held responsible), and finally, on February 4, 1194 Richard was released. King Philip of France sent a message to John: "Look to yourself; the devil is loose."

Later years and death

John During his absence, John had come close to seizing the throne; Richard forgave him, and even named him as his heir in place of Arthur, who was growing into an unpleasant youth. Instead of turning against John, Richard came into conflict with his former ally and friend, King Philip. When Philip attacked Richard's fortress, Chateau-Gaillard, he boasted that "if its walls were iron, yet would I take it", to which Richard replied, "If these walls were butter, yet would I hold them!" Chateau-Gaillard] After his many famous battles, it was a minor skirmish with the rebellious castle of Châlus-Charbrol in Limousin, France, on 26 March, 1199 that would take Richard's life. Richard had laid siege to the castle in pursuit of a claim to treasure-trove. Pierre Basile was one of only two knights defending Châlus. Richard, who had removed some of his chainmail, was wounded in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt launched from a tower by Basile. Gangrene set in and Richard asked to see his killer. He ordered that Basile be set free and awarded a sum of money. However as soon as Richard died, with his 77-year-old mother Eleanor at his side, on 6 April, 1199, Mercadier had Basile flayed alive and then hanged. Richard's existence had been a series of contradictions. Although he had neglected his wife, Berengaria, and had to be commanded by priests to be faithful to her, she was distraught at the news of his death. No heir was born of their marriage. Richard's bowels were buried at the foot of the tower from which the shot was loosed, his heart was buried at Rouen, while the rest of his remains were buried next to his father at Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon and Saumur, France.

Legacy

Saumur in London.]] As Richard produced no heirs, he was succeeded by his brother John as king of England. However, his French territories initially rejected John as a successor, preferring his nephew Arthur of Brittany, the son of their late brother Geoffrey, whose claim was technically better than John's. Significantly, the lack of any direct heirs from Richard was the first step in the disolution of the Angevin Empire. While England continued to press claims to properties on the continent, it would never again command the territories Richard I inherited. In the long term Richard's legacy has to be viewed through the lens of his personality and personal accomplishments. There is no doubt that Richard had many admirable qualities, as well as many bad ones. The most succinct summation of his character is from Winston Churchill: :"Although a man of blood and violence, Richard was too impetuous to be either treacherous or habitually cruel. He was as ready to forgive as he was hasty to offend; he was open-handed and munificent to profusion; in war circumspect in design and skillful in execution; in politics a child, lacking in subtlety and experience. His political alliances were formed upon his likes and dislikes; his political schemes had neither unity nor clearness of purpose. The advantages gained for him by military genius were flung away through diplomatic ineptitude." Richard was a pure military man and while politically astute in some ways, he was incredibly foolish in others. He combined moments of great largesse and humility with great arrogance and ruthlessness. He was revered by his most worthy rival, Saladin, and respected by the Emperor Henry, but hated by many who had been his friends, especially King Philip. He was often careless of his own safety: the wound which killed him need not have been inflicted at all if he had been properly armoured. Almost the same thing had happened, ten years earlier when, while feuding with his father, he had encountered William Marshal while unarmed and had to beg for his life. These contradictions of his character fascinated his contemporaries, many of whom held him up as an exemplar of chivalry. In the long run Richard's legacy comprised several parts. First, he captured Cyprus, which proved immensely valuable in keeping the Frankish kingdoms in the Holy Land viable for another century. Secondly, his absence from the English political landscape meant that the highly efficient government created by his father was allowed to entrench itself, though King John would later abuse it to the breaking point. As Sir Winston Churchill pointed out, this was the embryo beginning of the English Civil Service and "proved that the King, to whom all allegiance had been rendered, was no longer the sole guarantee for law and order." The last part of Richard's legacy was romantic and literary. No matter the facts of his reign, he left an indelible imprint on the imagination extending to the present, in large part because of his military exploits. This is reflected in Steven Runciman's final verdict of Richard I: "he was a bad son, a bad husband and a bad king, but a gallant and splendid soldier."

Folklore

Over the years the figures of Robin Hood and Richard I have become closely linked. However, in the earliest Robin Hood ballads the only king mentioned is "Edward our comely king", presumably Edward I, II, or III. It was not until much later that a connection came to be made between the two men. The typical usage of the link is that the major political goal of Robin's war is to restore Richard to the throne after Prince John usurped it. Another fictional aspect to Richard's life is the legend of his minstrel, Blondel, who, after Richard's capture, traveled Europe, going from castle to castle and loudly singing a song known only to the two of them. Eventually, the story goes, he came to the place where Richard was being held, and heard the song answered with the appropriate refrain, thus revealing where the king was incarcerated. Due to his bravery, savagery, and fame in the Arabic world, Richard became a bit of a bogeyman in the Middle East for centuries after his death. Mothers would occasionally threaten unruly children with the admonition "King Richard will get you" well into the late 19th century.

Fictional portrayals

Richard has appeared frequently in fictional works. Beyond his role in the Robin Hood legend, Richard appears in several works by Sir Walter Scott, including Ivanhoe (in which he initially adopts the pseudonym of le Noir Fainéant, meaning "The black sluggard") and The Talisman. He is also a major character in James Goldman's play The Lion in Winter. Richard has also been portrayed on film numerous times. Wallace Berry played Richard in the 1922 silent film, "Robin Hood" with Douglas Fairbanks. Cecil B. DeMille cast Henry Wilcoxon as Richard in his 1935 film "The Crusades." Ian Hunter played Richard in the 1938 film The Adventures of Robin Hood with Errol Flynn. Richard was played by George Sanders in the 1954 film King Richard and the Crusaders (loosely based on The Talisman). Anthony Hopkins played him in the film version of The Lion in Winter. Richard Harris played him in Robin and Marian (a very unromantic portrayal). Sean Connery played him in an uncredited cameo in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, a role which was parodied two years later by Patrick Stewart in Mel Brooks's comedic Robin Hood: Men in Tights. Iain Glen played Richard in a brief appearance at the end of the 2005 film Kingdom of Heaven. Other actors have played Richard on film and television, including numerous adaptations of Ivanhoe and other versions of the Robin Hood legend. The 1965 Doctor Who television serial "The Crusade" is set during Richard's conflict with Saladin, and features Julian Glover as Richard. John Rhys-Davies played Richard in one episode of the 1980s television series Robin of Sherwood. Andrew Howard played Richard in a 2003 television adaptation of The Lion in Winter.

References

- 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
- Roger de Hoveden
- Ralph of Diceto
- Gillingham, John. Richard the Lionheart, 1978

External links

- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/hoveden1.html Roger of Hoveden on Richard the Lion-Hearted and King Philip II of France]
- [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=17 Richard and Saladin: Warriors of the Third Crusade] | width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"|Preceded by:
Henry II | width="40%" align="center"|King of England
1189–1199 | width="30%" align="center" rowspan="3"|Succeeded by:
John |- | width="40%" align="center"|Duke of Normandy
1189–1199 |- | width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"|… with Henry the Young King | width="40%" align="center"|Count of Maine
1189–1199 |- | width="40%" align="center" | Count of Anjou
1189–1199 | width="30%" align="center" | Succeeded by:
Arthur |- | width="30%" align="center" |… with Eleanor | width="40%" align="center" | Duke of Aquitaine
1189–1199 | width="30%" align="center" | Succeeded by:
John Category:1157 births Category:1199 deaths Category:Counts of Anjou Category:Crusades Category:Dukes of Normandy Category:English monarchs Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:House of Anjou Category:Natives of Oxfordshire ja:リチャード1世 (イングランド王) simple:Richard I of England th:ริชาร์ดที่ 1 แห่งอังกฤษ

Arsuf

Arsuf (also known as Arsur or Apollonia) was an ancient city and fortress located in what is now Israel, about 15 kilometres north of Tel Aviv, on the cliff above Mediterranian Sea. The city site, Tel Arsuf, was intensively excavated from 1994. In 2002, Apollonia National Park was open here. Modern Arsuf is a small settlement to the north from Apollonia (area 0.25 km², 90 inhabitants).

Town History

The town was settled by Phoenicians in the 6th or 5th century BC, and named Arshuf after Resheph, the Canaanite god of fertility and the underworld. It was then a part of the Persian Empire and governed from Sidon. Phoenicians of Arshuf produced the precious purple dye, derived from murex mollusks, which they exported to the Aegean. During the Hellenistic period, it was an ancorage town, ruled by Seleucids and re-named Apollonia, as the Greeks identified Reshef with Apollo. Under Roman rule, the size of the town increased. It was an important settlement between Jaffa and Caesarea along Via Maris, the coastal road. In 113 CE, Apollonia was destroyed partially by earthquake, but recovered quickly. The harbor was built, and the trade with Italy and North Africa developed. During the Byzantine period, the town extended to cover an area of 70 acres. In the 5th and 6th century CE it was the second largest city in Sharon valley, after Caesarea, populated by Christian and Samaritans, having an elaborate church and a prosperous glass industry. In 640 CE, the town was captured by Muslims, and the Semitic name Arsuf was restored. Town area decreased to about 22 acres and, for the first time, it was surrounded by a fortified wall with buttresses, to resist to the constant attacks of Byzantine fleet from the sea. Large marketplaces appeared, and pottery production developed. In 809, following the death of Harun al-Rashid, local Samaritan community was destroyed and their synagogue ruined. In 1101 Arsuf fell to a Crusader army led by Baldwin I of Jerusalem. The Crusaders, who called it Arsur, rebuilt the city's walls and created the Lordship of Arsur in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1187 Arsuf was captured by the Muslims, but fell again to the Crusaders on September 7, 1191 after a battle between Richard I of England and Saladin. John of Ibelin, Lord of Beirut (1177—1236) became Lord of Arsur in 1207 when he married Melisende of Arsur (born c.1170). Their son John of Arsur (c.1211—1258) inherited the title. The title then passed to John of Arsur's eldest son Balian (1239—1277). He built new walls, the big fortress and new harbor (1241). From 1261, the city was ruled by the Knights Hospitaller. In 1265 sultan Baibars, ruler of the Mamluks, captured Arsur, after 40 days of siege. The Mamluks razed the city walls and the fortress to their foundations, fearing a return of the Crusaders. The destruction was so complete that the site has not been resettled since.

External links

- [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH0k490 Archaeological exploration of Arsuf]
- [http://www.gemsinisrael.com/e_article000079508.htm Apollonia National Park] (Gems of Israel, June/July 2002) Category:Crusades Category:Archaeological sites in Israel

1539

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- May 30 - In Florida, Hernando de Soto lands at Tampa Bay with 600 soldiers with the goal to find gold. He also introduced Pigs into North America
- May - 6 Articles Statute of English Parliament, important in the English Reformation"
- September 4 - Henry VIII contracts to marry Anne of Cleves
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70

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Richard I of England

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Richard on the Third Crusade

Captivity and return

Later years and death

Legacy

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Arsuf

Town History

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