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Anti-Burgher

Anti-Burgher

In 1733 the first secession from the Church of Scotland resulted in the creation of the "Associate Presbytery". This church split in 1747 over the issue of the Burgher Oath, which required holders of public offices to affirm approval of the religion "presently professed in this kingdom". The issue was civil compulsion in religious affairs (which, it can be argued, can be seen partly in the context of a post-Battle of Culloden (1746) panic by the Hanoverian government), but was effectively a forerunner of the arguments over the separation of church and state. Opponents of the Burgher Oath on theological grounds became known as the Anti-Burghers — showing a distinctive independence of conviction and an unwillingness to compromise over sincerely held beliefs. The Burgher and Anti-Burgher factions thus formed rival, independent synods. Eventually both the Burghers and Anti-Burghers had further splits, the Burghers in 1798 and the Anti-Burghers in 1806. Both factions formed their own, separate "Auld Licht" (old light) and "New Licht" factions. The more Calvinistic "Auld Lichts" held to the obligations of the Solemn League and Covenant, the "New Lichts" were more theologically liberal — a notable and continuing influence in the post-1847 United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1820, the New Licht Anti-Burghers and the New Licht Burghers united as the United Secession Church, which in turn united with the Relief Church in 1847 to create the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which united with most of the Free Church of Scotland in 1900 to create the United Free Church of Scotland, most of whom ultimately united with the Church of Scotland in 1929. The Anti-Burgher Auld Lichts became part of the United Original Secession Church in 1822, which split in 1852, one party joining in the Free Church of Scotland, the others finally reuniting with the Church of Scotland in 1956. Category:Church of Scotland Category:Presbyterianism Category:Religion in Scotland

1733

Events

- February 12 - British colonist James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, Georgia.
- May 29 - Right of Canadians to keep Indian slaves upheld at Quebec.
- July 30 - First Freemasons lodge opened in what will become the United States.

Births

- March 13 - Joseph Priestley, English scientist and minister (d. 1804)
- May 4 - Jean-Charles de Borda, French mathematician, physicist, political scientist, and sailor (d. 1799)
- July 27 - Jeremiah Dixon, English surveyor and astronomer (d. 1779)
- September 18 - George Read, American lawyer and signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1798)
- October 14 - François Sebastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (d. 1798)

Deaths

- January 25 - Gilbert Heathcote, Mayor of London
- February 1 - King August II of Poland (b. 1670)
- March 4 - Claude de Forbin, French naval commander (b. 1656)
- April 19 - Elizabeth Villiers, mistress of William II of England
- May 10 - Barton Booth, English actor (b. 1681)
- May 18 - Georg Böhm, German organist (b. 1661)
- August 16 - Matthew Tindal, English deist (b. 1657)
- June 23 - Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss scholar (b. 1672)
- September 12 - François Couperin, French composer (b. 1668)
- October 25 - Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri, Italian mathematician (b. 1667)
- October 31 - Eberhard IV Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg, (b. 1676) Category:1733 ko:1733년

Church of Scotland

leftThe Church of Scotland (C of S, also known informally as The Kirk; until the 17th century officially the Kirk of Scotland) is the Christian national church of Scotland. It is a Presbyterian Church, decisively shaped by the Scottish Reformation. The Church of Scotland traces its roots back to the beginnings of Christianity in Scotland, but its identity is principally shaped by the Scottish Reformation of 1560. Its official membership is about 12% of the Scottish population. The basis of faith for the Church of Scotland is the Word of God, which it views as being ‘contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament’. Its principal subordinate standard is The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), although here liberty of opinion is granted on those matters ‘which do not enter into the substance of the faith’ (Art. 2 and 5). The motto of the Church of Scotland is nec tamen consumebatur (Latin) - 'Yet it was not consumed', an allusion to Exodus 3:2 and the Burning Bush, though in the Vulgate this verse is phrased differently.

Position in Scottish Society

The Church of Scotland has around 1,400 active ministers, 1,200 congregations, and its membership at approximately 600,000 comprises about 12% of the population of Scotland. However, in the 2001 national census, 42% of Scots identified themselves as ‘Church of Scotland’ by religion. Although it is the national church, the Kirk is not a "state church", and in this, and other, regards is dissimilar to the Church of England (the established church in England). Under its constitution, which is recognised by acts of Parliament, the Kirk enjoys complete independence from the state in spiritual matters. It is thus both established and free. The British monarch (when in Scotland) is simply a member of the Church (she is not, as in England, its "Supreme Governor"). The monarch’s coronation oath includes a promise to "defend the security" of the Church of Scotland. She is formally represented at the annual General Assembly by a Lord High Commissioner (unless she chooses to attend in person). The role is purely formal. The Church of Scotland is committed to its ‘distinctive call and duty to bring the ordinances of religion to the people in every parish of Scotland through a territorial ministry’. (Article 3 of its Articles Declaratory). In practice this means that the Kirk maintains a presence in every community in Scotland – and exists to serve not only its members but all Scots (the majority of funerals in Scotland are taken by its ministers). It also means that the Kirk redistributes resources from wealthy congregations to ensure its continued presence in other parts of Scotland. The Church played a leading role in the provision of universal education in Scotland (the first such provision in the world), largely due to its desire that all people should be able to read the Scripture. However, today it does not operate schools - these having been entrusted into the care of the state in the later half of the 19th century. The Church of Scotland’s Social Care Council (also known as "CrossReach") is the largest provider of social care in Scotland today, running projects for various disadvantages and vulnerable groups including care for the elderly, help with alcoholism, drug and mental health problems and assistance for the homeless. The national Church has never shied from involvement in Scottish politics. In 1919, the General Assembly created a Church and Nation Committee, which in 2005 became the Church and Society Council. The Church of Scotland was (and is) a firm opponent of nuclear weaponry. Supporting devolution, it was one of the parties involved in the Scottish Constitutional Convention, which resulted in the setting up of the Scottish Parliament in 1997. Indeed, from 1999-2004 the Parliament met in the Kirk's Assembly Halls in Edinburgh, whilst its own building was being constructed. The Church of Scotland actively supports the work of the Scottish Churches Parliamentary Office in Edinburgh.

Governance and administration

Scottish Churches Parliamentary Office The Church of Scotland is Presbyterian in polity, and Reformed in theology. The most recent articulation of its legal position, the Articles Declaratory (1921), spells out the key concepts.

Courts and assemblies

As a Presbyterian church, the Kirk has no bishops, but is rather governed by elders and ministers (collectively called presbyters) sitting in a series of courts. Each congregation is led by a Kirk Session. The Kirk Sessions in turn are answerable to regional presbyteries (the Kirk currently has over 40: see list). The supreme body is the annual General Assembly, which meets each May in Edinburgh.

Moderator

Edinburgh The chairperson of each court is known as the 'moderator' – at the local level of the Kirk Session, the moderator is normally the parish minister; Presbyteries and the General Assembly elect a moderator each year. The Moderator of the General Assembly serves for the year as the public representative of the Church – but beyond that enjoys no special powers or privileges and is in no sense the leader or official spokesperson of the Kirk.

Church offices

The Church of Scotland offices are located at 121 George Street, Edinburgh, EH2 4YN. These imposing buildings - popularly known in Church circles as "one-two-one" - were designed in a Scandinavian-influenced style by the architect Sydney Mitchell and built in 1909-1911 for the United Free Church of Scotland. Following the union of the churches in 1929 a matching extension was built in the 1930s. The offices of the Moderator, Principal Clerk, General Treasurer, Law Department and all the Church councils are located at 121 George Street, with the exception of the Social Care Council (CrossReach). There is no "chief executive", but each Council has its own Council Secretary. The Principal Clerk to the General Assembly (since 1996) is the Very Reverend Dr Finlay A. J. Macdonald; the Depute Clerk is the Reverend Dr Marjory A. MacLean.

History

Moderator of the General Assembly to lead the reformation in Scotland]] The Church of Scotland traces its roots back to the beginnings of Christianity in Scotland, but its identity is principally shaped by the Scottish Reformation of 1560. At that point, the church in Scotland broke with Rome and adopted Presbyterianism, in a process of Protestant reform led, among others, by John Knox. It reformed its doctrines and government on the Presbyterian principles of John Calvin which Knox had been exposed to while living in Switzerland. In 1560, the Scottish Parliament adopted the polity of the Church set out in the Scots Confession of 1560 and the First Book of Discipline. In 1582, with the Second Book of Discipline, full Presbyterianism became the form of church government. Over the next century or so, there was tension between supporters of Presbyterianism and Episcopacy, and bishops even were imposed on the Church at times. The 1638 National Covenant was signed by large numbers of Scots in protest at this, and was a factor in the strife between Kirk and King (the Bishops' Wars). In the ensuing civil wars, the Scots Covenanters at one point made common cause with the English parliamentarians - resulting in the Westminster Confession of Faith being agreed by both. Ironically, this document remains the subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland, but was replaced in England after the Restoration. The modern situation largely dates from 1690, when as part of the Glorious Revolution, the reformed, established, Presbyterian nature of the Kirk was guaranteed. However, controversy still surrounded the relationship between the Church of Scotland's independence and the civil law of Scotland. The interference of civil courts with Church decisions, particularly over the right to appoint ministers, led to a number of groups seceding. This began with the secession of 1733 and culminating in the Disruption of 1843, when a large portion of the Church broke away to form the Free Church of Scotland. The seceding groups tended to divide and reunite among themselves — leading to a proliferation of Presbyterian denominations in Scotland. However, in the 1920s, the United Kingdom Parliament passed the Church of Scotland Act 1921, finally recognising the full independence of the Church in matters spiritual, and as a result of this the Kirk was able to unite with the United Free Church of Scotland in 1929. The United Free Church of Scotland was itself the product of the union of the former United Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the majority of the Free Church of Scotland in 1900. Some independent Scottish Presbyterian denominations still remain. These include the Free Church of Scotland (formed of those congregations which refused to unite with the United Presbyterian Church in 1900), the United Free Church of Scotland (formed of congregations which refused to unite with the Church of Scotland in 1929), the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland (which broke from the Free Church of Scotland in 1893), the Associated Presbyterian Churches (which emerged as a result of a split in the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland in the 1980s) and the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) (which emerged from a split in the Free Church of Scotland in the 1990s).

Theology and sociology

The basis of faith for the Church of Scotland is the Word of God, which it views as being ‘contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament’. Its principal subordinate standard is The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), although here liberty of opinion is granted on those matters ‘which do not enter into the substance of the faith’ (Art. 2 and 5). The Church of Scotland has no compulsory prayer book although it does have a hymn book (the 4th edition was published in 2005) and its Book of Common Order contains recommendations for public worship which are usually followed fairly closely in the case of sacraments and ordinances. Preaching is the central focus of most services. Traditionally, Scots worship centred on the singing of metrical psalms and paraphrases, but for generations these have been supplemented with Christian music of all types. The typical Church of Scotland service lasts about an hour, and has been characterised jokingly as a hymn-prayer sandwich, in which everything leads up to a climax in a 15-minute sermon near the end. There is normally no sung or responsive liturgy. However, worship is the responsibility of the minister in each parish, and the style of worship can vary and be quite experimental. In recent years, a variety of modern song books have been widely used in order to appeal more to contemporary trends in music, and elements from Iona Community liturgies are incorporated in some congregations. Although traditionally worship is conducted by the parish minister, lay participation in services is becoming more frequent. In common with other Protestant denominations, the Church recognises two sacraments: Baptism and Holy Communion (the Lord's Supper). The Church baptises both believing adults and the children of Christian families. Communion in the Church of Scotland today is open to Christians of whatever denomination, without precondition. Communion services are usually taken fairly seriously in the Church; traditionally, a congregation held only three or four per year, although practice now greatly varies between congregations. In some congregations communion is celebrated once a month. Theologically, the Church of Scotland is Reformed (ultimately in the Calvinist tradition). However, its longstanding decision to respect "liberty of opinion on matters not affecting the substance of the faith", means it is relatively tolerant of a variety of theological positions, including those who would term themselves conservative and liberal in their doctrine, ethics and interpretation of Scripture. (The 19th-century Scottish distinction was between 'evangelicals' and 'moderates'.) This is not quite the English concept of a ‘broad church’, but in practice it comes close to it. The Church of Scotland is a member of ACTS (‘Action of Churches Together in Scotland’) and, through, its Committee on Ecumenical Relations, works closely with other denominations in Scotland. The present inter-denominational cooperation marks a distinct change from attitudes in certain quarters of the Church in the early twentieth century and before, when opposition to Irish Roman Catholic immigration was vocal (see Catholicism in Scotland). The Church of Scotland is a member of the World Council of Churches and the Conference of European Churches.

Current reform

The Church of Scotland today faces many grave difficulties. Since the 1950s its membership has continued to fall – now being less than half what it was then. It faces problems of finance and the upkeep of a legacy of ancient church buildings. Until recently it also faced a shortage of candidates for the ministry – but recruitment is now significantly higher. Today, 1400 ministers serve about 550,000 members and a considerably higher number of adherents. One of the tenets of the Church since the Reformation has been its notion of being an ecclesia reformata semper reformanda – a church which is reformed, but always in the process of reforming. Recently, the Assembly produced its ‘Church without Walls’ report (2001) which embodies an ethos of change, and a focus on the grassroots life of the Church rather than its necessary institutions. As in most western denominations, the membership of the Church of Scotland is also ageing, and it has struggled to maintain its relevance to the younger generations. The Church has made attempts to address their problems, at both a congregational and national level. The annual National Youth Assembly and the presence of youth delegates at the General Assembly have served as a visible reminder of the Church’s commitment. The Church's National Youth Assembly has grown in prominence and attendence in recent years. Since as early as 1968, all ministries and offices in the church have been open to women on an equal basis. Significantly, the majority of ministers in training are now women. However, it was not until 2004 that a woman was chosen to be Moderator of the General Assembly. Dr Alison Elliot was also the first elder to be chosen since George Buchanan, four centuries before.

Publications

The following publications are useful sources of information about the Church of Scotland.
- Life and Work - the monthly magazine of the Church of Scotland.
- The Church of Scotland Yearbook (known as "the red book") - published annually with statistical data on every parish and contact information for every minister.
- Reports to the General Assembly (known as "the blue book") - published annually with reports on the work of the church's departments.
- The Constitution and Laws of the Church of Scotland (known as "the green book") edited by the Very Rev Dr James L. Weatherhead, published 1997 by the Church of Scotland, ISBN 0861532465
- Fasti Ecclesiae Scoticanae - published irregularly since 1866, contains biographies of ministers.

External links

- [http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk Official Church of Scotland website]
- [http://www.churchwithoutwalls.org.uk/ 'Church without Walls' report]
- [http://www.acts-scotland.org website of Action of Churches Together in Scotland]
- [http://www.scottishchristian.com/churches/church_of_scotland.shtml Church of Scotland daily news monitor and links at Scottish Christian.com] Category:Christian denominations Category:Christianity Category:Presbyterianism Category:Scotland Category:WARC Member Churches

1747

Events

- January 31 - The first venereal diseases clinic opens at London Dock Hospital
- April 9 - The Scottish Jacobite Lord Lovat was beheaded by axe on Tower Hill, London, for high treason; he was the last man to be executed in this way in Britain
- May 14 - First battle of Cape Finisterre in the War of the Austrian Succession
- July 2 - Battle of Lawfeld
- October 25 - Second battle of Cape Finisterre in the War of the Austrian Succession
- November 9 – Rioters in Amsterdam demand governmental reform
- December 16 – Canter of Coltbrigg – 13th and 14th Dragoons flee Jacobites of Charles Edward Stuart
- Emperor Momozono ascends to the throne of Japan, succeeding Emperor Sakuramachi
- Kandahar taken from Nadir Shah by Ahmad Shah Durrani, and becomes the first capital of the newly-independent Afghanistan
- Thomas Herring appointed Archbishop of Canterbury
- James Lind discovers that citrus fruits prevent scurvy
- Wearing of the kilt banned in Scotland by the Dress Act
- Samuel Johnson begins work on A Dictionary of the English Language

Ongoing events

- War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

Births

- January 15 - John Aikin, English doctor and writer (d. 1822)
- January 19 - Johann Elert Bode, German astronomer (d. 1826)
- January 26 - Samuel Parr, English schoolmaster (d. 1825)
- May 5 - Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1792)
- July 6 - John Paul Jones, American naval captain (d. 1792)
- October 8 - Jean-François Rewbell, French politician (d. 1807)
- December 12 - Anna Seward, English writer (d. 1809)
- François Tourte, French musical instrument maker (d. 1835)
- Francis Salvador, American patriot (d. 1776)
- Thomas Coke, first American Methodist Bishop (d. 1814)

Deaths

- January 16 - Barthold Heinrich Brockes, German poet (b. 1680)
- March 16 - Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (b. 1690)
- March 23 - Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French soldier (b. 1675)
- April 2 - Johann Jacob Dillenius, German botanist (b. 1684)
- April 7 - Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, Prussian field marshal (b. 1676)
- April 9 - Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, Scottish clan chief
- May 9 - John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair, Scottish soldier and diplomat (b. 1673)
- May 28 - Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French writer (b. 1715)
- May 31 - Andrei Osterman, Russian statesman (b. 1686)
- June - Nadir Shah, Persian leader (b. 1688)
- June 19 - Alessandro Marcello, Italian composer (b. 1669)
- July 9 - Giovanni Bononcini, Italian composer (b. 1670)
- October 10 - John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury
- November 17 - Alain-René Le Sage, French writer (b. 1668)
- December 2 - Vincent Bourne, English classical scholar (b. 1695) Category:1747 ko:1747년 ms:1747

Battle of Culloden

The Battle of Culloden (April 16, 1746), was the last military clash in mainland Britain, between the forces of the Jacobites and the British Army. It ended the 1745 Jacobite Rising, and was a massive defeat for the Jacobites. Accounts of this battle and its aftermath vary and are contradictory on some points. This article attempts to provide a reasonable summary.

Background

For further detail see Jacobite Rising. Prince Charles Edward Stuart, known to his supporters as Bonnie Prince Charlie and to his opponents as the Young Pretender, successfully raised forces, mainly of Scottish Highland clansmen, which took Edinburgh and defeated the small government army in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans. The government began bringing forces back from the war with France in Flanders to deal with the Jacobite rebellion. After a lengthy wait Charles persuaded his generals that English Jacobites would stage a rising and the French would invade to assist them. His army of around 5000 invaded England on November 8, 1745 and advanced through Carlisle and Manchester to Derby, a position where they appeared to threaten London, leading King George II to make plans to decamp to Hanover. English Jacobites had been prevented from giving much support and the French invasion fleet was still being assembled, the armies of General George Wade and of William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland were approaching, a militia was forming in London and they had (fictitious) reports of a third army closing on them. The Jacobite general Lord George Murray and the Council of War insisted on returning to join their growing force in Scotland and on 6 December 1745 they withdrew, with the Prince petulantly leaving the command to Murray. The Jacobite forces reached Glasgow by Christmas Day, reprovisioned, and were boosted by a few thousand extra men. They then clashed with the forces of General Henry Hawley near Falkirk and were victorious. The Duke of Cumberland arrived in Edinburgh on 30 January to take over command of the government army from General Hawley, then marched north along the coast with the army being supplied by sea. They assembled at Aberdeen and spent six weeks in careful training. This was unusual at this date, but as the king's son Cumberland had the authority to ensure the best training and equipment. Hanoverian forces continued to pressure Charles, and he retired northwards, losing men and failing to take Stirling Castle or Fort William but investing Fort Augustus and Fort George in Inverness by early April. Charles now took charge again, insisting on fighting an orthodox defensive action.

Armies

Nearly three quarters of the Jacobite army was formed of Scottish Highland clansmen, the majority of them being Roman Catholic but more than a third being Scottish Episcopalians. Only 20-25% of the highlanders were armed with swords, some having spears or axes and the remainder makeshift or captured weapons. Around a quarter of the total force was Episcopalians from the north-east Scottish Lowlands north of the River Tay so that more than half the total was Episcopalian, but the lowland contribution was obscured by their tendency to wear Highland dress as a kind of Jacobite uniform. During the invasion of England about 250 Episcopalians from Manchester formed a regiment, but were left behind for a rearguard action at Carlisle. At the end of November French ships arrived in Scotland with 800 men from the Eccosais Royeaux (Royal Scots) and Irish Regiments of the French army. Many of the Highlanders had left for home after Falkirk, and the army was badly provisioned and on short rations. Irish Regiment The British Army under Cumberland, assembled and trained at Aberdeen, was well supplied. It included:
- Twelve battalions of foot, three regiments of horse and a company of artillery. They were largely English, but possibly also included German Hanoverians.
- A professional battalion of Highland Scots from the Clan Munro who had been fighting for the British in France.
- Three battalions of Lowland Scots foot soldiers; one battalion and a militia had been largely raised from Clan Campbell Highlanders.

Battle

The Duke of Cumberland and his army of around 8,000 arrived at Nairn on 14 April. The Jacobite forces of about 5,400 left their base at Inverness, leaving most of their supplies, and assembled 5 miles (8 km) to the east near Drummossie, around 12 miles (19 km) before Nairn. Prince Charles had decided to take personal command of his forces and took the advice of his adjutant general, Secretary O’Sullivan, who chose to stage a defensive action at Drummossie Moor, a stretch of open moorland enclosed between the walled Culloden enclosures to the North and the walls of Culloden Park to the South. Lord George Murray "did not like the ground" and with other senior officers pointed out the unsuitability of the rough moorland terrain which was highly advantageous to the Duke with the marshy and uneven ground making the famed Highland charge somewhat more difficult while remaining open to Cumberland’s powerful artillery. They had argued for a guerilla campaign, but the Prince refused to change his mind. On 15 April the Government army celebrated Cumberland's birthday, drinking his health at his expense. At the suggestion of Murray the Jacobites tried that evening to repeat the success of Prestonpans by carrying out a night attack on the government army encampment, but the half-starved Highlanders who had only had one biscuit apiece during the day were still 2 miles (3 km) short of Nairn by dawn and had to march back, then dispersed to search for food or fell asleep in ditches and outbuildings. Many of them lay exhausted in the grounds of Culloden House throughout the battle. Early on 16 April the Government army marched from Nairn, and Jacobite guns sounded the alarm (though not all heard) to bring their troops to form two lines. The front line of exhausted highland foot soldiers had guns in the centre and on the flanks, the second line included their horse regiments, worn out from the night march, and the Scots and Irish regiments of the French army. The weather was very poor with a gale driving sleety rain into the faces of the Jacobites. The Duke's forces arrived around mid day and arrayed themselves in two lines to face the Jacobite forces, their left flank anchored on a low stone wall running along the south end of the field towards Culloden Park. Horse Dragoons and Government militia moved round behind the wall to infiltrate the park around the Jacobite flank. The Prince's artillery, outnumbered some three to one, opened fire first but due to a lack of trained gunners had little impact. Over the next twenty minutes the Cumberland's superior artillery continued to batter the Jacobite lines, while Charles, moved for safety out of sight of his own forces, waited for the government forces to move. Inexplicably, he left his forces arrayed under the Government fire for over half an hour. Although the marshy terrain minimised casualties, the morale of the Jacobites began to suffer. Several clan leaders, angry at the lack of action, pressured Charles to issue the order to charge. When he was eventually persuaded to issue the order, The McDonalds refused, angry because they had been placed on the left flank overturning their traditional right to take the right flank. The Clan Chattan was first away, but an area of boggy ground in front of them forced them to veer right so that they obstructed the following regiments and the attack was pushed towards the wall. The Highlanders advanced bravely on the left flank of the Government troops but were subjected to several volleys of musket fire and the artillery which had switched from roundshot to grapeshot. Despite this, a large number of Jacobites reached the Government lines, however unlike in previous battles, their uncoordinated charge meant that the line arrived peicemeal. The newly intoduced bayonet drill used by the government troops meant that in many places the charge, already flagging, was crushed against the Government lines. Despite this, the right flank of the Jacobites broke through the first line of Government troops and was only halted by Cumberland's second line of defence. While the attack was still in progress, a small number of the Government forces had breached the park wall and the Campbell militia advanced unseen to fire at the right flank of the Jacobite lines. This added to all the other brutal gunfire, and threatened by cavalry the Jacobites were forced to retreat. The Duke ordered in his dragoons to rout the Jacobite forces, but the small contingent of elite Irish and other regular regiments covered the retreat as the Jacobites withdrew. Irish In a total of about 60 minutes the Duke was victorious, around 1,250 Jacobites were dead, a similar number were wounded, and 558 prisoners were taken. Cumberland lost about 52 dead and 259 wounded among his Government forces.

Aftermath

After their victory, Cumberland ordered his men to execute all the Jacobite wounded and prisoners, an act by which he was known afterwards as "the Butcher". Certain higher-ranking prisoners did survive to be tried and executed later in Inverness. The Prince fled the battlefield and survived for five months in Scotland despite a £30,000 reward for his capture. The Prince eventually returned to France, making a dramatic if humiliating escape disguised as a "lady's maid" to Flora Macdonald. Immediately after the battle, Cumberland rode into Inverness, his drawn sword still covered in blood, a symbolic and menacing gesture. The following day, the slaughter continued, when patrols were sent back to the battlefield to kill any survivors; contemporary sources indicate that about 70 more Jacobites were killed as a result of this. Cumberland emptied the jails of English prisoners, and replaced them with Jacobite sympathisers. Numbers of the prisoners were brought south to England to stand trial, charged with high treason, with trials taking place at Berwick, York and London. Executions were conducted on the basis of drawing lots on a ratio of about 1 in 20. In total 3,470 Jacobites, supporters and others were taken prisoner in the aftermath of Culloden, with 120 of them being executed and 88 dying in prison; 936 transported to the colonies and 222 more "banished". While many were eventually released, the fate of nearly 700 is unknown. As well as dealing out summary justice to his captives, Cumberland was equally ruthless with deserters from his own forces found amongst the prisoners, executing 36 of them. The Hanoverian forces' assault on the Jacobite sympathizers continued in the coming months—destroying the clan system with the Act of Proscription disarming them, banning the kilt and the tartan, the Tenures Abolition Act ending the feudal bond of military service and the Heritable Jurisdictions Act removing the virtually sovereign power the chiefs had over their clan. Statute provisions were aimed at proscribing the perceived religion of the Jacobites, Episcopalianism (Catholicism was already banned). Government troops were stationed in the Highlands and built more roads and barracks to better control the region, adding to the Wade roads constructed for Major-General George Wade after the 'Fifteen rising, as well a new fortress at Fort George to the east of Inverness. Inverness

Order Of Battle

Jacobite Army

(approximately 5,400 men)
- Army Commander - Prince Charles Edward Stuart
- FIRST LINE - 3,810 men
- Right Wing - 1,150 men (Lord George Murray, brother of the Chief of Clan Murray)
- Atholl Highlanders Regiment - 500 men (William Murray Lord Nairne)
- Clan Cameron Regiment - 400 men (Donald Cameron of Lochiel, de facto Chief of Clan Cameron)
- Clan Stewart of Appin Regiment - 250 men (Charles Stewart of Ardshiel, uncle to the Chief of Clan Stewart of Appin)
- Centre - 1,760 men (Lord John Drummond)
- Clan Fraser of Lovat Regiment - 400 men (Charles Fraser of Inverallachie)
- Clan Chattan Regiment - 350 men (Alexander MacGillivray of Dunmaglass, Chief of Clan MacGillivray, for Lady Anne Farquharson MacIntosh, "Colonel Anne", wife of the Chief of Clan MacIntosh and Captain of the Clan Chattan Confederation)
- Clan Farquharson Regiment - 250 men (James Farquharson of Balmoral, "Balmoral the Brave", father of "Colonel Anne")
- Clans MacLachlan & MacLean Regiment - 290 men (Lachlan MacLachlan of MacLachlan, Chief of Clan MacLachlan, with Charles MacLean of Drimnin as second-in-command)
- Clan MacLeod Unit - 120 men (Malcolm MacLeod of Raasay) - attached to Clans MacLachlan & MacLean Regiment
- Edinburgh Regiment - 200 men (John Roy Stewart)
- Clan Chisolm Regiment - 150 men (Roderick Chisolm of Comar, son of the Chief of Clan Chisolm)
- Left Wing - 900 men (James Drummond, 3rd Duke of Perth, Chief of Clan Drummond)
- Clan MacDonald of Clanranald Regiment - 200 men (Ranald MacDonald of Clanranald, "Young Clanranald", son of the Chief of Clan MacDonald of Clanranald)
- Clan MacDonnell of Keppoch Regiment - 200 men (Alexander MacDonnell of Keppoch, Chief of Clan MacDonnell of Keppoch)
- Clan MacDonnell of Glengarry Regiment - 420 men (Donald MacDonell of Lochgarry)
- Clan Grant of Glenmorriston Unit - 80 men (Alexander Grant of Corrimony) - attached to Clan MacDonnell of Glengarry Regiment
- SECOND LINE - 1,190 men (Lt.Col. Walter Stapleton)
- Angus Regiment (Lord David Ogilvy, son of the Chief of Clan Ogilvy)
- 1st Clan Gordon Regiment (Lord Lewis Gordon, brother of the Chief of Clan Gordon)
- 2nd Clan Gordon Regiment (John Gordon of Glenbucket)
- Duke of Perth's Regiment (Unknown)
- Regiment Eccosais Royeaux (Lord Louis Drummond)
- Irish Piquets Regiment (Maj. Summan)
- THIRD LINE - 400 men
- Kilmarnock's Regiment (William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock, Chief of Clan Boyd)
- Pitsligo's Regiment (Alexander Baron Forbes of Pitsligo)
- Regiment Baggot (Unknown)
- Lord Elcho's Horse (David Wemyss Lord Elcho, son of the Chief of Clan Wemyss)
- Life Guards (Unknown)
- FitzJames's Horse (Sir Jean McDonell)
- ARTILLERY (Unknown)
- 2 x 2pdr cannon
- 3 x 4pdr cannon
- 3 x 6pdr cannon Note 1: Of the commanding officers listed above:
- Donald Cameron of Lochiel, de facto Chief of Clan Cameron, was wounded and had to be carried from the field;
- Charles Fraser of Inverallachie was mortally wounded;
- Alexander MacGillivray of Dunmaglass, Chief of Clan MacGillivray, was killed, with all but three officers of the Clan Chattan Regiment;
- Lachlan MacLachlan of MacLachlan, Chief of Clan MacLachlan, was killed;
- Charles MacLean of Drimnin was killed, with two of his sons;
- James Drummond, 3rd Duke of Perth and Chief of Clan Drummond, was severely wounded - he was carried from the field, but died on his way to France;
- Alexander MacDonell of Keppoch, Chief of Clan MacDonell of Keppoch, was killed. Other persons of note on the Jacobite side to be killed at Culloden were:
- William Drummond of Machany, 4th Viscount of Strathallan;
- Robert Mercer of Aldie, an officer in the Atholl Highlanders Regiment;
- Gillies Mhor MacBean of Dalmagerry, who led the MacBeans of the Clan Chattan Regiment. Note 2: More clans fought (and died) at Culloden than is apparent from this order of battle. The Atholl Highlanders Regiment (a.k.a. the Atholl Brigade) was mostly made up of members of Clan Murray, Clan Ferguson, Clan Stewart of Atholl, Clan Menzies, and Clan Robertson. Also, the clan regiments are not quite as easily defined as their names suggest. Note that:
- in the Clan Cameron Regiment there were also members of Clan MacFie and Clan MacMillan;
- the Clan Stewart of Appin Regiment was not only made up of members of Clan Stewart of Appin, but also of Clan MacLaren, Clan MacColl, Clan MacInnes, Clan MacIntyre, and Clan Livingstone;
- the Clan Chattan Regiment was mostly made up of Clan MacIntosh, Clan MacGillivray, and Clan MacBean, but also included members of Clan MacKinnon and Clan MacTavish, which were not part of the Clan Chattan Confederation;
- the Clan MacDonnell of Keppoch Regiment included, apart from Clan MacDonnell of Keppoch, also Clan MacDonald of Glencoe (a.k.a. Clan MacIan), Clan MacGregor, and Clan MacIver;
- Lord Ogilvy's Angus Regiment consisted mainly of members of Clan Ogilvy and Clan Ramsay;
- the Duke of Perth's Regiment consisted mainly of members of Clan Drummond;
- Kilmarnock's Regiment consisted mainly of members of Clan Boyd;
- Pitsligo's Regiment consisted mainly of members of Clan Forbes;
- and Lord Elcho's Horse consisted mainly of members of Clan Wemyss. ----

Government Army

- Army Commander - William Duke of Cumberland
- FIRST LINE - Earl of Abermarle
- Barrel's Regiment of Foot
- Munro's Regiment of Foot
- Royal Scots Fusilier Regiment
- Price's Regiment of Foot
- Cholmondley's Regiment of Foot
- Royal Scots Regiment of Foot
- SECOND LINE - Maj.Gen John Huske
- Wolfe's Regiment of Foot (Lt.Col James Wolfe)
- Semphill's Regiment of Foot
- Bligh's Regiment of Foot
- Conway's Regiment of Foot
- Fleming's Regiment of Foot
- Howard's Regiment of Foot
- THIRD LINE - Brig.Gen Mordaunt
- Blakeney's Regiment of Foot
- Battereau's Regiment of Foot
- Pulteney's Regiment of Foot
- Royal Artillery
- 10 x 3pdr cannon
- Campbell's Militia (Col. Jack Campbell)
- Cobham's Dragoons
- Kingston's Regiment of Horse
References

- The '45: Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Untold Story of the Jacobite Rising, Christopher Duffy, Cassel, 2003, ISBN 0304355259
- Culloden, John Prebble, Atheneum 1962
- The Lion in the North, John Prebble, Penguin Books 1973, ISBN 0140036520
- Scotland, A Concise History, Fitzroy Maclean, Thames and Hudson 1991, ISBN 0500277060
- Culloden, Peter Watkins, BBC documentary, 1964
External links

- [http://www.highlanderweb.co.uk/bloody/culloden/home.htm Bloody Culloden]
- [http://www.queenofscots.co.uk/culloden/cull.html Culloden Moor and the Story of the Battle (1867 account)]
- [http://www.nts.org.uk/web/site/home/visit/places/Property.asp?PropID=10111&NavPage=10111&NavId=5118 National Trust for Scotland Culloden Moor page] Category:Jacobitism Culloden 1746 Culloden 1746 Category:1746

1746

Events

- January 8 - Bonnie Prince Charlie occupies Stirling
- April 16 - Battle of Culloden brings an end to the Jacobite Risings
- August 18 - Two of the four rebellious Scottish lords, Earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmeniro beheaded in the Tower (Lord Lovat executed 1747)
- October 22 - The College of New Jersey is founded (it becomes Princeton University in 1896)
- October 28 - An earthquake demolishes Lima and Callao, in Peru
- Catharine de Ricci (born 1522) canonized.
- Town of Vilkovo (Odes'ka oblast', Ukraine) is founded.

Births

- January 12 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss pedagogue (d. 1827)
- January 24 - King Gustav III of Sweden (d. 1792)
- February 4 - Tadeusz Kościuszko, Polish general and nationalist (d. 1817)
- February 5 - Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, American politician and soldier (d. 1825)
- March 7 - André Michaux, French botanist (d. 1802)
- March 30 - Francisco Goya, Spanish painter (d. 1828)
- July 3 - Henry Grattan, Irish politician (d. 1820)
- September 28 - Sir William Jones, English philologist (d. 1794)
- November 27 - Robert R. Livingston, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1813)

Deaths

- February 28 - Hermann von der Hardt, German historian (b. 1660)
- March 18 - Anna Leopoldovna, regent of Russia (b. 1718)
- March 20 - Nicolas de Largillière, French painter (b. 1656)
- May 22 - Thomas Southerne, Irish playwright (b. 1660)
- June 14 - Colin Maclaurin, Scottish mathematician (b. 1698)
- July 2 - Thomas Baker, English antiquarian (b. 1656)
- July 9 - King Philip V of Spain (b. 1683)
- July 28 - John Peter Zenger, American printer (b. 1697)
- August 6 - Christian VI, King of Denmark and Norway (b. 1699)
- October 2 - Josiah Burchett, English Secretary of the Admiralty
- November 14 - Georg Steller, German naturalist (b. 1709)
- December 6 - Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish poet (b. 1665)
- December 8 - Charles Radclyffe, British politician (b. 1693) Category:1746 ko:1746년

1798

1798 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events

- 7 March - French forces invade the Papal States and establish the Roman Republic
- April 7 - The Mississippi Territory is organized from territory ceded by Georgia and South Carolina and is later twice expanded to include disputed territory claimed by both the U.S. and Spain
- April 26 - France annexes Geneva
- May 24 - Irish nationalists launch bloody rebellion against British occupation.
- June 12 - French take Malta
- June 13 - Mission San Luis Rey de Francia is founded.
- July 1 - Napoleon's troops land in Egypt
- July 7 - Quasi-War: The U.S. Congress rescinds treaties with France sparking the 'war.'
- July 11 - The United States Marine Corps was (re-?)established.
- July 14 - The Alien and Sedition Acts become United States law making it a federal crime to write, publish, or utter false or malicious statements about the United States government
- July 21 - Napoleon defeats Mameluke forces near the Pyramids
- July 24 - Napoleon occupies Cairo
- July 30 - Selim III defeats Napoleon in Egypt
- August 1 - Horatio Nelson defeats the French navy under Admiral Brueys at the Battle of the Nile. Nelson himself is wounded on the head
- August 22 - French troops land at Killala in County Mayo to assist Irish rebellion.
- September 18 - Lyrical Ballads published anonymously by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth
- first (anonymous) publication of An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Malthus
- Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, Scientific Editor, Astronomer, begins editing journals about navigation and the geographic positions of cities.
- XYZ Affair in the U.S., followed by naval skirmishes but no war is declared.
- First mechanical music boxes
- Alessandro Volta and La Place discover electricity
- The Afghans Army occupied Lahore in Punjab
- Timothy Dexter - A Pickle for the Knowing Ones or Plain Truth in a Homespun Dress
- Aarau is the temporary capital of the Helvetic Republic
- Alois Senefelder invents lithography
- Eli Whitney contracts with the US Federal Government for 10,000 rifles, which he produces with interchangeable parts

Ongoing events

- French Revolution (1789-1799 Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)-Second Coalition/Egyptian Campaign
- May-October - Irish Rebellion of 1798

Births

- January 14 - Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, Dutch politician (d. 1872)
- January 17 - Auguste Comte, French sociologist (d. 1857)
- January 20 - Anson Jones, 5th and last President of the Republic of Texas (d. 1858)
- March 13 - Abigail Fillmore, First Lady of the United States
- April 2 - August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, German writer (d. 1874)
- April 26 - Eugène Delacroix, French painter (d. 1863)
- April 28 - Duncan Forbes, British linguist (d. 1868)
- June 14 - František Palacký, Czech historian and politician (d. 1876)
- June 29 - Giacomo Leopardi, Italian writer (d. 1837)
- July 21 - François Sebastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (b. 1733)
- October 2 - King Charles Albert of Sardinia (d. 1849)
- December 24 - Adam Mickiewicz, Polish writer (d. 1855)
- William Abbot, English actor (d. 1843)

Deaths

- February 25 - Louis-Jules Mancini-Mazarini, Duc de Nivernais, French diplomat and writer (b. 1716)
- April 11 - Karl Wilhelm Ramler, German poet (b. 1725)
- April 29 - Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus, German entomologist (b. 1723)
- May 19 - William Byron, 5th Baron Byron, English dueler (b. 1722)
- June 4 - Giacomo Casanova, Italian adventurer and writer (b. 1725)
- June 25 - Thomas Sandby, English cartographer and architect (b. 1721)
- August 1 - François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers, French admiral (killed in battle) (b. 1753)
- August 21 - James Wilson, American politician (b. 1742)
- September 21 - George Read, American lawyer and signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1733)
- December 4 - Luigi Galvani, Italian physicist (b. 1737) Category:1798 ko:1798년 ms:1798

Covenanter

The Covenanters were a radical Presbyterian movement that played an important part in the history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England, during the 17th century. They derive their name from the Scots term covenant for a band or legal document. There were two important covenants in Scottish history, the "National Covenant" and the "Solemn League and Covenant".

Beginnings

The Covenanters were thus named because in a series of bands or covenants they bound themselves to maintain the Presbyterian doctrine and polity as the sole religion of their country. The first "godly band" is dated December 1557; but more important is the covenant of 1581, drawn up by John Craig in consequence of the strenuous efforts which the Roman Catholics were making to regain their hold upon Scotland, and called the King's Confession or National Covenant. Based upon the Confession of Faith of 1560, this document denounced the pope and the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church in no measured terms. It was adopted by the General Assembly, signed by King James VI. and his household, and enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes; and was again subscribed in 1590 and 1596.

Upheaval and Civil War

In 1637 Scotland was in a state of turmoil. Charles I and Archbishop Laud met with a reverse in their efforts to impose the English liturgy upon the Scots when Jenny Geddes started a turmoil in St Giles Cathedral; and fearing further measures on the part of the king, it occurred to Archibald Johnston (Lord Warriston), to revive the National Covenant of 1581. Additional matter intended to suit the document to the special circumstances of the time was added, and the covenant was adopted and signed by a large gathering in the churchyard of Greyfriars Kirk in Edinburgh, on the 28th of February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the country for additional signatures. The subscribers engaged by oath to maintain religion in the state in which it existed in 1580, and to reject all innovations introduced since that time, while professed expressions of loyalty to the king were added. The General Assembly of 1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, and in 1640 the covenant was adopted by the Scottish Parliament, and its subscription was required from all citizens. Before this date the Covenanters were usually referred to as Supplicants, but from about this time the former designation began to prevail. The Covenanters raised an army to resist Charles I's religious reforms, and defeated him in the Bishops Wars. The crisis this caused the Stuart monarchy helped to spark the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which included the English Civil War and Irish Confederate Wars. For the following ten years of civil war in Britain, the Covenanters were the de facto government of Scotland. In 1642, the Covenanters sent an army to Ulster in Ireland to protect the Scottish settlers there from the Irish Catholic rebels who had attacked them after the Irish Rebellion of 1641. The Scottish army remained in Ireland until the end of the civil wars, but confined to its garrison around Carrickfergus after its defeat at the battle of Benburb in 1646. A further Covenanter military intervention began in 1643. The leaders of the English parliament, worsted in the English Civil War, implored the aid of the Scots, which was promised on condition that the Scottish system of church government was adopted in England. After some haggling a document called the "Solemn League and Covenant" was drawn up. This was practically a treaty between England and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed religion in Scotland, the reformation of religion in England and Ireland "according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed churches," and the extirpation of popery and prelacy. It did not explicitly mention presbyterianism, and included some ambiguous formulations which left the door open to Independency. It was subscribed by many in both kingdoms and also in Ireland, and was approved by the English parliament, and with some slight modifications by the Westminster Assembly of Divines. This agreement meant that the Covenanters sent another army south to England to fight on the Parliamentarian side in the First English Civil War. In turn, this sparked the outbreak of the Scottish Civil War of 1644–1647, as Scottish Royalist opponents of the Covenanters took up arms against them. Royalism was most common among Scottish Roman Catholics and Anglicans, who were opposed to the Covenanter's imposition of their religious settlement on the country. The covenanter's enemies, led by James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, were aided by an Irish expeditionary force but were ultimately defeated in 1646 after a bitter two year campaign. The end of the first civil wars in Scotland and England left the Covenanters hopeful that their Solemn League and Covenant would be implemented in the Three Kingdoms. However, Charles I refused to accept it when he surrendered himself to the Scots in 1646, but he made important concessions in this direction in the "Engagement" made with the Scots in December 1647. This was rejected by he militant Covenanters known as the Kirk Party, who wanted the King to explicitly endorse their agenda before an alliance could be reached. The Covenanter's insitance on dictating the future of both Scotland and England eventually led to a conflict with their erstwhile allies, the English Parliament, and to the Scots signing an alliance with Charles II known as the Treaty of Breda (1650). Charles II, before landing in Scotland in June 1650, declared by a solemn oath his approbation of both covenants, and this was renewed on the occasion of his coronation at Scone in the following January. However, the Covenanters were utterly defeated in the 1650–52 by the forces of the English Parliament under Oliver Cromwell. Scotland was occupied by the New Model Army and the Covenanters were sidelined. From 1638 to 1651 the Covenanters, led by Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, had been the dominant party in Scotland, directing her policy both at home and abroad. Their power, however, which had been seriously weakened by Cromwell's victory at Dunbar in September 1650, was practically destroyed when Charles II was restored nine years later. Firmly seated upon the throne Charles renounced the covenants, which in 1662 were declared unlawful oaths, and were to be abjured by all persons holding public offices. Argyll himself was executed for treason, episcopacy was restored, James Sharp was appointed Archbishop of St Andrews and Primate of Scotland, the court of high commission was revived, and ministers who refused to recognize the authority of the bishops were expelled from their livings. Sharp was assassinated in 1679.

Restoration and the "Killing Time"

Gathering around them many of the Covenanters who clung tenaciously to their standards of faith, these ministers began to preach in the fields, and a period of persecution marked by savage hatred and great brutality began. Further oppressive measures were directed against the Covenanters, who took up arms about 1665, and the struggle soon assumed the proportions of a rebellion. The forces of the crown under John Graham of Claverhouse and others were sent against them, and although the insurgents gained isolated successes, in general they were worsted and were treated with great barbarity. This period of repression was remembered in folk memory as "the Killing Time". They maintained, however, their cherished covenants with a zeal which persecution only intensified; in 1680 the more tenacious members of the party signed a document known as the "Sanquhar Declaration," and were afterwards called Cameronians from the name of their leader, Richard Cameron. They renounced their allegiance to King James and were greatly disappointed when their standards found no place in the religious settlement of 1689, continuing to hold the belief that the Solemn League and Covenant should be made obligatory upon the entire nation. The Covenanters have a martyrology of their own, and the halo of romance has been cast around their exploits and their sufferings. Their story, however, especially during the time of their political predominance, is part of the general History of Scotland.

External links

- http://www.covenanter.org/
- http://www.reformedpresbytery.org/index.html
- http://www.swrb.com/newslett/actualNLs/presbpol.htm
- http://www.swrb.com/newslett/freebook/covcov.htm
- http://www.swrb.com/newslett/freebook/covref.htm
- http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/glossary/scots-national-covenant.htm
- http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/glossary/covenanter.htm
- http://www.covenanter.org.uk/

Reference

- Tales of the Covenanters: Rev. Andrew Thompson. A romantic account of the exploits of the Covenanter ministers during the period of their persecution. Category:History of Scotland Category:Presbyterianism in Scotland Category:Reformation

1820

1820 was a leap year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - Constitutionalist military insurrection at Cádiz leads to summoning of Spanish parliament (March 7) and restoration of 1812 Constitution (March 8) by king Ferdinand VII. (See Mid-nineteenth century Spain.)
- January 28 - Russian expedition lead by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev approaches the Antarctic coast. (See History of Antarctica.)
- January 29 - George IV of the United Kingdom ascends the Throne, ending the period known as the English Regency.
- January 30 - Edward Bransfield lands on the Antarctic mainland. (See History of Antarctica.)
- February 6 - 86 free African American colonists sail from New York City to Freetown, Sierra Leone.
- February 23 - The Cato Street conspiracy is exposed. The principals are executed on May 1
- March 3 & 6 - Slavery in the United States: The Missouri Compromise becomes law.
- March 15 - Maine is admitted as the 23rd U.S. state.
- April - Radical War in Scotland
- May 1 - Last hanging drawing and quartering in Britain – Cato Street conspirators for treason (only hanged and beheaded) (See Capital punishment in the United Kingdom.)
- Spring - Joseph Smith, Jr. at age 14 claims to be visited in a vision by God and Jesus (Tradition holds that this occurred on April 6)
- July - Constitutionalist revolution in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
- August 24 - Constitutionalist insurrection at Oporto, Portugal; revolution in Lisbon, September 15 (See Portugal's crises of the Nineteenth Century.)
- October 9 - Guayaquil declare independence from Spain. (See also History of Ecuador).
- October 25-November 20 - Congress of Troppau (Opava) between rulers of Russia, Austria and Prussia
- November - U.S. presidential election: James Monroe is re-elected, virtually unopposed.
- November 17 - Captain Nathaniel Palmer becomes the first American to see Antarctica (the Palmer Peninsula was later named after him).

Unknown date

- The 6th Edition of Encyclopædia Britannica begins appearing.
- Republic of Buenos Aires (Argentina) establishes a penal colony in Falkland Islands.
- Venus de Milo found on the island of Melos.
- Hans Christian Ørsted discovers the relationship between electricity and magnetism.

Births

- January 17 - Anne Brontë, English author (d. 1849)
- February 8 - William Tecumseh Sherman, American Civil War general (d. 1891)
- February 15 - Susan B. Anthony, American suffragist (d. 1906)
- February 17 - Henri Vieuxtemps, Belgian composer (d. 1881)
- February 28 - John Tenniel, English illustrator (d. 1914)
- March 3 - Henry D. Cogswell, American philanthropist and temperance movement pioneer (d. ?).
- March 14 - Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (d. 1878)
- May 12 - Florence Nightingale, English nurse (d. 1910)
- May 27 - Mathilde Bonaparte, Italian princess (d. 1904)
- July 23 - Julia Gardiner Tyler, First Lady of the United States (d. 1889)
- September 17 - Émile Augier, French dramatist (d. 1889)
- September 27 - Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel, German classical scholar (d. 1878)
- September 29 - Comte de Chambord, claimant to the French throne (d. 1883)
- October 6 - Jenny Lind, Swedish soprano (d. 1887)
- November 23 - Isaac Todhunter, English mathematician (d. 1884)
- November 28 - Friedrich Engels, German social philosopher (d. 1895)
- Harriet Tubman, American abolitionist activist (d. 1913)

Deaths

- January 29 - King George III of the United Kingdom (b. 1738)
- February 14 - Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry (stabbed) (b. 1778)
- March 22 - Stephen Decatur, American sailor (b. 1779)
- June 19 - Sir Joseph Banks, British naturalist and botanist (b. 1743)
- September 3 - Benjamin Latrobe, English architect (b. 1764)
- October 15 - Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, Austrian field marshal (b. 1771)
- December 25 - Joseph Fouché, French statesman (b. 1763) Category:1820 ko:1820년 ms:1820 simple:1820

1847

1847 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

January

- January 4 - Samuel Colt sells his first hoe to the United States government.
- January 13 - The art of T-bagging ends the Mexican-American War in California.
- January 16 - John C. Fremont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory.
- January 30 - Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco.

February

- February 22 - Mexican-American War: The Battle of Buena Vista - 5,000 American troops under General Zachary Taylor use their superiority in artillery to drive off 15,000 Mexican troops under Antonio López de Santa Anna defeating the Mexicans the next day.

March

- March 1 - Faustin Soulouque declares himself Emperor of Haiti
- March 9 - Mexican-American War: United States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near Veracruz.
- March 29 - Mexican-American War: United States forces led by General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siege.

May

- May 7 - In Philadelphia, the American Medical Association (AMA) is founded.

June

- June 1 – First communist congress in London

July

- July 1 - The United States issues its first postage stamps.
- July 24 - After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, resulting in the establishment of Salt Lake City.
- July 26 - Liberia gains independence.

August

- August 12 – US troops of general Winfield Scott begin to advance along the aqueduct around Chalco and Xochimilco lakes in Mexico
- August 20 – US troops defeat Mexican troops in Valencia, Mexico

September

- September 6 - Henry David Thoreau leaves Walden Pond and moves in with Ralph Waldo Emerson and his family in Concord, Massachusetts.

October

- October 12 - German inventor and industrialist Werner von Siemens founds Siemens AG & Halske.
- October 28 - Donner Party, a caravan of settlers from Illinois to California, is stuck near what is now Donner Lake due to heavy snowstorm. They will be rescued February 19 1848

Undated

- Ottoman Empire cedes Abadan Island to the Persian Empire.
- Abd al-Kader is captured and imprisoned by the French.
- Founding of the Architectural Association School of Architecture

Ongoing events

- Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
- Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)

Births

- Michel-Joseph Maunoury, French Gereral during WWI (d. 1923)
- Wong Fei Hung, Chinese healer and revolutionary (d. 1924)
- February 11 - Thomas Alva Edison, American inventor (d. 1931)
- February 15 - Robert Fuchs, Austrian composer (d. 1927)
- March 3 - Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born inventor (d. 1922)
- March 27 - Otto Wallach, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1931)
- April 10 - Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian-born journalist and newspaper publisher (d. 1911)
- May 7 - Archibald Primrose, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1929)
- June 11 - Millicent Fawcett, British suffragist and feminist (d. 1929)
- July 25 - Paul Langerhans, German pathologist and biologist (d. 1888)
- September 5 - Jesse James, American outlaw (d. 1882)
- October 2 - Paul von Hindenburg, President of Germany (d. 1934)
- November 26 - Dagmar of Denmark, empress of Tsar Alexander III of Russia (d. 1928)
- December 7 - George Grossmith, English actor and comic writer (d. 1912)
- December 18 - Augusta Holmès, French composer (d. 1903)

Exact month/day of birth unknown

- Hale Johnson, American temperance movement leader (d. 1902)

Deaths

- January 19 - Charles Bent, first Governor of New Mexico Territory (assassinated)
- March 9 - Mary Anning, British paleontologist (b. 1799)
- March 11 - Johnny Appleseed, American pioneer agronomist (b. 1774)
- April 30 - Archduke Charles, Austrian general (b. 1771)
- May 14 - Fanny Mendelssohn, German composer and pianist (b. 1805)
- May 29 - Emmanuel, marquis de Grouchy, French marshal (b. 1766)
- September 13 - Nicolas Oudinot, French marshal (b. 1767)
- October 3 - Charles Hatchett, English chemist (b. 1765)
- October 22 - Negus Sahle Selassie of Shewa

Anti-Burgher

1733

Events

Births

Deaths

Church of Scotland

Position in Scottish Society

Governance and administration

Courts and assemblies

Moderator

Church offices

History

Theology and sociology

Current reform

Publications

See also

History and concepts

Ministry and congregations

Courts and functionaries

Documents and resources

Issues

Related bodies

Other Presbyterian Churches

External links

1747

Events

Ongoing events

Births

Deaths

Battle of Culloden

Background

Armies

Battle

Aftermath

Order Of Battle

Jacobite Army

Government Army

References

External links

1746

Events

Births

Deaths

1798

Events

Ongoing events

Births

Deaths

Covenanter

Beginnings

Upheaval and Civil War

Restoration and the "Killing Time"

See also

External links

Reference

1820

Events

Unknown date

Births

Deaths

1847

Events

January

February

March

May

June

July

August

September

October

Undated

Ongoing events

Births

Exact month/day of birth unknown

Deaths