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Apache Tribe

Apache Tribe

Apache is the collective name for several culturally related tribes of Native Americans, aboriginal inhabitants of North America, who speak a Southern Athabaskan language. The modern term excludes the related Navajo people. Apache is a Zuñi language word that means "enemies" and was used by the Zuni to refer to the tribes that called themselves the Diné. It was adopted by Western settlers as the actual name of the Diné, although it was meant as slur by the Zuni. The Apache peoples migrated from the Northern Plains into the Southwest relatively recently. Noted leaders have included Cochise, Mangas Coloradas, and Geronimo. The Apaches formerly ranged over southeastern Arizona and north-western Mexico. The chief divisions of the Apaches were the Arivaipa, Chiricahua, Coyotero, Faraone Gileno, Llanero, Mescalero, Mimbreno, Mogollon, Naisha, Tchikun and Tchishi. They were a powerful and warlike tribe, constantly at enmity with the whites. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, when the Chiricahuas, the division involved, were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they underwent military imprisonment. The U.S. Army, in their various confrontations, found them to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists. The Apaches are now in reservations in Arizona, New Mexico and Oklahoma, and number between 5000 and 6000.

Entry into the Southwest

The Apache and Navajo (Diné) tribal groups of the American Southwest speak related languages of the language family referred to as Athabaskan. Southern Athabaskan peoples in North America fan out from west-central Canada where some Southern Athabaskan-speaking groups still reside. Linguistic similarities indicate the Navajo and Apache were once a single ethnic group. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests a recent entry of these people into the American Southwest, with substantial numbers not present until the early 1500s. 1500s Southern Athabaskan speakers probably moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains where 16th-century Spanish accounts identified them as “dog nomads.” These mobile groups lived in tents, hunted bison and other game, and used dogs to pull travois loaded with their possessions. In April 1541, while traveling on the plains east of the Pueblo region, Francisco Coronado wrote: :After seventeen days of travel, I came upon a rancheria of the Indians who follow these cattle (bison). These natives are called Querechos. They do not cultivate the land, but eat raw meat and drink the blood of the cattle they kill. They dress in the skins of the cattle, with which all the people in this land clothe themselves, and they have very well-constructed tents, made with tanned and greased cowhides, in which they live and which they take along as they follow the cattle. They have dogs which they load to carry their tents, poles, and belongings. (See Hammond and Rey.) The Spaniards described Plains dogs as very white, with black spots, and “not much larger than water spaniels.” Plains dogs were slightly smaller than those used for hauling loads by modern northern Canadian peoples. Recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads up to 50 lb (20 kg) on long trips, at rates as high as two or three miles an hour (3 to 5 km/h). (See Henderson) Although there is some evidence Southern Athabaskan peoples may have visited the Southwest as early as the 13th century AD, most scientists believe they arrived permanently only a few decades before the Spanish. The Southern Athabaskan nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating, primarily because they constructed less-substantial dwellings than other Southwestern groups. They also left behind a more austere set of tools and material goods. Sites where early Southern Athabaskans may have lived are difficult to locate, and even more difficult to firmly identify as culturally Southern Athabaskan. Trade between the long established Pueblo peoples and the Southern Athabaskans become important to both groups by the mid 16th century. The Pueblos exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, hides and material for stone tools. Coronado observed Plains people wintering near the Pueblos in established camps. In 1540, Coronado reported the modern Western Apache area as uninhabited and other Spaniards first mention Apache living west of the Rio Grande in the 1580s. Therefore it is likely that the Apaches moved into their current southwestern homelands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Southern Athabaskans expanded their range through the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblos peoples had abandoned during prior centuries. The Spanish first mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navajo) in the 1620s, referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River. By the 1640s, the term was applied to Southern Athabaskan peoples from the Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west.

Apache groups

1640s The major Apache groups include the Jicarilla and Mescalero of New Mexico, the Chiricahua of the Arizona-New Mexico border area, and the Western Apache of Arizona. Other groups were the Lipan Apache of south-western Texas and the Plains Apache of Oklahoma. The White Mountain Apache Tribe is located in the east central region of Arizona, 194 miles northeast of Phoenix. The Chiricahua Apaches were removed from their reservation in 1876 and sent to prison in 1886. Subsequently, some Chiricahua relocated to Oklahoma and some joined the Mescalero Apaches. 1886 Some Apaches live on or near the Yavapai-Apache Nation Reservation southwest of Flagstaff, Arizona which they share with the Yavapai. There is a visitor center in Camp Verde, Arizona and at the end of February an Exodus Days celebration with an historic re-enactment and a pow wow. The Tonto Apache Reservation was created in 1972 near Payson in eastern Arizona. Within the Tonto National Forest northeast of Phoenix it consists of 85 acres (344,000 m²) and serves about 100 tribal members. The tribe operates a casino. Apache children were taken for adoption by white Americans in programs similar in nature to those involving the Stolen Generation of Australia.

References

- Hammond, George P. and Rey, Agapito (editors). Narratives of the Coronado Expedition 1540-1542. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940.
- Henderson, Richard. “Replicating Dog Travois Travel on the Northern Plains.” Plains Anthropologist, V39:145-59, 1994.
- Plog, Stephen. Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest. Thames and London, LTD, London, England, 1997. ISBN 0-500-27939-X.
- Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge, (Washington, 1907)
-

External links

- [http://www.culturecourt.com/F/Westerns/Ulzana.htm] (A Lawrence Russell review of the 1972 Robert Aldrich film, which relates the compelling multi-perspective story of Ulzana’s Raid, launched by discontented Apache warriors from a US government Indian Agency or “Reservation”, in the late 1800s Arizona. The Cavalry is soon in pursuit. Then the superb tactical skill of the Apache War-Chief, Ulzana, is matched against that of two Army Scouts, one of whom is Ulzana’s Brother-in-Law.)
- [http://projects.ltc.arizona.edu/gates/course.html American Indian Language Development Institute] (has children's video of Catcus Boy story in Western Apache)
- [http://apachetimes.com/ Apache Times] (San Carlos)
- [http://www.itcaonline.com/tribes_tonto.html Tonto Apache Tribe (Arizona Intertribal Council)]
- [http://www.itcaonline.com/tribes_campverd.html Yavapai-Apache Nation (Arizona Intertribal Council)]
- [http://www.itcaonline.com/tribes_whitemtn.html White Mountain Apache Tribe (Arizona Intertribal Council)]
- [http://www.itcaonline.com/tribes_sancarl.html San Carlos Apache Tribe (Arizona Intertribal Council)]
- [http://www.yavapai-apache.org/ official Yavapai-Apache Nation website]
- [http://www.geocities.com/~zybt/apache.htm about San Carlos Apache]
- [http://www.geocities.com/coqrico/apachealbum1.html White Mountain Apache photographs]
- [http://www.geocities.com/coqrico/ photos, facts, opinions on White Mountain Apaches & the Fort Apache Reservation]
- [http://www.geocities.com/coqrico/apachedance.html Puberty Ceremony of White Mountain Apaches (information & photo)]
- [http://www.geocities.com/coqrico/apachewren1.html US government's plan to exterminate Apaches]
- [http://www.language-museum.com/a/apache.php Apache Language Sample]
- [http://koransky.com/Trackers/Other/Apache.html a nice bibliography from Kevin Reeve]
- [http://southwest.library.arizona.edu/hav7/body.1_div.1.html Indians of Arizona (from History of Arizona)]
- [http://southwest.library.arizona.edu/hav7/body.1_div.2.html The Apache (from History of Arizona)]
- [http://apache-texts.co.nr Apache myths & texts]
- [http://apache-texts.co.nr/Goodwin/GoodwinPref.html Grenville Goodwin's preface to Myths and Tales of the White Mountain Apache]
- [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/AA/bma33.html The Handbook of Texas Online: Apache Indians]
- ja:アパッチ族

Tribe

Viewed historically or developmentally, a tribe consists of a social formation existing before the development of, or outside of, states. Many people use the term to refer to any non-Western or indigenous society. Some social scientists use the term to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups (see clan and lineage). In some countries, such as the United States and India, tribes are Indigenous peoples that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state. See also Hunter gatherer. Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. Some of this debate stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some of this debate reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "natural", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions. In his 1972 study, The Notion of the Tribe, Morton Fried provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic. Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus. Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could coordinate economic production and military activities.

References

Fried, Morton H. The Notion of Tribe. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0846515482

Aboriginal

Aborigine (from the Latin, meaning "from the origin") may refer to: Used in a general sense:
- indigenous peoples— peoples with a prior or historical association with a land, and who maintain (at least in part) their distinct traditions and association with the land, and are differentiated in some way from the surrounding populations and dominant nation-state culture and governance Additionally, several specific indigenous peoples are commonly referred to as "Aborigines" in English usage:
- Aboriginal peoples in Canada— indigenous peoples recognized in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982
- Taiwanese aborigines— the indigenous peoples of Taiwan
- Indigenous Australians— most of the indigenous inhabitants of Australia are thus commonly referred to as Aborigines
- Tasmanian Aborigines— the indigenous inhabitants of the island of Tasmania ms:Orang asli

Southern Athabaskan languages

Southern Athabaskan (also Apachean) is a subfamily of Athabaskan languages spoken in the North American Southwest. These languages are spoken by various groups of Apache and Navajo peoples. They are spoken in primarily the southwestern part of the United States (Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, but also in Colorado & Utah), and formerly spoken in northwestern Mexico and Texas. The other Athabaskan languages are spoken in the northwest of Canada and Alaska and on the Pacific coast regions of the U.S. Western Apaches call their language Nnéé biyáti’ or Ndéé biyáti’. Navajos call their language Diné bizaad. The most famous speaker of a Southern Athabaskan language was Geronimo (Goyaałé) who spoke Chiricahua.

Family division

The seven Southern Athabaskan languages can be divided into 2 groups: (I) Plains and (II) Southwestern. Plains Apache is the only member of the Plains Apache group. The Southwestern group can be further divided into two subgroups (A) Western and (B) Eastern. The Western subgroup consists of Western Apache, Navajo, Mescalero, and Chiricahua. The Eastern subgroup consists of Jicarilla and Lipan. I. Plains : 1 Plains Apache II. Southwestern : A. Western :: i. Chiricahua-Mescalero ::: 2. Chiricahua ::: 3. Mescalero :: 4. Navajo :: 5. Western Apache : B. Eastern :: 6. Jicarilla :: 7. Lipan Mescalero and Chiricahua are considered different languages even though they are mutually intelligible (Ethnologue considers them the same language). Western Apache and Navajo are closer to each other than either is to Mescalero/Chiricahua. Lipan Apache and Plains Apache are nearly extinct (in fact Lipan may already be extinct). Chiricahua is severely endangered. Mescalero, Jicarilla, and Western Apache are considered endangered as well, but fortunately children are still learning the languages. Navajo is one of the most vigorous North American languages (but use among first-graders has declined from 90% to 30% in (1998 N.Y. Times, April 9, p. A20)).

Sounds (Phonology)

All Southern Athabaskan languages have a somewhat similar phonologies. The description below will concentrate mostly on Western Apache. You can expect minor variations of this description in other related languages (e.g., cf. Navajo, Jicarilla, Chiricahua).

Consonants

Southern Athabaskan languages generally have a consonant inventory similar to the set of 33 consonants below (based mostly on Western Apache):
- Only Navajo and Western Apache have glottalized nasals.

orthography (consonants)

The practical orthography corresponds to the pronunciation of the Southern Athabaskan languages fairly well (as opposed to the writing systems of English or Vietnamese). Below is a table pairing up the phonetic notation with the orthographic symbol: Some spelling conventions: # Fricatives and are both written as h. (see also #2 below) # The fricative is usually written as h, but after o it is written as hw (may be pronounced as ). # The fricative is written gh the majority of the time, but before i and e it is written as y (& may be pronounced as ), and before o it is written as w (& may be pronounced as ). # All words that begin with a vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop ’ . This glottal stop is never written at the beginning of a word. # Some words are pronounced either as d or n or nd, depending on the dialect of the speaker. This is represented in the consonant table above as . The same is true with b and m in a few words. # In many words n can occur in a syllable by itself in which case it is a syllabic . This is not indicated in the spelling.

Vowels

Southern Athabaskan languages have four vowels of contrasting tongue dimensions (as written in the "practical" orthography): These vowels may also be short or long and oral (non-nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by an ogonek (or nasal hook) diacritic ˛ (borrowed from Polish orthography) in Western Apache, Navajo, Chiricahua, and Mescalero, while in Jicarilla the nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel. This results in sixteen different vowels: IPA equivalents for oral vowels: = [], = [], = [], = [], = [], = [], = [], = [].

orthography (vowels)

In Western Apache, there is a practice where orthographic vowels o and oo are written as u in certain contexts. These contexts do not include nasalized vowels, so nasal u never occurs in the orthography. This practice continues into the present (perhaps somewhat inconsistently). However, in Harry Hoijer and other American linguists' work all o-vowels are written as o. Similarly, Navajo does not use orthographic u, consistently writing this vowel as o. In Chiricahua and Mescalero, this vowel is written as u in all contexts (including nasalized ų). Other practices may be used in other Apachean languages.

Tone

Southern Athabaskan languages are tonal languages. Hoijer and other linguists analyze Southern Athabaskan languages as having 4 tones (using Americanist transcription system):
- high (marked with acute accent ´, Example: á)
- low (marked with grave accent `, Example: à)
- rising (marked with háček ˇ, Example: â)
- falling (marked with circumflex ˆ, Example: ǎ) Rising and falling tones are less common in the language (often occurring over morpheme boundaries) and often occur on long vowels. Vowels can carry tone as well as syllabic n (Example: ń). The practical orthography has tried to simplify the Americanist transcription system by representing only high tone with an acute accent while leaving low tone unmarked:
- high tone: á
- low tone: a So now niziz is written instead of the previous nìzìz. Additionally, rising tone on long vowels is indicated by an unmarked first vowel and an acute accent on the second, and vice versa for falling tone:
- rising: aá (instead of Americanist: â·)
- falling: áa (instead of Americanist: ǎ·) Nasal vowels carry tone as well, resulting in a two diacritics on vowels with high tone: ą́ (presenting problems for computerization). Recently, de Reuse (forthcoming) has found that Western Apache also has a mid tone, which he indicates with a macron diacritic ¯, as in ō, ǭ. In Chiricahua, a falling tone can occur on a syllabic n: n̂. Here are some vowel contrasts involving nasalization, tone, and length from Chiricahua Apache: : chąą 'feces' : chaa 'beaver' : shiban 'my buckskin' : shibán 'my bread' : bik’ai’ 'his hip' : bík’ai’ 'his stepmother' : hah’aał 'you two are going to chew it' : hah’ał 'you two are chewing it'

Comparative phonology

The differences and similarities among the Southern Athabaskan languages can be observed in the following modified and abbreviated Swadesh list:

Grammar

Typological overview

Typologically, Southern Athabaskan languages are mostly fusional, polysynthetic, nominative-accusative head-marking languages. These languages are argued to be non-configurational languages. The canonical word order is SOV, as can be seen in Navajo example below: : Mósí tsídii yiníł’į́ 'The cat is looking at the bird.' :: Subject = mósí "cat" :: Object = tsídii "bird" :: Verb = yiníł’į́ "it is looking at it" Southern Athabaskan words are modified primarily by prefixes, which is uncommon for SOV languages (suffixes are expected). The Southern Athabaskan languages are "verb-heavy" — they have a great ponderance of verbs but relatively few nouns. In addition to verbs and nouns, these languages has other elements such as pronouns, clitics of various functions, demonstratives, numerals, adverbs, and conjunctions, among others. Harry Hoijer grouped all of the above into a word class which he called particle. This categorization provides three grammatical categories (i.e. parts of speech): # verbs # nouns/postpositions # particles There is nothing that corresponds to what are called adjectives in English. Adjectival notions are provided by verbs.

Nouns

SA nouns are essentially of the following types with (various subtypes): # simple nouns # compound nouns # nouns derived from verbs/verb phrases (deverbal noun) The simple nouns can consist of only a noun stem (which are usually only a single syllable long), such as
- Chiricahua: kųų "fire", and
- Navajo: sǫ’ "star". Other nouns may consist of a noun plus one or more prefixes, such as
- Navajo: dibé "sheep" (< di- + -bé; stem: -bé) or of a noun plus an enclitic or suffix, such as
- Chiricahua: dlų́í "prairie dog" (< dlų́- + -í; stem: dlų́-). The added prefixes may be lexical or they may be inflectional prefixes (e.g. personal prefixes indicating possession). SA languages do not have many simple nouns, but these nouns are the most ancient part of the lexicon and thus are essential in making comparisons between Athabascan languages. Another noun type is a noun compound consisting of more than one noun stem, such as
- Chiricahua: kųųbąą "fireside" (< kųų "fire" + bąą "edge"), and
- Navajo: tsésǫ’ "glass" (< tsé "rock" + sǫ" star"). Other kinds of noun compounds are the following:
- noun stem + postposition
- noun stem + verb stem
- noun stem + postposition + noun stem Many other various combinations of elements are possible. The most common type of noun is the deverbal noun (i.e., a noun derived from a verb). Most of these nouns are formed by adding a nominalizing enclitic, such as Western Apache -í and Navajo -í, to the end of the verb phrase. A Navajo example:
- ná’oolkiłí "clock" (lit. "one that is moved slowly in a circle") Many of these nouns may be quite complex, as in Navajo
- chidí naa’na’í bee’eldǫǫhtsoh bikáá’ dah naaznilígíí "army tank" (lit. "a car that they sit up on top of that crawls around with a big thing with which an explosion is made") Other deverbal nouns do not appear with a nominalizing enclitic, as in Navajo
- Hoozdo "Phoenix, Arizona" (lit. "the place is hot")
- ch’é’étiin "doorway" (lit. "something has a path horizontally out")

Noun inflection

Possession

Most nouns can be inflected to show possession. Simple nouns, compound nouns, and some deverbal nouns are inflected by adding a personal prefix to the noun base, as in the following Chiricahua possessed nouns:
- shibán "my bread" (shi- first person singular + bán "bread")
- nibán "your bread" (ni- second pers. sg.)
- bibán "her/his bread" (bi- third pers. sg.)
- ibán "someone's bread" (i- indefinite) Larger possessive phrases can be formed like the following Navajo phrases:
- John bibááh "John's bread" (bi- 3rd pers. sg., bááh "bread")
- shimá bibááh "my mother's bread" (shi- 1st pers. sg., -má "mother")
- bimá bibááh "his/her mother's bread"
- John bimá bibááh "John's mother's bread"

Postpositions

Verbs

The key element in Southern Athabaskan languages is the verb, and it is notoriously complex. Verbs are composed of a stem to which inflectional and/or derivational prefixes are added. Every verb must have at least one prefix. The prefixes are affixed to the verb in a specified order. The Southern Athabaskan verb can be sectioned into different morphological components. The verb stem is composed of an abstract root and an often fused suffix. The stem together with a classifier prefix (and sometimes other thematic prefixes) make up the verb theme. The theme is then combined with derivational prefixes which in turn make up the verb base. Finally, inflectional prefixes (which Young & Morgan call "paradigmatic prefixes") are affixed to the base—producing a complete verb. This is represented schematically in the table below:

Verb Template

The prefixes that occur on a the verb are added in specified order according to prefix type. This type of morphology is called a position class template (or slot-and-filler template). Below is a table of a recent proposal of the Navajo verb template (Young & Morgan 1987). Edward Sapir and Harry Hoijer were the first to propose an analysis of this type. A given verb will not have a prefix for every position, in fact most Navajo verbs are not as complex as the template would seem to suggest. The Navajo verb has 3 main parts: These parts can be subdivided into 11 positions with some of the positions having even further subdivisions: Although prefixes are generally found in a specific position, some prefixes change order by the process of metathesis. For example, in Navajo prefix ’a- (3i object pronoun) usually occurs before di-, as in : adisbąąs 'I'm starting to drive some kind of wheeled vehicle along' [ < ’a- + di- + sh- + ł + -bąąs]. However, when ’a- occurs with the prefixes di- and ni-, the ’a- metathesizes with di-, leading to an order of di- + ’a- + ni-, as in : di’nisbąąs 'I'm in the act of driving some vehicle (into something) & getting stuck' [ < di-’a-ni-sh-ł-bąąs < ’a- + di- + ni- + sh- + ł + -bąąs] instead of the expected adinisbąąs (’a-di-ni-sh-ł-bąąs) (note also that ’a- is reduced to ’-). Metathesis is conditioned by phonological environment (Young & Morgan 1987:39).

Verb stems and mode & aspect

Verb stems have different forms that alternate according to aspect and tense. The alternation (ablaut) mostly involves vowels (change in vowel, vowel length, or nasality) and tone, but sometimes includes the suffixation of a final consonant. The Chiricahua verb stems below have five different forms that correspond to mode: Each mode can also occur with different aspects, such as momentaneous, continuative, repetitive, semelfactive, etc. For example, a stem can be momentaneous imperfective, momentaneous imperfective, momentaneous opative, etc. The (partial) Navajo verb stem conjugation below illustrates the verb stem -’aah/-’ą́ "to handle a solid roundish object" with the same mode in different aspects: This same verb stem -’aah/-’ą́ "to handle a solid round object" has a total of 26 combinations of 5 modes and 6 aspects: Although there are 26 combinations for this verb, there is a high degree of homophony, in that there are only 7 different stem forms (-’aah, -’ááh, -’aał, -’ááł, -’a’, -á, -’ą́). To complicate matters, different verbs have different patterns of homophony: some verbs have only 1 stem form that occurs in all mode-aspect combinations, others have 5 forms, etc., and not all stems occur in the same mode-aspect combinations. Additionally, the different stem forms of different verbs are formed in different ways.

Classifiers

- d-effect

Subject and object prefixes

Classificatory Verbs

Southern Athabaskan languages have verb stems that classify a particular object by its shape or other physical characteristics in addition to describing the movement or state of the object. These are known in Athabaskan linguistics as classificatory verb stems. These are usually identified by an acronym label. There are 11 primary classificatory "handling" verbs stems in Navajo which are listed below (given in the perfective mode). Other Southern Athabaskan languages have a slightly different set of stems. To compare with English, Navajo has no single verb that corresponds to the English word give. In order to say the equivalent of Give me some hay! the Navajo verb níłjool (NCM) must be used, while for Give me a cigarette! the verb nítįįh (SSO) must be used. The English verb give is expressed by 11 different verbs in Navajo, depending on the characteristics of the given object. In addition to defining the physical properties of the object, primary classificatory verb stems also can distinguish between the manner of movement of the object. The stems can then be grouped into three different categories: :# handling :# propelling :# free flight Handling includes actions such as carrying, lowering, and taking. Propelling includes tossing, dropping, and throwing. Free flight includes falling, and flying through space. Using an example for the SRO category Navajo has :# -'ą́ to handle (a round object), :# -ne to throw (a round object), and :# -l-ts'id (a round object) moves independently. In addition, Southern Athabaskan languages also have other somewhat similar verb stems that Young & Morgan (1987) call secondary classificatory verbs. (Note the term classifier is used in Athabaskan linguistics to refer to a prefix that indicates transitivity or acts as a thematic prefix, and as such is somewhat of a misnomer. These transitivity classifiers are not involved in the classificatory verb stems' classification of nouns and are not related in any way to the noun classifiers found in Chinese or Thai).

yi-/bi- Alternation (Animacy)

Like most Athabaskan languages, Southern Athabaskan languages show various levels of animacy in its grammar, with certain nouns taking specific verb forms according to their rank in this animacy hierarchy. For instance, Navajo nouns can be ranked by animacy on a continuum from most animate (a human or lightning) to least animate (an abstraction) (Young & Morgan 1987: 65-66): humans/lightning → infants/big animals → med-size animals → small animals → insects → natural forces → inanimate objects/plants → abstractions Generally, the most animate noun in a sentence must occur first while the noun with lesser animacy occurs second. If both nouns are equal in animacy, then either noun can occur in the first position. So, both example sentences (1) and (2) are correct. The yi- prefix on the verb indicates that the 1st noun is the subject and bi- indicates that the 2nd noun is the subject.

(1) Ashkii at'ééd yiníł'į́.

boy girl yi-look

'The boy is looking at the girl.'

(2) At'ééd ashkii biníł'į́.

girl boy bi-look

'The girl is being looked at by the boy.'

But example sentence (3) sounds wrong to most Navajo speakers because the less animate noun occurs before the more animate noun:

(3)
- Tsídii at'ééd yishtąsh.

bird girl yi-pecked

'The bird pecked the girl.'

In order express this idea, the more animate noun must occur first, as in sentence (4):

(4) At'ééd tsídii bishtąsh.

girl bird bi-pecked

'The girl was pecked by the bird.'

Note that although sentence (4) is translated into English with a passive verb, in Navajo it is not passive. Passive verbs are formed by certain classifier prefixes (i.e. transitivity prefixes) that occur directly before the verb stem in position 9.
External links

- [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/navajo.htm How Different can Languages be?: The grammatical mosaic of Navajo]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/8352/lang.htm Simplified Apache Pronunciation]
- [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/apache/ Chiricahua and Mescalero Texts]
- [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/apache/frames/grammar.html Grammatical Sketch of Chiricahua/Mescalero]
- [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/apache/Resources/resources.html Other Apache Ethnographical Sources]
- [http://apache-texts.co.nr Apache texts]
- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/pla/jat/ Goddard's Jicarilla Texts (translation only)]
- [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL_11.html Issues in Language Textbook Development: The Case of Western Apache]
- [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL_12.html White Mountain Apache Language: Issues in Language Shift, Textbook Development, and Native Speaker-University Collaboration]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=92341 Apachean Languages on Ethnologue site]
- [http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/faculty/gordon/apachephonetics.pdf Phonetic Structures of Western Apache (318 kb PDF: technical work on acoustic phonetics)]
- [http://www.language-museum.com/a/apache.php sample of Apache bible translation]
- Wikipedia in Navajo
Bibliography

- For the bibliography, see the subarticle Southern Athabaskan languages/Bibliography.
- Category:Apache tribes

Enemy

An enemy or foe is a relativist term for an entity that is seen as forcefully adverse or threatening. The term is usually used within the greater context of war, to denote an opposing group and the individuals within as threats to one's own national, ethic, or political group. To individuals within the threatened group, the "enemy" concept is an amorphous personification of both a threat to one's collective social group, as well as a personal threat to oneself. The term "enemy" serves the social function of designating a particular entity as a threat, and the "most feared enemy" status reserved for those who pose the greatest mortal threat. The general ideological mechanism by which particular threats are determined is called marginalization. (Mechanisms which assert a unilateral amnesty for particular individuals and groups as being "enemies" is protectionism.) The characterization of an individual or group as an enemy is called demonization. The propagation of demonization is called propaganda. An "enemy" may also be conceptual; used to describe impersonal phenomena such disease, and a host of other things. Throughout religious theology, "the Enemy" is typically reserved to represent the human tendency to do evil, often personified as a malicious deity, such as the devil or a demon.

Terms

"Enemy" is a strong word, evoking associations of hate, violence, battle and war. The opposite of an enemy is a friend or ally. The state of being or having an enemy is enmity. Because the term "the enemy" is a bit bellicose and militaristic to use in polite society, informal substitutes are more often used. Often the substituted terms become pejoratives in the context that they are used. In any case, the designation of an "enemy" exists solely to denote the status of a particular group of people as a threat, and to propagate this designation within the local context. Substituted terms for an enemy often go further to meaningfully identify a known group as an enemy, and to pejoratively frame that identification. "The enemy," as the object of social anger or repulsion, has throughout history been used as the prototypical propaganda tool to focus the fear and anxiety within a society toward a particular target. The target is often general, as with a ethnic group or race of people, or it can also be a conceptual target, as with an ideology which characterises a particular group. In some cases the concept of the enemy have morphed; whereas once racial and ethnic claims to support a call to war may later have changed to ideological and conceptual based claims. In the United States, the current "War on Terrorism" is widely understood to be the replacement for the Cold War against "Communism." Thus the enemy term "communist" has largely given way to the newer "terrorist," and the threats of nuclear annihilation and "communist expansion" have given way (within political parlance) to "acts of terrorism" and religious (almost always Islamic) fundamentalism. During the Cold War, the terms "Communists" or "Reds" were broadly understood in American society to mean "the enemy," and the meaning of the two terms could extremely pejorative, depending on the political context, mood, or state of fear and agitation within the society at the time.

Theory

The concept of the enemy is well covered in the field of Peace studies, which is available as a major at many major universities (including a somewhat well-known program of study at American University in Washington, D.C.). In Peace studies, enemies are those entities who are perceived as frustrating or preventing achievement of a goal. The enemy may not even know they are being regarded as such, since the concept is one-sided. Thus, in order to achieve peace, one must eliminate the enemy. This can be achieved by either by:
- changing one's perception of an entity as enemy, or
- by achieving the goal the enemy is frustrating. Personal conflicts are frequently either unexamined (one's goals are not well defined) or examined only from one point of view. This means it is often possible to resolve conflict (to 'eliminate' the enemy) by redefining goals such that the frustration (not the person) is either eliminated, obvious, negotiated away, or decided upon. Quotes: :The enemy of my enemy is my friend. -Arab proverb simple:Enemy

Settler

]] Settlers are people who have migrated from the land of their birth to live permanently colonies controlled militarily by their home country. In modern history, the word "settlers" is synonymous with terms like pioneers, colonists, or (as British people once called them) "colonials". It has been argued that all peoples are "settlers", since migration has featured throughout human history and prehistory. However, the word settler is generally used only in relation to modern or early modern history. The reason for emigration of settlers varies, but often includes one or more factors such as: economic or personal financial hardship; social, cultural, ethnic, or religious persecution (e.g. the Pilgrims, Mormons and Zionists), or; political oppression and/or policies aimed at encouraging foreign settlement. The colony concerned is often, but not always, controlled by the government of a settler's home country, and emigration is usually, but not always, approved by an imperial government. The term settler is not usually used in relation to the later histories of well-established and/or independent, postcolonial countries with continuing immigration, like the present-day United States, Canada or Australia, where terms like immigrants are preferred. In almost every real historical case, settlers live on land which previously belonged to long-established peoples, known as indigenous people (often called "natives", "Aborigines" or, in the Americas, "Indians"). This land is usually settled against the wishes of the indigenes, and then controlled, defended and expanded by force, or it is bought or leased from indigenous people on terms highly favourable to the settlers, sometimes under a treaty (e.g. the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand). In some cases (e.g. Australia), the legal ownership of some lands are contested much later by indigenous people, who seek or claim traditional usage, land rights, native title and related forms of ownership or partial control. In the Middle East, Israeli settlers are Jews who live in areas also claimed by Palestinians. Both Israelis and Palestinians claim partial descent from peoples who lived in the region in prehistoric times (see: History of ancient Israel and Judah, Ancestry of the Palestinians). Some historians maintain that Palestinians are descended mostly from Arab settlers in the Land of Israel (which the Roman Emperor Hadrian renamed Palestine in 135 CE), after the Caliphate conquered the area in the 7th Century. 7th Centurys.]] The word "settler" was not originally usually used in relation to unfree labour immigrants, such as slaves (e.g. in the United States), indentured labourers (e.g. in South Africa), or convicts (e.g. in Australia). More recently descendants of these immigrants may argue that they have as much right to use the word "settler" as the descendants of free immigrants. Although they are generally thought of as travelling by sea — the dominant form of travel in the early modern era — significant waves of settlement could also use long overland routes, such as the Great Trek by the Afrikaaners in South Africa, or the Oregon Trail in the United States. In Imperial Russia, the government used to invite foreign nationals to settle in sparsely populated lands. These settlers were called "colonists". See, e.g., articles Slavo-Serbia, Volga German, Volhynia. Settlers in hypothetical societies, such as on other planets, often feature in science fiction or fantasy fiction and/or games.

Northern Plains

Northern Plains is a region in the state of Missouri and is part of the larger Dissected Till Plains region. It lies north of the Missouri River and stretches into Iowa, Nebraska and Kansas. Here, gentle rolling hills remain behind from a glacier that once had extended from the north to the Missouri River. Category:Geography of Missouri

Southwest United States

the Southwest
Red states show the core of the Southwest, states shown as pink may or may not be included in the Southwest, and thus their inclusion or exclusion varies from source to source.

The Southwestern United States or simply the Southwest is a region of the United States that is drier in weather than the adjoining Southern United States and Western United States; the population is less dense and, with moderate Mexican and American Indian components, more ethnically varied than neighboring areas. Outside the cities, the region is a land of open spaces, much of which is desert. The magnificent Grand Canyon is located in this region, as is Monument Valley. This region contains many Indian reservations including the Navajo, Apache, Hopi, Zuni and Pueblo people. Most of the Southwest once belonged to Spain or Mexico but ownership was ceded to the United States after the Mexican-American War of 1846-48, with the Gadsden Purchase of 1853 following. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo defines sovereignty over this region. States forming the core of the southwestern region (red):
- Arizona (U.S. West)
- New Mexico (U.S. West) States sometimes considered southwestern (pink):
- California (U.S. West)
- Colorado (U.S. West)
- Nevada (U.S. West)
- Oklahoma (U.S. South)
- Texas (U.S. South)
- Utah (U.S. West) Utah's skull hang in a market near Santa Fe, New Mexico.]] Texas is a part of the Southern United States, as it shared that region's view of States Rights, taxes and tariffs, and slavery; and membership in the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. It is also unusual in having for a time been an independent nation, the Republic of Texas. The American Civil War dragged six months longer in Texas than in the rest of the nation, primarily in the southern tip of Texas, where Mexican gold coins had displaced the worthless Confederate dollar, and smugglers profited in the North-South trade with Mexico. During the Civil War, the only way to get Southern cotton through the Union blockade to its European markets was to sell it to a Mexican intermediary, who would then ship it on a neutral flagged Mexican vessel. Because of this the Union sought to gain control of the Rio Grande and a number of battles were fought in the area, including the very last battle of the Civil War, the Battle of Palmito Ranch. Mexican heritage continues to exert a strong influence on the U.S. Southwest, which is a convenient place to settle for immigrants (legal or illegal) from farther south. The regional population is growing rapidly, with Arizona in particular rivaling the southern states as a destination for retired Americans in search of a warm climate. Population growth in the hot, arid Southwest has depended on two human artifacts: the dam and the air conditioner. Dams on the Colorado and other rivers, and aqueducts such as those of the Central Arizona Project have made it possible to develop large areas of farmland with irrigation and have brought water to once-small towns such as Las Vegas, Nevada, Phoenix, Arizona, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, allowing them to become metropolises. Las Vegas is renowned as a world center for gambling, while Santa Fe, New Mexico, the historic center of government for much of the Southwest is famous as a center for the arts, especially painting, sculpture, and opera. Another system of dams and irrigation projects waters the California Central Valley, which is noted for producing large harvests of fruits and vegetables. The combined population of the eight Southwest states is around 70 million (2005).

Cochise

Cochise (A-da-tli-chi = "hardwood", also Cheis) (c. 1805–June 9, 1874) was a chief (a nantan) of the Chokonen ("central" or "real" Chiricahua) band of the Chiricahua Apache and the leader of an uprising that began in 1861.

Biography

Cochise was not the most famous Apache leader (clearly Geronimo was more famous) to resist intrusions by Mexicans and Americans during the 19th century. He was described as a large man (for the time), with a muscular frame, classical Roman features, and long black hair which he wore in traditional Apache style. Cochise and the Chokonen-Chiricahua lived in the area that is now the northern Mexican region of Sonora, and New Mexico and Arizona, which were traditional Apache territories until the coming of the Europeans. Due to encroachment by Spain and later Mexico, the Chokonen and Nednhi-Chiricahua became increasingly dependent upon food rations issued by the Mexican government to placate them. When this practice was abruptly ended in 1831, the various Chiricahua bands resumed raids to acquire food. The Mexican government began a series of military operations in order to either capture or neutralize the Chiricahua, but they received stiff resistance from Cochise and the Apache who were implacable foes. Mexican troops were largely unsuccessful in their attempts and were often fought to a standstill by the Apache. As part of their attempts at controlling the Chiricahua, Mexican forces, often with the help of American and Native American mercenaries, began to kill Apache civilians, including Cochise's father. This hardened Cochise's resolve and gave the Chiricahua more reason for vengeance. Mexican forces were finally able to capture Cochise in 1848 during an Apache raid on Fronteras, Sonora, but they exchanged him for nearly a dozen Mexican hostages.

Border tensions and fighting

The region inhabited by the Apache had experienced increased tension between the Apache and European (including early Spanish encroachment) settlers from about 1831 until the greater part of the area was annexed by the United States in 1850, which ushered in a brief period of relative peace. Cochise worked as a woodcutter at the stagecoach station in Apache Pass for the Butterfield Overland line. The tenuous peace did not last as American encroachment into Apache territory continued. The formal peace ended in 1861 when an Apache raiding party drove away a local rancher's cattle and kidnapped his twelve-year-old son. Cochise and five others of his band were falsely accused of the incident (which had actually been done by the Coyotero band of Apaches). The six suspects were ordered by an inexperienced Army officer (Lt. George Bascom) to report to the fort for questioning. Although they maintained their innocence, the group was arrested and imprisoned. The group soon mounted an escape attempt; one was killed and Cochise was shot three times but managed to slip away. He quickly took hostages to use in negotiations to free the other four Chiricahua. However, the plan backfired; both sides killed all their hostages in what was later known as "The Bascom Affair." Bascom's retaliation included hanging Cochise's brother and two of his nephews, which served to further enrage Cochise. Cochise then joined with his father-in-law Mangas Coloradas ("Red Sleeves", Kan-da-zis Tlishishen), the Bedonkohe-Chiricahua Apache chief, in a long series of retaliatory skirmishes and raids among the settlements. Many people were killed on both sides, but the Apache began to achieve the upper hand, which prompted the United States Army to send an expedition (led by General James Carleton).

Apache Pass conflict

At Apache Pass in 1862, Cochise and Mangas Coloradas, with 500 fighters, held their ground against a force of 3,000 California volunteers under Carleton until howitzer artillery fire was brought to bear on their position. The impasse continued until both parties agreed to parley. During what was to be a peaceful parley session, the Americans took the unsuspecting Mangas Coloradas prisoner and then later executed him. This continued a series of incidents that fanned the flames of enmity between the encroaching Americans and the Apache. For Cochise, the Americans held nothing sacred and had violated the rules of war by capturing Mangas Coloradas during a parley session. Cochise and the Apache continued their raids against American and Mexican settlements and military positions throughout the 1860s.

Capture, escape, and retirement

Following various skirmishes, Cochise and his men were gradually driven into the Dragoon Mountains but were nevertheless able to use the mountains as cover and as a base from which to continue significant skirmishes against white settlements. This was the situation until 1871 when General George Crook assumed command and used other Apaches as scouts and informants and was thereby able to force Cochise's men to surrender. Cochise was taken into custody in September of that year. The next year, the Chiricahua were ordered to Tularosa Reservation in New Mexico but refused to leave their ancestral lands in Arizona, which were guaranteed to them under treaty. Cochise managed to escape again and renewed raids and skirmishes against settlements through most of 1872. A new treaty was later negotiated by General Oliver O. Howard as the Americans relented to some of the Apaches' terms. Cochise quietly retired to an Arizona reservation, where he died of natural causes. Cochise Cochise Cochise Cochise Cochise Cochise

Geronimo

:This page is about the person. For the application server project, see Geronimo Application Server. Geronimo Application Server Geronimo (Chiricahua Goyaałé 'One Who Yawns'; often spelled Goyathlay in English), (June 16, 1829–February 17, 1909) was a prominent Native American leader of the Chiricahua Apache who long warred against the encroachment of settlers of European descent on tribal lands.

Biography

European Geronimo was born on Turkey Creek, a tributary of the Gila River in what is now the state of New Mexico, then part of Mexico, but which his family considered Bedonkohe Apache land. Geronimo himself was a Bedonkohe Apache. He grew up to be a respected medicine man and, later, an accomplished warrior who fought frequently with Mexican troops. Mexican soldiers massacred his first wife and three children during a supposedly peaceful trading session in 1858, and as a result he hated all Mexicans for the rest of his life. His Mexican friends gave him the nickname of "Gerónimo". The reasons for this name are not known. Some believe it was a transcription of the Spanish attempt to pronounce the name Goyathlay. Others believe that his Spanish enemies called out to Saint Jerome for assistance while attacking or in the midst of violent defeat. Saint Jerome Geronimo fought against ever increasing numbers of both Mexican and United States troops and became famous for his daring exploits and numerous escapes from capture. At the last, these 38 men, women and children evaded 5000 U.S. troops (one fourth of the army at the time) and the Mexican army for a year. His forces became the last major force of independent Indian warriors who refused to acknowledge the United States Government in the American West. This came to an end on September 4, 1886, when Geronimo surrendered to United States Army General Thomas W. Sampson at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. Geronimo was sent in as a prisoner to Fort Pickens, Florida. In 1894 he was moved to Fort Sill, Oklahoma. In his old age Geronimo became something of a celebrity. He appeared at fairs, including the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, and selling souvenirs and photographs of himself. However, he was not allowed to return to the land of his birth. He rode in the United States President Theodore Roosevelt's 1905 inaugural parade. He died of pneumonia at Fort Sill, where he is now buried at the Apache Indian Prisoner of War cemetery.

Geronimo as Medicine Man

Below is an account of a Chiricahua boy's memory of attending a healing ceremony by Geronimo: : "The first ceremony by Geronimo I saw was one for an older man. Some coyote or dog had made him sick. One boy got hold of the news that the ceremony was going to be held, and we learned of it through him. We asked Geronimo if we could attend. He said it would be all right but told us we could not scratch ourselves or make any noise. : "The ceremony began in the evening, as soon as it became dark. It took place in an arbor outside Geronimo's home. There was a fire. Geronimo and the patient were on the west side of the fire. Geronimo sat facing the east, and the patient lay stretched out before him. Some older people were there. They were mostly relatives of the sick man. But it would have been all right for anyone to come in and watch. We sat in a circular fashion in the back of the shelter. But the space to the east was left open, as always happens at a ceremony. : "Geronimo had an old black tray basket before him filled with the things he used for the ceremony. He had a downy eagle feather in it and an abalone shell and a bag of pollen. All these things were wrapped up in a bundle before the ceremony began. : "He rolled a cigarette and puffed to the directions first of all, beginning with the east, puffing just once to each direction. Then he threw the cigarette away. After smoking, he rubbed the patient with pollen. He dropped pollen on the patient, just on certain parts of the body. He prayed to the directions as he did this. These prayers referred to Coyote and were on the same order as the songs which followed. : "He started to sing. There were many songs, and the songs were about Coyote. They told how Coyote was a tricky fellow, hard to see and find, and how he gave these characteristics to Geronimo so that he could make himself invisible and even turn into a doorway. They told how the coyote helped Geronimo in his curing. Geronimo accompanied his singing with a drum which he beat with a curved stick. At the end of each song he gave a call like a coyote. : "When the evening star was halfway between the horizon and the zenith, Geronimo stopped singing. This is the Chiricahua midnight. The ceremony lasted four nights. The same prayers, songs, and procedure were gone through for the four nights. I know that Geronimo had ghost power too. That night he told some of the boys that he was going to give another ceremony for a patient on another night, this time for ghost sickness, and that they might attend if they would promise not to scratch themselves." : (Opler 1941: 40-41)

Geronimo in popular culture

Theodore Roosevelt's Geronimo is a popular figure in cinema and television. Characters based on Geronimo have appeared in many films, including:
- Geronimo's Last Raid (1912)
- Hawk of the Wilderness (1938)
- Geronimo (1939)
- Valley of the Sun (1942)
- Broken Arrow (1950)
- I Killed Geronimo (1950)
- Outpost (1951)
- Son of Geronimo: Apache Avenger (1952)
- The Battle at Apache Pass (1952)
- Indian Uprising (1952)
- Taza, Son of Cochise (1954)
- Walk the Proud Land (1956)
- Geronimo (1962)
- Geronimo und die Räuber (West German, 1966)
- Geronimo (Starring Joseph Runningfox) (1993)
- Geronimo: An American Legend (1993)
- Hot Shots! Part Deux (1993)
- War of the Buttons (1994). 1994 The character of Geronimo appeared in the 1979 film Mr. Horn, despite the fact that Geronimo never met Tom Horn. Characterisations of Geronimo also appeared in Gunsmoke: The Last Apache (the 1990 reunion movie of television series Gunsmoke), and the 1993 telefilm Geronimo. The 1976 film I Due superpiedi quasi piatti features a character who believes himself to be Geronimo. The manga and anime television series Kinnikuman and Ultimate Muscle: The Kinnikuman Legacy features a highly stereotyped native wrestler, based loosely on the historical figure. In 1940, the night before their first mass jump, U.S. paratroopers at Fort Benning saw a film about Geronimo, and began shouting his name during jumps, a trend which has caught on elsewhere. The Apache Software Foundation named a Web Application Server after this Indian leader; see Geronimo Application Server.
External links

- [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_013300_geronimo.htm Geronimo] - Biography in the Encyclopedia of North American Indians
- [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/B/geronimo/geronixx.htm Geronimo : His own story]
- [http://www.indians.org/welker/geronimo.htm Geronimo at Indians.org]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0616.html New York Times obituary]
- [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/051111.html The Straight Dope looks at rumors that Geronimo's remains were stolen by Yale's Skull and Bones]
Bibliography

- Opler, Morris E.; & French, David H. (1941). Myths and tales of the Chiricahua Apache Indians. Memoirs of the American folk-lore society, (Vol. 37). New York: American Folk-lore Society. (Reprinted in 1969 by New York: Kraus Reprint Co.; in 1970 by New York; in 1976 by Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint Co.; & in 1994 under M. E. Opler, Morris by Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-80328602-3).
- Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero [The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. Geronimo Geronimo Category:American folklore Category:Chiricahua Category:Native American leaders Geronimo Geronimo ja:ジェロニモ

Mexico

The United Mexican States or Mexico (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos or México; regarding the use of the variant spelling Méjico, see section The name below) is a country located in North America, bordered by the United States to the north, and Belize and Guatemala to the southeast. It is the northernmost and westernmost country in Latin America, and also the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.

History

Main article: History of Mexico

Pre-Hispanic Times

Hunter-Gatherer peoples are thought to have discovered and inhabited Mexico more than 28,000 years ago. Ancient Mexicans began to selectively breed corn plants around 8,000 B.C. Evidence shows the explosion of pottery works by 2300 B.C. and the beginning of intensive farming between 1800 and 1500 BC. For more than 3,000 years, Mexico was the site of several Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec, the Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Toltec, Mixtec, Zapotec and the Mayan. These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions: pyramid-temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, writing, highly-accurate calendars, fine arts, intensive agriculture, engineering, an abacus, a complex theology, and the wheel. Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of Nuevo León) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in Mexico. These very early and ancient count-markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mexican natives, even before they possessed civilization. In fact, the later Mexican civilizations would all carefully build their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events. At different points in time, three different Mexican cities were the largest cities in the world: Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan, and Cholula. These cities, among several others, blossomed as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology. In turn, they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures. Cholula] Cholula] While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mexico had four major, unifying civilizations: The Olmec, Teotihuacan, Toltec, and the Mexica. These four civilizations extended their reach across Mexico and beyond like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these four civilizations over the span of 4,000 years. Many made war with them, but almost all found themselves within these four spheres of influence. Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Mexica, or Aztecs, as they were sometimes called in memory of Aztlán, the starting point of their tribes wanderings, never thought of themselves as anything but heirs of the brilliant civilizations that had preceded them. For them, highly-civilized arts, sculpture, architecture, engraving, feather-mosiac work, and the invention of the calendar were due to the former inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs, who reached the height of their civilization in the tenth and eleventh centuries. The Mexica, one of the Aztec groups, were the first people in the world to practice mandatory education for all people, regardless of gender, rank, or station. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The Aztecs' religious beliefs were based on a fear that the universe would cease functioning without a constant offering of human sacrifice. This belief was common throughout nahuatl people. As a result, Aztec warfare was conducted with an aim to only injure the enemy, so that he could later be sacrificed, and weapons were constructed with this in mind. This penchant for human sacrifice proved to be the undoing of the Aztecs, for when they confronted the Spaniards, who fought to the death, their less effective weapons made resistance difficult. In order to acquire captives in time of peace, the Aztec resorted to ritual warfare, or flower war. Tlaxcalteca and other nahuatl nations were forced into such wars, so they joined the Spaniard forces against the Aztec. The small Spanish force was reinforced with thousands of indian allies, who were schooled on European warfare.

The Spanish Era

The arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century and their defeat of the Mexica in 1521 marked the beginning of the 300 year-long colonial period of Mexico as New Spain. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it would take decades of continuous war to pacify Mesoamerica. Particularly fierce were the "Chichimeca wars" in the north of Mexico (1576-1606). The colonists brought with them the Catholic faith, to which the population seemingly converted rapidly, but soon they found the natives had adopted "the god of the heavens", as they called it, as just one of their gods. While it was an important god, because it was the god of the conquerors,they did not see why they had to abandon their old beliefs. As a result, a second wave of missionaries began a process attempting to completely erase the old beliefs, and thus wiped out many aspects of Mesoamerican culture. Hundreds of thousands of codices were destroyed, priests and teachers were persecuted, and the temples and statues of the gods were destroyed. The Mesoamerican education system was set aside and replaced by church education; even some foods associated with religion, like amaranto, were forbidden. Eventually, the natives were declared minors, and forbidden to read and write, so they would always need a white man in charge of them to be responsible of their indoctrination. Although officially they could not become slaves, the system, known as encomienda, came to signify the oppression and exploitation of natives, although its originators did not set out with such intent. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the indigenous peoples, Bishop Bartolome de las Casas suggested bringing black slaves to replace them. Bartolome later repented when he saw the treatment given to the black slaves. Unlike most English-speaking colonists of North America, Spanish colonists married the natives, and were even encouraged to do so by Queen Isabella during the earliest days of colonization (in Cuba, specifically). The first Spanish colonists were mainly male, so they took native women, and sometimes black women, although rarely. After the native population was decimated by epidemics and forced labor, black slaves were imported, and for a time they even outnumbered the white population. However, they eventually mixed with the population. There are still a few black communities (see Afro-Mexican), but few modern Mexicans are aware of this. As a result of these unions, as well as concubinage, a vast class of people known as "Mestizos" and mulatos came into being, of Amerindian, black, and Spanish descent. But even if mixes were allowed, the white population tried to keep their status. A system was created to keep each mix in a different social level. This was "El sistema de castas" (the caste system). Each different mix had a name and a different privileges or prohibitions. There were even two different kind of whites, those born in Spain, or "peninsulares", and in a lower level, those born in America or "criollos". Mestizos and mulatos were next, and then the other mixes. In this system, Native Americans had the lower status, even lower than free black people. The Spanish "peninsulares" tried by all means to keep their status, even if they took native women. Those who could afford also tried to have a Spanish wife, who was sent to Spain to give birth, thus preventing their children became criollos. Mestizos and criollos were not allowed in the upper levels of the government, and eventually they joined forces for the independence of México. With independence, the caste system and slavery were abolished. Mestizos, while they no longer have a separate legal status from other groups, comprise approximately 60% of the population. In modern México, mestizo has became more a cultural term, since a Native American that abandons his traditional ways is considered a mestizo, also most Afromexicans prefer to be considered mestizo, since they feel more identified with this group. During the following centuries, under Spanish rule, a new culture developed that combined the customs and traditions of the indigenous peoples with that of Catholic Spain. Numerous churches and other buildings were constructed in the Spanish style, and cities were named after various saints and objects of veneration, such as "San Luis Potosí" (after St. Louis) and "Vera Cruz" ("True Cross"). Spanish settlers brought with them smallpox, typhus, and other diseases. Most of the settlers had developed an immunity from childhood, but the indigenous peoples had not. There were three separate epidemics that decimated the population: Smallpox (1520-1521), measles ( 1545-1548) and typhus (1576-1581). Of the estimated 15 to 20 million of the original prehispanic population, less than two million survived. The New Spain of the end of XVI century was an underpopulated country with abandoned cities, which would be the main cause of collapse of the Mesoamerican cultures.

Mexican Independence

On September 16, 1810, independence from Spain was declared by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest in the small town of Dolores, causing a long war that eventually led to independence in 1821 and the creation of the First Mexican Empire. After independence, Spanish possessions in Central America which also proclaimed independence were all incorporated into Mexico from 1822 to 1823, with the exception of Chiapas. Soon after achieving its independence from Spain, the Mexican government, in an effort to populate its sparsely-settled hinterlands, awarded land grants in a remote area of the northernmost state of Coahuila y Tejas to hundreds of immigrant families from the United States, on the condition that the settlers convert to Catholicism and assume Mexican citizenship. It also forbade the importation of slaves, a condition that, like the others, was largely ignored. The Empire soon fell to rogue republican forces led by Antonio López de Santa Anna. The first Republic was formed with Guadalupe Victoria as its first president, followed in office by Santa Anna. As president, in 1834 Santa Anna abrogated the federal constitution, causing insurgencies in the southern state of Yucatán and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas. Both areas sought independence from the Mexican government. While negotiations eventually brought Yucatán to again recognize Mexican sovereignty, Santa Anna's army turned to the northern rebellion. The inhabitants of Tejas, calling themselves Texans and led mainly by relatively recently-arrived English-speaking settlers, declared independence from Mexico at Washington-on-the-Brazos, giving birth to the Republic of Texas. Texas won its independence in 1836, further reducing the territory of the fledgling republic. In the 1840s, Mexico was invaded and defeated by the United States, which demanded and received roughly one-half of the country's remaining territory, from which were formed the modern states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and most of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado (see Mexican-American War). In the 1860s, the country again suffered a military occupation, this time by France, seeking to establish the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria as Emperor of Mexico, with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and conservative criolloss. The Second Mexican Empire was then overthrown by the Zapotec Benito Juárez, with diplomatic and logistical support from the United States and the military expertise of General Porfirio Díaz. General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated the French Army (arguably the most powerful in the world at the time) at the city of Puebla on May 5, 1862, celebrated as Cinco de Mayo ever since. However, after his death, the city was lost in early 1863, following a renewed French attack which penetrated as far as Mexico City, forcing Juárez to organize an itinerant government. 1863 to 1867. In mid-1867, following repeated losses in battle to the Republican Army, Maximilian was captured and murdered by Juárez's soldiers, along with his last loyal generals, in Querétaro. From then on, Juárez remained in office until his death in 1872. After Juárez's death, Mexico experienced economic growth under the conservative and pro-European rule of Porfirio Díaz. Foreign investment allowed the development of the oil industry and the construction of a railroad system across the country. This period of relative peace and prosperity is known as the "Porfiriato". His mandate, however, was mostly undemocratic and benefited the middle and upper classes, while the Amerindian indigenous population continued to live in precarious conditions. Growing social inequalities, restricted freedom of the press, and his insistence to be reelected for a fifth term led to massive protests. His fraudulent victory in the 1910 elections sparked the Mexican Revolution. Revolutionary forces defeated the federal army, but were left with internal struggles, leaving the country in conflict for two more decades. The creation of the National Revolutionary Party (which later became the Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI), in 1929 ended the struggles, uniting all generals and combatants of the revolution. During the next four decades, Mexico experienced impressive economic growth, and historians call this period "El Milagro Mexicano", the Mexican Miracle. This was in spite of falling foreign confidence in investment, first through the assumption of mineral rights and subsequent nationalisation of the oil industry into Pemex during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas del Río. However the management of the economy collapsed several times afterwards. Accused many times of fraud, the PRI's candidates held almost all public offices until the end of the 20th century. It was not until the 1980s that the PRI lost the first state governorship, an event that marked the beginning of the party's loss of hegemony. Through the electoral reforms started by president Carlos Salinas de Gortari and consolidated by president Ernesto Zedillo, by the mid 1990s the PRI had lost its majority in Congress. In 2000, after seventy years, the PRI lost a presidential elections to a candidate of the National Action Party (PAN), Vicente Fox. On September 19, 1985, an earthquake measuring approximately 8.0 on the Richter scale struck Michoacán and inflicted severe damage on Mexico City. Estimates of the number of dead range from 6,500 to 30,000. (See Great Mexican Earthquake.) On January 1 1994, Mexico became a full member of the North American Free Trade Agreement, joining the United States of America and Canada in a large economic bloc with two counties vastly more prosperous. On March 23, 2005, the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America was signed by the elected leaders of those countries.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Mexico, Politics of Mexico Politics of Mexico The 1917 Constitution provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Historically, the executive is the dominant branch, with power vested in the president, who promulgates and executes the laws of the Congress. Congress has played an increasingly important role since 1997, when opposition parties first formed a majority in the legislature. The president also legislates by executive decree in certain economic and financial fields, using powers delegated from Congress. The president is elected by universal adult suffrage for a six-year term and may not hold office a second time. There is no vice-president; in the event of the removal or death of the president, a provisional "emergency" president is elected by Congress, whose first task is to summon the Congress for a session to choose an interim president; the first task of that interim president is to call for elections within the next 18 months. However, in the event of a very short unavailability of the president (e.g. in the case of minor surgery) the executive power is handed to the president of the Supreme Court, who at the same time relinquishes temporarily his role as such. On July 2, 2000, Vicente Fox of the opposition "Alliance for Change" coalition, headed by the National Action Party (PAN), was elected president. Fox began his six-year term on December 1, 2000. His victory ended the Institutional Revolutionary Party's (PRI) 71-year hold on the presidency. The three most important political parties in Mexico are the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the National Action Party (PAN), and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).

Political divisions

:Main article: States of Mexico :See also: Mexican state name etymologies. Mexico is divided into 31 states (estados) and a federal district. Each state has its own constitution and its citizens elect a governor as well as representatives to their respective state congresses. governor
The Federal District is a special political division in Mexico, where the national capital, Mexico City, is located. It enjoys more limited local rule than the nation's "free and sovereign states": only since 1997 have its citizens been able to elect a Head of Government, whose powers are still more curtailed than those of a state governor. Much of the capital city's metropolitan area overflows the limits of the Federal District.

Major cities

The following is a list of the biggest Metropolitan Areas of Mexico in order of population: #Mexico City, Distrito Federal (22.0 million) #Guadalajara, Jalisco (4.7 million) #Monterrey, Nuevo León (3.6 million) #Puebla, Puebla (2.6 million) #Tijuana, Baja California (1.5 million) #León, Guanajuato (1.2 million) #Toluca, México (1.2 million) #Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua (1.1 million) #Torreón, Coahuila (1.1 million) #San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí (0.8 million) #Mérida, Yucatán (0.8 million) #Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro (0.8 million) #Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes (0.7 million) #Cuernavaca, Morelos (0.7 million) #Chihuahua, Chihuahua (0.7 million) :Population figures according to INEGI (National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Information) 2000

Geography

Chihuahua, Chihuahua]] Main article: Geography of Mexico Situated in the southwestern part of mainland North America and roughly triangular in shape, Mexico stretches more than 3000 km from northwest to southeast. Its width is varied, from more than 2000 km in the north and less than 220 km at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the south. Mexico is bordered by the United States to the north, and Belize and Guatemala to the southeast. Mexico is about one-fourth the size of the United States. Baja California in the west is a 1,250-km peninsula and forms the Gulf of California. In the east are the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Campeche, which is formed by Mexico's other peninsula, the Yucatán. The center of Mexico is a great, high plateau, open to the north, with mountain chains on the east and west and with ocean-front lowlands lying outside of them. (See list of mountains in Mexico). list of mountains in Mexico The terrain and climate vary from rocky deserts in the north to tropical rain forest in the south. Mexico's major rivers include the Río Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) and the Usumacinta on its northern and southern borders, respectively, together with the Grijalva, Balsas, Pánuco, and Yaqui in the interior.

Economy

Yaqui.]] Main article: Economy of Mexico According to the World Bank, Mexico is the 12th nation in the world in regard to GDP and the highest per capita income in that region; and is firmly established as an upper middle-income country. Since the economic debacle of 1994–1995 the country has made an impressive economic recovery. According to the director for Colombia and Mexico of the World Bank, the population below the poverty level has decreased from 24.2% to 17.6% in the general population and from 42% to 27.9% in rural areas [http://estadis.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/301198.html]. Mexico has a free-market economy with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico has fallen from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 1999. The administration of President Ernesto Zedillo (1994–2000) continued a policy of privatizing and expanding competition in sea ports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports which was initiated by his predecessors Miguel de la Madrid and Carlos Salinas. A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the recovery in 1996–1999. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth, accompanied by increased employment and higher wages. Mexico still needs to overcome many structural problems as it strives to modernize its economy and raise living standards. Income distribution is very unequal, with the top 20% of income earners accounting for 55% of income. Following 6.9% growth in 2000, real GDP fell 0.3% in 2001, with the US slowdown the principal cause. Positive developments in 2001 included a drop in inflation to 6.5%, a sharp fall in interest rates, and a strong peso that appreciated 5% against the US dollar. Trade with the US and Canada has tripled since NAFTA was implemented in 1994. Mexico has opened its markets to free trade as no other country in the world, having lifted its trade barriers with more than 40 countries in 12 Free Trade Agreements, including Japan and the European Union. However more than 85% of the trade is still done with the United States. Government authorities expect that by putting more than 90% of trade under free trade agreements with different countries Mexico will lessen its dependence on the US. The government is seeking to sign an additional agreement with Mercosur.

Demographics

Mercosur Mercosur]] Mercosur Main article: Demographics of Mex

Apache Tribe

Entry into the Southwest

Apache groups

References

External links

Tribe

References

See also

Regional Tribes

Other Links

Aboriginal

Southern Athabaskan languages

Family division

Sounds (Phonology)

Consonants

orthography (consonants)

Vowels

orthography (vowels)

Tone

Comparative phonology

Grammar

Typological overview

Nouns

Noun inflection

Possession

Postpositions

Verbs

Verb Template

Verb stems and mode & aspect

Classifiers

Subject and object prefixes

Classificatory Verbs

yi-/bi- Alternation (Animacy)

External links

Bibliography

Enemy

Terms

Theory

Settler

See also

Northern Plains

Southwest United States

See also

Cochise

Biography

Border tensions and fighting

Apache Pass conflict

Capture, escape, and retirement

Geronimo

Biography

Geronimo as Medicine Man

Geronimo in popular culture

External links

Bibliography

Mexico

History

Pre-Hispanic Times

The Spanish Era

Mexican Independence

Government and politics

Political divisions

Major cities

Geography

Economy

Demographics